Epistemology Anwsers needed asap
C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is t h e m ark o f a n e d uca te d m in d t o b e a ble t o e n te rta in a t h ought w it h out a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle A ll e xte rn al lin k s t h at a re n ot e xplic it ly m ark ed a s " R equir e d" a re t o b e c o nsid ere d a s " O ptio nal" r e adin gs.
O vervie w SE C TIO NS 1 Overv ie w 6 Typ es o f K no w le d ge 2 Ratio nalis m 7 Tru th 3 Em pir ic is m 8 Tru th a nd S cie nce 4 Tra nsc end enta lis m 9.
Conclu sio n 5 Skep tic is m H ow d o w e k no w w hat w e c la im to know ? H ow d o w e fin d o ut w hat w e know ? H ow d o w e ju d ge c la im s to know ? A re o ur b elie fs re asa onable ? A re re aso nable b elie fs th e s a m e a s ra tio nal b elie fs ? A re o ur b elie fs ju stif ie d ? H ow m uch evid ence d o I n eed to h ave b efo re I have a rig ht t o b elie ve s o m eth in g?
T hese a re q uestio ns c o vere d in th is c hap te r. T hey a re in th e fie ld o f p hilo so phy k no w n a s ep is te m olo gy (fr o m G re ek :
ep is te m e - to k no w , a nd lo gos - lo gic /s tu d y).
T he is su es fo r e p is te m olo gy a re a ll, in o ne w ay o r a no th er, r e la te d to know le d ge :
ho w m uch w e k no w what k in d s o f c la im s w e k no w where k no w le d ge c o m es fr o m ho w w e o bta in k no w le d ge what k no w le d ge r e ally is T he s e ctio ns o f th is c hap te r w ill c o ver th e fo llo w in g:
T heorie s o f K now le dge 1 .
RA TIO NALIS M 2 .
EM PIR IC IS M 3 .
SK EPTIC IS M 4 .
TR A N SC EN DEN TA L I D EA LIS M 5 .
SC IE N TIF IC R EA LIS M T heorie s o f T ru th CO RRESPO NDEN CE T H EO RY CO HER EN CE T H EO RY PR A GM ATIC T H EO RY TH E S C IE N TIF IC M ETH O D In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
Page 1 C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is th e m ark o f a n e d ucate d m in d to b e a b le to e nte rta in a th o ught w it h o ut a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle O vervie w V IE W ( O ptio nal) :
T yp es o f C la im s http :/ /y o utu .b e/D 0tL d_js iV 8 B efo re w e lo ok in to th e v ario us th eo rie s a b out h o w w e k no w w hat w e d o k no w a nd h o w to d ete rm in e if c la im s a re tr u e o r n o t, it w ould b e h elp fu l to m ak e a n um ber o f im porta nt p oin ts o r d is tin ctio ns a b out la nguage a nd h o w w e u se it . N ot a ll u se s o f la nguage in vo lv e a c la im th at c an b e desc rib ed a s c la im s o f k no w le d ge. T here a re a v arie ty o f fo rm s o f e xp re ssio ns o r s e nte nces in a ny la nguage. N ot a ll s e nte nces a re fu nctio nin g fo r th e s p eak er in th e s a m e w ay.
H ere a re fo ur o f th e d if fe re nt u se s fo r la nguage:
E xpre ssiv e "H oly C ow !" " o uch" " H urra y!" They e xp re ss th e fe elin gs o f th e s p eak er/w rit e r.
D ir e ctiv e "P le ase c lo se th e d oor." "W hat tim e is it ? " "H ow m uch d oes th at c o st? " T his u se o ffe rs in str u ctio ns o r r e q uests in fo rm atio n.
P erfo rm ativ e "I b id fiv e d olla rs ." "I p ro m is e th at I w ill d o th at." "I n o w p ro no unce y o u ..." T his u se a ctu ally p erfo rm s s o m e o pera tio n. I t p re se nts n o in fo rm atio n a nd m ak es n o r e q uests .
E valu ativ e "T hat is a g o od c ar." "S he is a g o od p ers o n." "C ho co la te is th e b est fla vo r fo r ic e c re am ." T his u se e xp re sse s h o w p eo ple th in k a b out s o m e o bje ct, a ctiv it y , p ers o n, c o nd it io n, o r s it u atio n. A s th e s ta nd ard fo r m ak in g s u ch e valu atio ns is no t s u ch a s to b e d eriv ed fr o m a s o urc e th at is r e co gniz e d a s e xis tin g a p art fr o m h um ans a nd u nin flu enced b y c ult u re th ere is n o c o m monly a gre ed up on m eth o d fo r d ete rm in in g if s u ch e valu atio ns a re tr u e o r n o t tr u e.
S ente nces e xp re ssin g e valu atio ns a re n o t ta k en a s m ak in g c la im s a b out w hat is k no w n s o m uch a s m ak in g c la im s a b out h o w th e e valu ato r th in k s.
C ognit iv e ( T his u se in clu d es s e nte nces th at a re e it h er tr u e o r fa ls e , o r p ote ntia lly tr u e o r fa ls e .) 1. T here a re th re e s id es to a tr ia ngle . T he s u m o f th eir a ngle s is 1 80 d egre es.
2. T here is a c o m pute r in fr o nt o f y o u r ig ht n o w .
3. 2 3 + 1 1 = 3 4 4. A b achelo r is a n u nm arrie d m ale .
5. I f a is m ore th an b , a nd b is m ore th an c , th en a is m ore th an c .
6. T here a re 1 .8 376 x 1 0^73rd g ra in s o f s a nd o n p la net E arth .
It is th e c o gnit iv e u se o f la nguage th at c o ncern s u s w it h th e is su e o f k no w le d ge. I t is th e c o gnit iv e u se th at m ak es c la im s th at s h o uld b e c ap ab le o f bein g d ete rm in ed to b e e it h er tr u e o r fa ls e . C ognit iv e u se o f la nguage e xp re ssin g th at w hic h is c la im ed a s k no w le d ge e xis ts in a v arie ty o f fo rm s: lo gic al, s e m antic , s y ste m ic a nd e m pir ic al. W e w ill e xam in e th em in a s u b se q uent s e ctio n. W hat th ey h ave in c o m mon is th at c la im s a re m ad e th at can b e d ete rm in ed to b e tr u e o r fa ls e in s o m e m anner o r o th er.
