Week 10

Religion

Cosmogony - Origin of the Universe

Nature of God/Creator

View of Human Nature

View of Good and Evil

View of “Salvation”

View of After Life

Practices and Rituals

Celebrations and Festivals

Week 2

Hinduism and Jainism

The Hindus believe that the Universe was created by Brahman, preserved by Vishnu and was destroyed for the following creation by the Shiva. Brahman was usually depicted to be sitting on a lotus flower arising from the navel of Vishnu. Vishnu was resting on the Ananta (Shesha), the cosmic serpent. They believe that Brahma lifted up his arms to calm the ocean and the wind and then split the lotus flower into three from which one part was stretched into heavens. He then made another part into the earth, and the third part of the flower created the skies (Pattanaik, 2003).The earth was bare. Brahma created the grass, flowers, trees and all kinds of plants. He then created the insects and animals to live on the land. He created the birds and fish and gave them a sense of smell and touch.

Hindus believe in one true god, Brahma, but he possessed many forms. They believe in one God, the supreme Spirit (Brahma). He pervades the whole universe. The religion believes that he is symbolized by the sacred syllable Aum or Om. Hindus believe that Brahma is present in every individual as the eternal soul or spirit is known as atman. Brahma contains everything; male and female, creation and destruction, stillness and evil, and good and evil (Pattanaik, 2003). The three aspects of the Brahma include Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer.

According to the Hindus, the human beings, just like all other animals and the inanimate things, are an extension – of the Brahma, the supreme being. While existence continues from him, that production is neither free nor independent but is subject to the supreme law of karma. This is the cyclical process of birth to death to rebirth that keeps the humans in search of eternal life (St. Zieba, 2004).

According to Hindu scripture, divinity or good is represented by light, purity (sattva), immortality, order, balance, virtue, and selflessness. Evil, on the other hand, is represented by darkness, impurity (tamas), extremity or imbalance, sinful conducts, selfishness or chaos. They believe that good leads to peace, liberation, and happiness while evil leads to suffering or even downfall into darker worlds. Hinduism does not, however, recognize sin as willful personal rebellion against god or against his moral law. Evil results when one commits acts of wrongdoings against the nature and their fellow humans because of their karma. They believe that there is no sin against the holy God. The acts of wrongdoings are not committed against any God but are due to ignorance. Evil is not seen as a crime against Good but as an act against Karma - the moral order and an act of one's self (Walker, 1968).

In Hinduism, salvation is the Atmans' (individual's soul), liberation from Samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth and the attainment of the highest spiritual state. It is the ultimate goal of Hinduism, where even hell and heaven are temporary. This is called moksha. Moksha is a last release from the worldly conception of oneself. Salvation is regarded as one of the most critical parts of the religious rituals and belief systems of the Hindus. The nature of the human problem according to Hinduism is suffering (Walker, 1968). Brahman is the universal substrate and a divine ground for all the human beings. He is a source of all phenomenal existence through the practice of Yoga. The problem can be overcome by practicing selfless work (Karma Yoga), self-disoolviing love (Bhakti Yoga), of knowledge and absolute discernment.

Hinduism has very distinct teachings about life after death. They believe in reincarnation. This is the belief that the atman soul of a person passes on to a new body and life after death. The new life will depend on how the person lived his/her previous life (Pattanaik, 2003).They believe in karma which entails the bad and good actions taken by someone. With good karma, a better rebirth is experienced. Since all living creatures are a component of the reincarnation process, the Hindus believe that it is possible for one to be reborn as an animal, plant or insect. Humans are regarded as the highest life forms, but the Hindus ultimate goal is to break the reincarnation cycle that they are in and achieve the Moksha. Whenever atman is freed from the cycle, it is believed that the individual returns to be with the Brahma.

Hindus believe in karma which is the law of cause and effect through which every person develops his destiny by his actions, words, and thoughts. Devout Hindus normally practice daily rituals like worshiping at dawn immediately after bathing, reciting from the religious scripts, yoga, meditation, singing devotional hymns, and chanting mantras. Some of the practices of Hinduism includes occasional pilgrimages, annual festivals, family oriented rites of passage, meditations and recitations (Walker, 1968).

Some of the Hindu festivals include Diwali (the festival of light), and the Navaratri (celebration of fertility and harvest). Another festival is the Raksha Bandhan that is done to celebrate the bond between a brother and a sister. Lastly, the Hindus also celebrate Holi, which is known as the festival of colors (Pattanaik, 2003).The fourth day of Diwali is considered as the new year of the Hindus. Diwali is held in honor of Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of prosperity and wealth. Diwali signifies the victory of good over evil as well as light over dark.

Wk 2 sources

Pattanaik, Devdutt (2003). Indian mythology: tales, symbols, and rituals from the heart of the Subcontinent. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company.

Pattanaik, Devdutt (2003). Indian mythology: tales, symbols, and rituals from the heart of the Subcontinent. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company.