F or th e r e m ain d er o f th is c hap te r it s h o uld b e u nd ers to od th at it is th e c o gnit iv e u se o f la nguage th at is o f c o ncern in s o fa r a s th e is su es o f kno w le d ge o r tr u th .
R eadin gs ( O ptio nal) :
F or a lo ok in to W hat is k no w le d ge?
How d o w e k no w ?
http :/ /w ww.e m poria .e d u/s o csc i/ p hilo s_ book/c hp 2.h tm What d o w e k no w ?
h ttp :/ /w ww.e m poria .e d u/s o csc i/ p hilo s_ book/c hp 3.h tm V IE W ( O ptio nal) :
E pis te m olo gy, o r th e th eo ry o f k no w le d ge http :/ /w ww.y o utu b e.c o m /w atc h?v= 12Z zn 7 3v7 2I R eadin gs ( O ptio nal) : O n K now le dge:
WIK IP ED IA : http :/ /e n.w ik ip ed ia .o rg /w ik i/ K no w le d ge IN TER N ET E N CYCLO PED IA o f P H IL O SO PH Y:
http :/ /w ww.ie p .u tm .e d u/k no w le d ge STA N FO RD E N CYCLO PED IA o f P H IL O SO PH Y:
http :/ /p la to .s ta nfo rd .e d u/e ntr ie s/k no w le d ge-a naly sis / In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
Page 2 C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is th e m ark o f a n e d ucate d m in d to b e a b le to e nte rta in a th o ught w it h o ut a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle R atio n alis m T heo rie s o f K now le d ge 1 .
RA TIO NALIS M 2 .
EM PIR IC IS M 3 .
SK EPTIC IS M 4 .
TR A N SC EN DEN TA L I D EA LIS M 5 .
SC IE N TIF IC R EA LIS M R atio nalis m in E pis te m olo gy R atio nalis m is a r e lia nce o n re aso n [ L atin :
ra tio ] a s th e only r e lia ble o r prim ary s o urc e o f h um an kno w le d ge . I n th e m ost g enera l a p plic atio n, ra tio nalis m o ffe rs a natu ra lis tic a lt e rn ativ e to a p peals to r e lig io us a cco unts o f h um an n atu re a nd c o nd uct.
A g enera l c hara cte riz a tio n o f r a tio nalis m is th at it a p peals fir s t a nd fo re m ost to a b str a ct r a tio nal c o nsid era tio ns, lik e lo gic a nd m ath em atic s, a nd th en in co rp ora te s th e s e nse s ( o bse rv atio n a nd s c ie ntif ic e xp erim ent) . T hey a rg ue th at o bse rv atio n is n o t a lw ays r e lia b le ( o ur s e nse s o fte n d eceiv e u s) and s c ie ntif ic e xp erim ents d ep end o n a c erta in lo gic , w hic h w e m ust u nd ers ta nd befo re w e s ta rt to u se s c ie nce. W e n eed to k no w w hen o ur s e nse s are lik ely to b e r e lia b le a nd w hic h s c ie ntif ic e xp erim ents a re " g o od" o r " re lia b le " in str u m ents fo r in vestig atin g r e alit y ( o ne w ould n't u se p hysic s to in vestig ate a b io lo gic al c la im a b out g enetic s; o ne w ould n't u se g enetic s to h elp u s u nd ers ta nd m otio n).
M ore s p ecif ic ally , r a tio nalis m is th e ep is te m olo gic al th eo ry th at s ig nif ic ant k no w le d ge o f th e w orld c an b est b e a chie ved b y a p rio ri m eans ( p rio r to exp erie nce o r in d ep end ent o f e xp erie nce); it th ere fo re s ta nd s in c o ntr a st to em pir ic is m ( w hic h s ta te s th at a ll k no w le d ge c o m es fr o m e xp erie nce; th ere is n o a p rio ri k no w le d ge).
T he fir s t p hilo so phers r e fe rre d to a s r a tio nalis ts in clu d e D esc arte s ( 1 596-1 650), L eib niz ( 1 646-1 716), a nd S pin o za ( 1 632-1 677). T hese th in k ers th o ught th ey w ere d efe nd in g a r e lia b le w ay o f g ain in g k no w le d ge a gain st th e o ld er, u nre lia b le s c ho ol o f th o ught k no w n a s S cho la stic is m . T he defe nse o f k no w le d ge o ffe re d b y Desca rte s e xplic it ly r e je cte d m any o f t h e a ssu m ptio ns o f t h e S ch ola stic s a nd in clu d ed a s y ste m o f re aso nin g th ro ugh s c ie ntif ic a nd p hilo so phic al p ro ble m s th at is h ig hly te chnic al, d ed uctiv e, a nd a b str a ct.
Sch ola stic is m w as th e d om in ant s c ho ol o f philo so phy in th e m ed ie val p erio d. I t is b ase d la rg ely in th e id eas ( p hysic s, m eta p hysic s, e th ic s, a nd e p is te m olo gy) o f A ris to tle ( a s o ppose d to P la to ).
Sch ola stic s w ere p ro fe sso rs in th e m ed ie val " s c ho ols ," fr o m w hic h th e te rm " S cho la stic " is d eriv ed .
Thom as A quin as is t h e a rc h ety pal S ch ola stic t h in k er.
) S pin o za , in h is b ook Eth ic s , d evelo ps a m eth o d th at is s im ila r to D esc arte s's b ut is e ven m ore m ath em atic al, m odele d o n th e geo m etr ic s y ste m o f E uclid 's Ele m en ts . R atio nalis m is a m eth o d o f th in k in g th at is m ark ed b y it s r e lia nce o n lo gic a nd r e aso n a s th e p rim ary s o urc e of k no w le d ge. A cco rd in g to r a tio nalis ts , e ven o ur v ery u nd ers ta nd in g o f s c ie nce m ust b e d evelo ped th ro ugh lo gic a nd m ath em atic s b efo re it c an b e ap plie d to o ur s e nse e xp erie nce.
In o rd in ary u sa ge, r a tio nalis m is a b asic s e nse o f r e sp ect fo r r e aso n o r to r e fe r to th e id ea th at r e aso n s h o uld p la y a la rg e r o le in h um an lif e ( in co ntr a st, s a y, to mystic is m ).
R EA D ( R equir e d) :
http :/ /w ww.n ew ad vent.o rg /c ath en/1 2652a.h tm S o w it h r a tio nalis m it is p ossib le to h ave k no w le d ge w it h o ut h avin g s e nso ry e xp erie nces. T here is k no w le d ge o f lo gic a nd it s la w s o r r u le s th at a re base d u p on r e aso nin g a nd n o t s e nso ry e xp erie nce. S om e r a tio nalis ts a rg ue th at th is k no w le d ge is in nate o r b orn in sid e o f u s, th at is to s a y th at th ere a re fo rm s o f k no w le d ge th at e xis ts w it h in o ur m in d s fr o m th e tim e w e a re b orn . O th er r a tio nalis ts a rg ue th at w e h ave a s p ecia l fa cult y o f le arn in g th at d oes n o t in clu d e s e nse e xp erie nce. T his s p ecia l fa cult y is c alle d " ra tio nal in sig ht" o r " ra tio nal in tu it io n" ( a s o ppose d to " g ut- le vel in tu it io n," w hic h is e m pir ic al) . S evera l m ath em atic ia ns, w ho a ls o w ork ed in p hilo so phy, h eld th is v ie w , in clu d in g: K urt G ödel a nd G ottlo b F re ge. I t is a ls o a w id ely h eld v ie w to day a m ong p hilo so phers a nd m ath em atic ia ns.
O ptio nal L in k s to R atio nalis m s it e s:
http :/ /w ww.m ayfie ld pub .c o m /la w head /c hap te r2 /r a tio nalis m .h tm R em in der: A ll e x te rn al l in ks t h at a re n ot e x plic itly m ark ed a s " R eq u ir e d " a re t o b e c o n sid ere d a s " O ptio n al" r e a din gs.
In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
Page 3 C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is th e m ark o f a n e d ucate d m in d to b e a b le to e nte rta in a th o ught w it h o ut a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle R atio n alis m D esc a rte s’S R atio nalis m R EA D ( R equir e d) : th e fir s t fiv e s e ctio ns:
http :/ /p la to .s ta nfo rd .e d u/e ntr ie s/d esc arte s-e p is te m olo gy/ R eadin g ( O ptio nal) : D esca rte s’ Med it a tio ns p art I F or D esc arte s, k no w le d ge r e q uir e s certa in ty , a nd c erta in ty e xis ts in th e fo rm o f cle a r a nd d is tin ct id ea s , w hic h a re id eas th at a re in d ub it a b le ( n o t cap ab le o f b ein g d oub te d ). T hese a re in nate id eas th at a ll r a tio nal b ein gs a re b orn w it h s u ch a s k no w le d ge o f s e lf , G od, a nd th e w orld . B ut a ll kno w le d ge is th e r e su lt o f r e aso nin g.
O ptio nal L in k s r e la te d t o D esca rte s:
http :/ /w ww.m ayfie ld pub .c o m /la w head /c hap te r2 /d esc arte s.h tm V ie w ( Optio nal) :
Dr. R ic hard B ro w n D esc arte s 1 : T he M eth o d o f D oub t http :/ /w ww.y o utu b e.c o m /w atc h?v= ncE oW xsn X y Dr. R ic hard B ro w n D esc arte s 2 : A P rio ri K no w le d ge http :/ /w ww.y o utu b e.c o m /w atc h?v= fz 0 lU 8kF Q xs L eib niz 's R atio nalis m G . F . W . L eib niz , a G erm an p hilo so pher, d is tin guis h ed n ecessa ry tr u th s o f r e aso nin g fr o m c o ntin gent tr u th s o f r e aso nin g. N ecessa ry tr u th s o f re aso nin g in clu d e th e r u le o f n o n-c o ntr a d ic tio n a nd th e la w o f e xclu d ed m id dle ( s ta te m ents a re e it h er tr u e o r fa ls e , a nd n o th in g in b etw een).
C ontin gent tr u th s o f r e aso nin g a re th o se th at d ep end o n r e lia b le e xp erie nce a nd s tr o ng in d uctiv e r e aso nin g s tr a te gie s ( s u ch a s g enera liz a tio n a nd causa l r e aso nin g).
R eadin g ( o ptio nal) :
http :/ /w ww.m ayfie ld pub .c o m /la w head /c hap te r2 /le ib niz .h tm P ro ble m s : W hile th e r a tio nalis t c an e xp la in k no w le d ge o f m ath em atic s a nd lo gic , h o w a re th e r a tio nalis ts to e xp la in k no w le d ge o f th e e xte rn al w orld ?
S uggeste d R eadin gs O n R atio nalis m s e e a ls o Sta nfo rd E ncyclo ped ia o f P hilo so phy Encyclo ped ia B rit ta nic a The Is m B ook: a F ie ld G uid e to P hilo so phy In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
Page 4 C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is t h e m ark o f a n e d uca te d m in d t o b e a ble t o e n te rta in a t h ought w it h out a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle E m pir ic is m R elia nce o n e xp erie nce a s th e s o urc e o f id eas a nd k no w le d ge. M ore s p ecif ic ally , e m pir ic is m is th e e p is te m olo gic al th eo ry th at g enuin e in fo rm atio n ab out th e w orld m ust b e a cq uir e d b y a p oste rio ri m eans, s o th at n o th in g c an b e th o ught w it h o ut fir s t b ein g s e nse d . P ro m in ent m odern e m pir ic is ts in clu d e B aco n, L ock e, B erk ele y, H um e, a nd M ill. I n th e tw entie th c entu ry , e m pir ic is t p rin cip le s w ere u se d b y p ra gm atis ts ( A meric an p hilo so phers ) and th e lo gic al p osit iv is ts ( a g ro up o f A ustr ia n p hilo so phers c o m mit te d to s c ie nce).
R EA D a bout e m pir ic is m ( R equir e d):
http :/ /w ww.n ew ad vent.o rg /c ath en/0 5407a.h tm John L ock e : F or L ock e th e m in d is a b la nk s la te a t b ir th , ta bla r a sa , and a ll k no w le d ge r e su lt s fr o m e xp erie nces th at e nte r th e m in d fr o m th e exp erie nces o f th e b ody. K no w le d ge o f id eas is p ossib le b ecause id eas a re r e p re se nta tio ns o f th in gs e xp erie nced . B ut if r e p re se nta tio ns a re co pie s o f o ur e xp erie nces, ju st h o w a ccura te a re th ey?
L ock e d is tin guis h ed th e p rim ary a nd s e co nd ary q ualit ie s o f a n o bje ct o f a n e xp erie nce a nd o pened a d oor to a m ajo r p ro ble m in d ete rm in in g ju st ho w a ccura te s e nse k no w le d ge c o uld e ver b e. L ock e d is tin guis h ed th e p ro pertie s th at w here in o r w it h th e o bje ct ( p rim ary q ualit ie s) a nd th o se th at e xis te d w it h in th e m in d o f th e s u b je ct o f th e e xp erie nce ( s e co nd ary q ualit ie s). F or e xam ple , a n o bje ct h as a " te xtu re " ( p rim ary ) b ut th e id ea o f “sm ooth ness” is in th e p ers o n w ho p erc eiv es it ( s e co nd ary ). A n o bje ct h as a d egre e o f " h eat" ( m ole cula r m otio n; p rim ary ), b ut “ h o t” a nd “ c o ld ” are id eas in th e k no w er ( s e co nd ary ).
Read ( O ptio nal) th e o verv ie w o f L ock e in a le ctu re b y D r. T om K ern s:
http :/ /p hilo so phyco urs e .in fo /le csit e /le c-lo ck e.h tm l Vie w ( O ptio nal) :
L ock e a rg um ent a gain st in nate id es http :/ /w ww.y o utu b e.c o m /w atc h?v= _d0cd R _F z1 Y & fe atu re = re la te d Vie w ( O ptio nal) : D r. R ic hard B ro w n o n L ock e a nd B erk ele y a nd E m pir ic is m http :/ /w ww.y o utu b e.c o m /w atc h?v= R 9G uS A 9H HgA Readin g ( O ptio nal) :
L ock e Essa y C oncern in g H um an U nd ers ta nd in g Bk 1 c h 1 G eorg e B erk ele y:
B erk ele y would tr e at b oth th e p rim ary a nd th e s e co nd ary q ualit ie s a s b ein g th e r e su lt o f th e s u b je ct, th e k no w er. T here w ould b e n o p ro of o f th e exis te nce o f a ny th in g o uts id e o f th e m in d . A ll e vid ence a nd e xp erie nces a re w it h in th e m in d . G od w ould b e th e M IN D th at th o ught o f a ll o th er m in d s a nd th o ught o f th em in s u ch a w ay th at th ey th in k o f th em se lv es a s b ein g in a w orld w it h o th ers a t th e s a m e tim e. Read th e o verv ie w o f B erk ele y in a le ctu re b y D r. T om K ern s (O ptio nal) : http :/ /p hilo so phyco urs e .in fo /le csit e /le c-b erk e.h tm l D avid H um e:
H um e w as a s k ep tic . H e a gre ed w it h L ock e th at w e a re b orn w it h a b la nk s la te , ta bla r a sa a nd th at a ll o ur k no w le d ge c o m es th ro ugh th e s e nse s (e m pir ic is m ), b ut h e d id n o t th in k th at w e c o uld k no w a ll th at m uch fo r c erta in . H um e w as a s k ep tic . H e h eld th at o ur p erc ep tio ns a re o r m ak e im pre ssio ns w hic h m ak e u p o ur th o ughts ; w e h ave n o id eas w it h o ut s e nse im pre ssio ns; r e aso nin g a p rio ri d oes n o t le ad to k no w le d ge; s e nse im pre ssio ns a re n o t p ro of o f a n e xte rn al, in d ep end ent r e alit y .
Read th e o verv ie w o f H um e in a le ctu re b y D r. T om K ern s (O ptio nal) http :/ /p hilo so phyco urs e .in fo /le csit e /le c-h um e.h tm l VIE W ( O ptio nal) : D r. R ic hard B ro w n o n Hum e: I n d uctio n http :/ /w ww.y o utu b e.c o m /w atc h?v= Q iY GSR 8xO ec S ee a ls o ( O ptio nal) :
Encyclo ped ia B rit ta nic a Sta nfo rd E ncyclo ped ia o f P hilo so phy The Is m B ook Cath o lic E ncyclo ped ia P R OBLEM S: The e m pir ic is ts c o uld n o t o verc o m e p ro ble m s w it h a cco untin g fo r fo rm s o f k no w le d ge th at d id n o t r e la te to th e s e nse s, e .g ., in M ath em atic s a nd in L ogic . A nd th ey c o uld n o t a cco unt fo r h o w it c o uld b e th at h um ans c an h ave k no w le d ge fo r w hic h th ere is n o d ir e ct exp erie nce, fo r e xam ple o f th e u niv ers e a s a w ho le o r o f s u b a to m ic e vents o r q uanta o f e nerg y, e ntit ie s fo r w hic h th ere c an b e n o d ir e ct exp erie nce.
In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
Page 5 C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is t h e m ark o f a n e d uca te d m in d t o b e a ble t o e n te rta in a t h ought w it h out a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle T ra n sc en den ta lis m Im manuel K ant: T R AN SC EN DEN TAL I D EALIS M Im manuel K ant ( 1 724-1 804) was a P ru ssia n p hilo so pher ( P ru ssia n o lo nger e xis ts , b ut m ost o f it w as in w hat is n o w c alle d P ola nd ).
In tr o ductio n t o K ant a nd h is E pis te m olo gy b y T om K ern s REA D ( R equir e d):
http :/ /p hilo so phyco urs e .in fo /le csit e /le c-k ant.h tm l D eta ile d o verv ie w o f K ant REA D a ll s e ctio ns u ntil y o u r e ach K ant’ s E th ic s (R equir e d) :
http :/ /w ww.ie p .u tm .e d u/k antm eta / F or K ant t h ere is :
unit y o f c o nsc io usn ess unit y o f b ein g unif y in g a ct o f th e m in d T o a cco unt fo r th is a nd o ur r e la tio n to b ein g, K ant p ostu la te s th at th ere m ust e xis t r u le s fo r th o ughts , w hic h h e c alls ca te g orie s th at a re in nate a nd necessa ry fo r u nd ers ta nd in g a nyth in g a t a ll. W it h o ut s u ch r u le s o pera tin g, th ere is n o w ay to a cco unt fo r o ur k no w le d ge o f s u ch id eas a s:
su b sta nce/s p ace/tim e/u nit y /p lu ra lit y /c ause a nd e ffe ct/ p ossib ilit y /n ecessit y /r e alit y K no w le d ge h as b oth fo rm a nd c o nte nt.
Form o r s tr u ctu re o f K no w le d ge o f r e alit y : th e c ate go rie s ( th e w ay th e m in d o pera te s) Conte nt o f th e k no w le d ge o f r e alit y - th e in fo rm atio n fo rm ed b y th e c ate go rie s, p ro vid ed b y th e s e nse s S o, th ere a re n o p ure e xp erie nces; a ll e xp erie nces b eco m e p erc ep tio ns b y b ein g filt e re d th ro ugh th e c ate go rie s, a nd th e r e su lt is o ur id eas a b out th e w orld .
B ut, th ere is a fu nd am enta l d is tin ctio n to b e m ad e o f tw o ty p es o f k no w le d ge:
KNOW LED GE o f th e th in g a s it a p pears th ro ugh o ur s e nse s a s filt e re d b y th e b ra in :
phenom ena This is p ossib le a nd w hat w e g enera lly c all k no w le d ge o f th e w orld KNOW LED GE o f th e th in g a s it is in it s e lf :
noum ena This is n o t p ossib le fo r h um ans c an n ever g et b eyo nd o r a w ay fr o m th e c ate go rie s o f th e u nd ers ta nd in g, w hic h s h ap e a nd in flu ence a ll th at th e h um an e xp erie nces. H um ans c an n ever th in k w it h o ut u sin g th e c ate go rie s o f th e m in d . T here fo re , th ere is n o d ir e ct a ccess to th in gs a s th ey a re in th em se lv es.
In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
Page 6 C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is t h e m ark o f a n e d uca te d m in d t o b e a ble t o e n te rta in a t h ought w it h out a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle S kep tic is m S keptic is m is th e b elie f th at so m e o r all h um an k no w le d ge is im possib le . S in ce e ven o ur b est m eth o ds fo r le arn in g a b out th e w orld s o m etim es fa ll sh o rt o f p erfe ct c erta in ty , s k ep tic s a rg ue, it is b ette r to s u sp end b elie f th an to r e ly o n th e d ub it a b le p ro ducts o f r e aso n. C la ssic al s k ep tic s in clu d e P yrrh o o f E lis a nd S extu s E m pir ic us. I n th e m odern e ra , M onta ig ne, B ayle , a nd H um e a ll a d vo cate d s o m e fo rm o f s k ep tic al p hilo so phy. F allib ilis m is a m ore m odera te r e sp onse to th e la ck o f c erta in ty . R ead ( R equir e d):
http :/ /e n.w ik ip ed ia .o rg /w ik i/ S kep tic is m R ead ( O ptio nal) :
H um e:
An E nq uir y C oncern in g H um an U nd ers ta nd in g a nd http :/ /p la to .s ta nfo rd .e d u/e ntr ie s/s k ep tic is m / A ncie nt S keptic is m R ead ( R equir e d): http :/ /w ww.ie p .u tm .e d u/s /s k ep anci. h tm a nd http :/ /p la to .s ta nfo rd .e d u/e ntr ie s/s k ep tic is m -a ncie nt/ C onte m pora ry S keptic is m R ead ( O ptio nal) :
http :/ /w ww.ie p .u tm .e d u/s /s k ep co nt.h tm A d egre e o f s k ep tic is m is q uit e h ealt h y. I t c erta in ly is n o t h ealt h y to b e to o c re d ulo us a nd a ccep tin g o f a ny id eas w hats o ever. M any p eo ple a re ta k en in b y p oor r e aso nin g a nd illu sio ns a nd d elib era te a tte m pts to m is le ad a nd d eceiv e. T hey a re n o t s k ep tic al e no ugh. A lt e rn ativ ely , if y o ur v ie w of s k ep tic is m is to o s tr o ng, y o u r u n in to lo gic al p ro ble m s. I f y o u s a y it is n o t p ossib le to h ave k no w le d ge, y o ur v ie w is s e lf d efe atin g ( d o y o u k no w th at? I f s o , y o ur c la im is fa ls e .) S kep tic is m s h o uld b e u se d to c autio n u s a gain st b elie vin g to e asily a nd to o q uic k ly . T here is a s o rt o f p osit iv e sk ep tic is m th at u rg es c autio n a nd a ll d elib era te c are a nd c rit iq ue b efo re d ra w in g c o nclu sio ns o r s e ttin g b elie fs b ut d oes n o t r e je ct th e p ossib ilit y o f eit h er a chie vin g k no w le d ge o r g ain in g c lo se r p ro xim it y to k no w le d ge a nd tr u th .
In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
Page 8 C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is t h e m ark o f a n e d uca te d m in d t o b e a ble t o e n te rta in a t h ought w it h out a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle T yp es o f K now le d ge A lt h o ugh p hilo so phers m ay d if fe r o n h o w m any d if fe re nt ty p es th ere a re , th ey a gre e th at w e k no w d if fe re nt th in gs in m any d if fe re nt w ays.
H ere is a lis t o f d if fe re nt w ays w e c o m e to h ave k no w le d ge:
LO GIC AL SE M AN TIC SY ST EM IC EM PIR IC AL W hat a re th ese a b out ? W hy m ak e th ese d is tin ctio ns?
C onsid er th at y o u p ro bab ly w ould c la im to k no w th e fo llo w in g th in gs.
E xam ple s :
1. T here a re th re e s id es to a tr ia ngle . T he s u m o f th eir a ngle s is 1 80 d egre es.
2. T here is a c o m pute r in fr o nt o f y o u r ig ht n o w .
3. 2 3 + 1 1= 3 4 4. A b achelo r is a n u nm arrie d m ale .
5. I f a is m ore th an b , a nd b is m ore th an c , th en a is m ore th an c .
T hese s e nte nces a ll m ak e c la im s th at c an b e d ete rm in ed to b e e it h er tr u e o r fa ls e . T hey a re s e nte nces th at e xp re ss p ro posit io ns. T hey a re c la im s ab out w hic h y o u c an c o m e to a ju d gm ent a s to w heth er o r n o t th ey a re tr u e. Y ou p ro bab ly k no w th at th ey a re tr u e. N ow h o w is it th at y o u c o m e to k no w th ese th in gs? O bvio usly y o u c o m e b y th is k no w le d ge in d if fe re nt w ays. T his r e la te s to th e id ea o f th e d if fe re nt ty p es o f k no w le d ge. L O GIC AL e xam ple 5 T here is a k no w le d ge th at is th e r e su lt o f th e u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e r e la tio nsh ip o f id eas to o ne a no th er. T here a re th e r u le s o r la w s o f lo gic th at perm it c la im s to k no w le d ge th at a re fu rth er s ta te m ents o f id eas c o nsis te nt w it h th e r u le s a nd th e id eas a lr e ad y a ccep te d .
H ere is a no th er e xam ple w here y o u d o n o t n eed to k no w w hat I a m ta lk in g a b out b ecause y o u k no w th e r e la tio nsh ip s in vo lv ed .
A. A ll g azin tz a re g aza tz B. A ll g aza tz a re g arin gers C. T herfo re , a ll g azin tz a re g arin gers .
Y ou c an c la im to k no w th at: I f A a nd B a re tr u e, th en C is tr u e a s w ell. T his y o u k no w b y L O GIC .
S E M AN TIC e xam ple 4 T here is k no w le d ge th at is th e r e su lt o f le arn in g th e m eanin g o f w ord s. K no w le d ge o f w ord s is k no w le d ge o f d efin it io ns. S uch d efin it io ns a re s e t in d ic tio narie s. S o b achelo rs a re u nm arrie d m ale s. Y ou k no w th is . P eo ple a ck no w le d ge th is . Y ou c an lo ok it u p .
(A re n ew born b ab y b oys B achelo rs ? ??????? D o p eo ple s a y to th e n ew m oth er in th e h o sp it a l n urs e ry : " O h w hat a b eautif u l b achelo r y o u h ave th ere M s J o nes!" ? ) S Y ST EM IC e xam ple s 1 a nd 3 T here is k no w le d ge o f M ath em atic s a nd G eo m etr y , w hic h is th e r e su lt o f le arn in g a s y ste m o f w ord s, o r s y m bols a nd h o w th ey r e la te to o ne ano th er a nd th e r u le s o f o pera tin g in th at s y ste m a nd th en a ny c la im s m ad e th at a re c o nsis te nt w it h th o se d efin it io ns a nd r u le s a re c alle d k no w le d ge.
E M PIR IC AL e xam ple 2 T here is a k no w le d ge th at c o m es th ro ugh o ur s e nse s. T his k no w le d ge is e m pir ic al k no w le d ge. S cie nce is th e b est e xam ple o f a m eth o d fo r asc erta in in g th e a ccura cy o f s u ch k no w le d ge. S cie ntif ic k no w le d ge is a r e su lt o f th e p ra ctic e o f th e m eth o d: O bse rv atio n, a b ductio n o f a hyp oth esis , c are fu l o bse rv atio n, r e fin em ent o f h yp oth esis , d ed uctio n o f te st fo r h yp oth esis , te stin g a nd e xp erim enta tio n, c o nfir m atio n o r fa ls if ic atio n of th e h yp oth esis .
W hat d o th ese fo ur ty p es o f k no w le d ge h ave in c o m mon? O ne o f th e m ost p opula r th eo rie s o f k no w le d ge o f th e tw entie th c entu ry h o ld s th at K NOW LED GE d oes im ply a B elie f.
B elie f d oes n o t I m ply K no w le d ge. W here ver p eo ple c la im to k no w th at s o m eth in g is tr u e th ey b elie ve th at it is s o . W hen p eo ple c la im to b elie ve th at s o m eth in g is s o th ey d on’t a lw ays c la im to k no w th at it is s o .
W hat k in d o f a b elie f is K NOW LED GE.? T o b egin w it h it m ust b e tr u e. Y ou c an n o t k no w s o m eth in g th at is fa ls e , th at is n o t s o .
It m ust b e tr u e a nd y o u m ust c la im to k no w it a nd it b e tr u e n o t b y a ccid ent o r c o in cid ence b ut b ecause th ere is e vid ence to s u p port a nd e no ugh to w arra nt o r ju stif y th e c la im to k no w .
S o, K NOW LED GE = J U STIF IE D T R U E B ELIE F W ARRA N TED T R U E B ELIE F E V ID EN CE is N EED ED fo r J U STIF IC ATIO N V ie w ( O ptio nal) :
Kno w le d ge a s J u stif ie d T ru e B elie f http :/ /y o utu .b e/tg 2 it M 5-c d M C AUTIO N!
W ARRA N TED T R U E B ELIE F m ay n o t b e k no w le d ge if tr u e b y A CCID EN T.
Ja nuary 1 , 2 001 th e c la im is m ad e: I k no w th at th e G IA N TS a re g o in g to w in th e S U PER BO W L in 2 001!
It tu rn s o ut th at s e vera l w eek s la te r th ey d id w in . C an I c la im th at I k new it o n J a nuary 1 st o r w as it ju st a lu ck y g uess o r a w ell in fo rm ed g uess? H ow d oes a p ers o n g ain th e w arra nt o r th e ju stif ic atio n fo r th e b elie f? W ell, d ep end in g o n th e ty p e o f b elie f th at it is th ere a re d if fe re nt k in d s o f w arra nts .
In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
Page 9 C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is t h e m ark o f a n e d uca te d m in d t o b e a ble t o e n te rta in a t h ought w it h out a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle T yp es o f K now le d ge, c o n tin ued SE C TIO NS 1 Overv ie w 6 Typ es o f K no w le d ge 2 Ratio nalis m 7 Tru th 3 Em pir ic is m 8 Tru th a nd S cie nce 4 Tra nsc end enta lis m 9 Conclu sio n 5 Skep tic is m L O GIC AL Warra nts fo und in th e r u le s o f L ogic . F ollo w th em a nd th e c la im is w arra nte d .
S E M AN TIC Warra nts a re fo und in th e d ic tio narie s. U se th em , b e c o nsis te nt w it h th em a nd th e c la im is w arra nte d .
S Y ST EM IC Warra nts a re fo und w it h in th e s y ste m ( M ath o r G eo m etr y ) fo llo w th e r u le s b e c o nsis te nt w it h th e d efin it io ns a nd r u le s a nd th e c la im is warra nte d .
E M PIR IC AL Warra nts a re fo und w it h e vid ence. H ow is th e e vid ence to b e g ath ere d , e xam in ed a nd e valu ate d ? T here w ill b e m ore o n th is u nd er th e to pic o f TR UTH T here a re fo ur ty p es o f b elie fs a sso cia te d w it h tr u th a nd w arra nts :
1. w arra nte d tr u e b elie fs : T his ty p e is c alle d K NOW LED GE 2. w arra nte d fa ls e b elie fs : T his ty p e c anno t e xis t a t a ll.
3. u nw arra nte d tr u e b elie fs : T hese a re lu ck y g uesse s o r c o in cid ences a nd n o t k no w le d ge.
4. u nw arra nte d fa ls e b elie f:s T hese a re ju st w ild u nsu p porte d c la im s o r w is h es th at a re n o t tr u e.
E X AM PL E:
H ow o ld is s o m eo ne? I f s o m eo ne c la im s to k no w h o w o ld J o hn S m it h o r M ary D oe is , w e p ro bab ly a ccep t th e c la im o n th eir w ord if it is ju st go ssip . H ow ever, if th ere w ere a $ 10 b et o n it , w e w ould a sk fo r e vid ence. W e m ig ht g o to th e p ers o n a nd a sk th em to c o nfir m th e c la im . I f it w ere $ 100, w e m ig ht w ant a d riv er’s lic ense . I f it w ere $ 1000, w e m ig ht w ant a b ir th c ertif ic ate . F or $ 10,0 00 ,w e m ig ht w ant to g o to th e o ffic ia l re gis tr y a nd c heck th e o ffic ia l d ocum ents o urs e lv es. T he m ore th at's a t s ta k e, th e m ore c erta in w e w ant to b e!
O ne o f th e h ig hest c o nse q uences o n c la im s to k no w is h um an lif e . A t a c rim in al tr ia l, a c ap it a l h o m ic id e c ase , w hat is th e s ta nd ard o f p ro of? I t is evid ence th at is c o nvin cin g b eyo nd a r e aso nab le d oub t. N ot b eyo nd all d oub ts . B ut b eyo nd re a so nable d oub t, m eanin g b eyo nd a ll d oub tin g o r questio nin g o f th e e vid ence th at w e h ave r e aso n to d oub t o r q uestio n.
S cie ntis ts h ave th eir r e p uta tio n r id in g o n th eir c la im s to k no w th in gs. T he s ta nd ard fo r th e w arra nt in S cie nce is th at th eir c la im s b e s u p porte d b y evid ence th at o th er s c ie ntis ts c an e xam in e, e xp erim ents th at o th ers c an r e p eat a nd g et th e s a m e r e su lt , a nd e q uatio ns th at o th ers c an e xam in e to check a gain st e rro rs .
S o, c la im s to k no w a re a ccep te d o n th e a m ounts o f s u p port th at m ay v ary in th e ty p e a nd a m ount d ep end in g o n th e ty p e o f c la im th at it is .
H ow ever, to k no w s o m eth in g th at w hic h y o u c la im to k no w m ust b e tr u e, a nd tr u th d oes n o t h ave d egre es: a s ta te m ent p is e it h er tr u e o r it is n 't .
T R UTH will b e e xam in ed in th e n ext s e ctio n.
In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
Page 1 0 C hap te r 5 : E pis te m olo gy It is t h e m ark o f a n e d uca te d m in d t o b e a ble t o e n te rta in a t h ought w it h out a ccep tin g it . ~ A ris to tle T ra n sc en den ta lis m , c o n tin ued F or K ant, h um ans w ill n ever k no w th in gs a s th ey a re in th em se lv es b ecause h um ans c an n ever th in k w it h o ut th eir b ra in s, a nd o ur b ra in s a re s o str u ctu re d a s to p ro vid e fo r a rra ngem ents a nd o rd erin g a nd c o nnectin g e le m ents fo r h um an th o ught to o ccur. I t is a s if h um ans m ust a lw ays s e e th in gs th ro ugh c o lo re d g la sse s b ecause th ey c anno t r e m ove th em . T here fo re , th e u niv ers e w ill a lw ays a p pear th ro ugh th e tin tin g o f th o se g la sse s.
H um ans w ill n ever k no w h o w th e u niv ers e a ctu ally lo oks. H um ans m ay g et c lo se , b ut c anno t e xp erie nce th e th in g it s e lf d ir e ctly .
H ow d o w e a cq uir e id eas?
K ant c o m bin es id eas o f th e r a tio nalis ts a nd th e e m pir ic is ts :
Ratio nalis m Em pir ic is m in nate k n ow le d ge (th e c ate go rie s w e le arn a b out th ro ugh th e a p rio ri p ro cess o f tr a nsc end enta l ded uctio n) ex perie n ce ( th e in fo rm atio n p ro vid ed by th e s e nse s th at is filt e re d th ro ugh th e cate go rie s) H ow is k no w le d ge o rg aniz e d in th e m in d ?
M in d in tr o duces n ew p rin cip le s o f o rd er in to e xp erie nce a nd a rra nges, s to re s, a nd te sts th o se a rra ngem ents fo r tr u th . R ead ( O ptio nal) :
K ant:
Krit ik d er r e in en V ern unft o r th e C rit iq ue o f P ure R easo n V ie w ( O ptio nal) :
D r. R ic hard B ro w n - K ant: S ynth etic a p rio ri http :/ /w ww.y o utu b e.c o m /w atc h?v= N ep D L1h1 B S4 V ie w ( O ptio nal) :
T ra nsc end enta l I d ealis m n o um ena a nd p heno m ena http :/ /w ww.y o utu b e.c o m /w atc h?v= H E40m K qU kos K ant’ s c o ntr ib utio ns o f th e d is tin ct ty p es o f k no w le d ge a nd o f th e r o le p la yed b y th e o rd er o f th e b ra in r e m ain a d om in atin g in flu ence o ver th e fie ld of e p is te m olo gy to th is d ay.
Im manuel K ant is c o nsid ere d t o b e o ne o f t h e w orld 's g re a te st p hilo so phers. I n h is a cco unt o f e p is te m olo gic a l t h eo ry o f know le d ge, c a lle d t r a nsc en den ta l id ea lis m , h e c la im ed t h at “ th e m in d o f t h e k now er m akes a n a ctiv e c o ntr ib utio n t o ex perie n ce o f o bje cts b efo re u s” . H e m ea nt t h at w hate v er w e a lr e a dy k now t h ro ugh o ur e x perie n ce m akes it e a sie r f o r u s t o acq uir e n ew m ea ns o f k now le d ge. A cco rd in gly , K ant s p ecif ie d t w o s o urc es o f o ur k now le d ge, w hic h a re t h e m in d’s re cep tiv e c a pacit y ( s e n sib ilit y ), a nd t h e m in d’s c o ncep tu al c a pacit y ( u ndersta ndin g). H e t h ought t h at it w ould b e im possib le fo r p eo ple t o h ave a ny e x perie n ce o f o bje cts , w hic h a re n ot p la ced in s p ace a nd t im e. T hese c o ndit io ns o f s e n sib ilit y a re d ue to o ur c o nsc io usn ess, w hic h m ust “ appre h en d o bje cts a s o ccu pyin g a r e g io n o f s p ace a nd p ersis tin g f o r s o m e d ura tio n o f tim e” . H ow ev er, s e n sib ilit y b y it s e lf d oesn ’t m ake j u dgin g o bje cts p ossib le . I t t a kes a ls o u ndersta ndin g, w hic h p ro vid es t h e co ncep ts , t h e r u le s f o r d ete rm in in g w hat is “ co m mon o r u niv ersa l in d if fe re n t r e p re se n ta tio ns” . H e s a id , “ w it h out s e n sib ilit y no o bje ct w ould b e g iv en t o u s; a nd w it h out u ndersta ndin g n o o bje ct w ould b e t h ought. T houghts w it h out c o nte n t a re em pty ; in tu it io ns w it h out c o ncep ts a re b lin d” . H e m ea nt t h at in o rd er t o t h in k a bout s o m e o bje ct it t a kes u ndersta ndin g, whic h a ssig ns c o ncep ts , b ase d o n t h e o bje ct’s s e n sa tio n in put, t o id en tif y w hat is c o m mon a nd g en era l a bout it .
Nev erth ele ss, e m pir ic a l d eriv atio n d is c u sse d a bove is n ot s u ffic ie n t t o e x pla in a ll o f t h e c o ncep ts t h at a ris e in t h e h um an lif e , su ch a s c a usa tio n, s u bsta nce, s e lf , id en tit y , s p ace, t im e, e tc . I t’s d ue t o t h e f a ct t h at t h ese c o ncep ts a re p ro ducts o f o ur ex perie n ce, w hic h is c o nstit u te d b y id ea s. T here fo re , “ K ant p ostu la te s t h at t h ere m ust e x is t r u le s f o r t h oughts , w hic h h e ca lls C ate g orie s t h at a re in nate a nd n ecessa ry f o r u ndersta ndin g” a ll o f t h e c o ncep ts . I n a ddit io n t o m in d’s c o ncep tu al co ntr ib utio n t o e x perie n ce o nly t h at s p ecia l s e t o f c o ncep ts o rg aniz e d in to t h ese f u ndam en ta l c a te g orie s o f t h ought m ake em pir ic a l c o ncep ts a nd j u dgm en ts p ossib le . A lt h ough t h ese c o ncep ts c a nnot b e e x perie n ced d ir e ctly , t h ey a re p re se n t w hen partic u la r j u dgm en ts o f o bje cts t a ke p la ce. P lu s, “ sin ce o bje cts c a n o nly b e e x perie n ced s p atio -te m pora lly , t h e o nly applic a tio n o f c o ncep ts t h at y ie ld s k now le d ge is t o t h e e m pir ic a l...w orld ” . K ant r e je cts a ny k in d o f k now le d ge t h at g oes beyo nd t h e b ounds o f s e n sa tio n b eca use t h ere c a n b e n o o bje cts f o r t h e u ndersta ndin g t o j u dge, r ig htly o r w ro ngly . W hile Kant is a t r a nsc en den ta l id ea lis t h e b elie v es t h e n atu re o f o bje cts a s t h ey a re in t h em se lv es is u nknow able t o u s. H ow ev er, th e k now le d ge o f a ppea ra nce is ...p ossib le . T here fo re , k now le d ge o f t h e t h in gs c a n n ev er g et b eyo nd t h e c a te g orie s o f understa ndin g, w hic h s h ape a nd in flu en ce a ll t h at t h e h um an e x perie n ces. A cco rd in gly , h um an w ill n ev er k now h ow t h e univ erse a ctu ally lo oks b eca use t h ey a re n ’t a ble t o t h in k w it h out a ny a rra ngem en t a nd o rd er o f e le m en ts . K ant’s t h eo ry o f know le d ge c o m bin es r a tio nalis m a nd t h e e m pir ic is m in h is a cco unt t o d is tin ct t y p es o f k now le d ge a nd t h e p rin cip le s o f min d‘s o rd er. And rz e j L ago dzin sk i ( Q CC, 2 001) In tr o ductio n to P hilo so phy b y Philip A . P eco rin o is lic ense d u nd er a Cre ativ e C om mons A ttr ib utio n-N onC om merc ia l- N oD eriv s 3 .0 U np orte d L ic ense .
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