St. Ziêba, M. (2004). How does Hinduism view human nature? Retrieved January 23, 2017, from http://en.allexperts.com/q/Philosophy-1361/Hinduism.html

Walker, Benjamin (1968). Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism. London: Allen & Unwin.

Walker, Benjamin (1968). Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism. London: Allen & Unwin.

Pattanaik, Devdutt (2003). Indian mythology: tales, symbols, and rituals from the heart of the Subcontinent. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company.

Walker, Benjamin (1968). Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism. London: Allen & Unwin.

Pattanaik, Devdutt (2003). Indian mythology: tales, symbols, and rituals from the heart of the Subcontinent. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company.

Week 3

Buddhism

Buddhism does not a creator god to explain the origin of the universe. It instead teaches that all things depend on everything else. They believe that present events are caused by past events and thus become the cause of future events. Buddhism do not believe that the world was created, but it simply existed forever and is continuing to recreate itself.

Buddhists do not believe in a single god. They believe that there is no evidence to support a solitary being controlling the universe. Buddhists believe in a collective humanity where every individual is capable of becoming a Buddha that means a perfect human being.

According to the Buddha’s view, human existence is a combination of five aggregates (khandas); physical forms (rupa), sensations or feelings (Vedana), ideations (sanna), mental dispositions or formations (Sankhara) and consciousness (Vinnana). The khandas combine during birth to create a human being. A human being is an actual subject of karmic accumulation and moral action but not having an unchanging or enduring soul.

In Buddhism, good and evil are seen as irrational but not absolute. This is understood based on the actual impact they have on our lives and those of others rather than on abstract rules of conduct. Evil actions are based on selfishness, the misunderstanding that our lives are disconnected from those of others. Good is what generates a connection between ourselves and other people, restoring and healing the bonds within the societies. Good is recognized with fundamental natural of enlightenment, absolute happiness or freedom that results from profound knowledge. Evil is a fundamental darkness that causes suffering for oneself and others.

There is no clear doctrine of salvation in the Buddha teachings. In the early Buddhism, salvation was Nirvana, the extinguishing of the all the karma which constitutes the self.

All the life is in a cycle of death and rebirth known as Samsara. When one dies, their energy transitions into another form. They believe that one's status afterlife is a punishment or reward for their behavior during life. They believe that life does not end but changes into another form due to accumulated karma. Death is not feared because it leads to rebirth.

Buddhism has various rituals and practices that are intended to help in enlightenment and bring blessings to others and oneself. They practice meditation as a way to liberation in Theravada. Other rituals and practices include monastic life and funeral services, as well as lifecycle events.

The most essential days of the month for Buddhists are the days when there is a new moon or full moon. Buddha Day is the main festival of the year celebrated by Buddhists. There is the celebration of the buddha’s birth, enlightenment and death. The festival is normally a celebration of many colours. The Magha Puja Day is another important Buddhist festival. It is done in honor of the Buddhist community or Sangha.

Wk 3 sources

Ajahn Sucitto (2010), Turning the Wheel of Truth: Commentary on the Buddha's First Teaching, Shambhala

Bodhi, B. (2000), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications

Bronkhorst, J. (2007), Greater Magadha, Studies the Culture of Early India. Series: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 2 South Asia Series, Brill Academic Publishers Inc

Choong, Mun-keat (2000), The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: A Comparative Study Based on the Sutranga Portion of the Pali Samyutta-Nikaya and the Chinese Samyuktagama, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag

Bodhi, B. (2000), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Wisdom Publications

Bronkhorst, J. (2007), Greater Magadha, Studies the Culture of Early India. Series: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 2 South Asia Series, Brill Academic Publishers Inc

Week 4

Daoism and

Confucianism

Taoism teaches that power exists in the universe.

The universe was created by the Tao Force. Dao is a natural force that makes the universe the way it is.

They do not have a god but rather has a force known as the Tao-The Great Ultimate (Frederick, 1971).Tao was responsible for the creation, and this force is flowing through all life initiating change and betterment.

Humans can deviate from their creative rhythms of the universe, Tao, the Way. Daoism focuses on the way of humans as well as immorality. Confucianism focuses on the practice of virtue i.e. setting good examples for others to follow. Confucianism is centered on humanism, the world around us as well as the people living around us. Some emphasis is also put on honesty and relationship.

According to Daoism, the universe is neither good nor evil. They believe that it is beyond that. The secret of living a harmonious or good life is via inactivity. Wuwei is one of the key concepts of Daoism which means accomplishing tasks with no aggression or assertion (Frederick, 1971). Active attempts in conquering the nature or improving the society are merely futile and can only make things worse. Therefore, Daoism is against such things as participation in social and political institutions, rituals and educations as they draw people from peace and harmony generated from inactivity.

The belief of salvation is beyond human comprehension. Humans are expected to behave and live in a way that enhances idea social relations instead of acting on the expectations of reward or punishment after death. A meaningful life is where one develops the innate moral potential to the highest while accomplishing all one's social responsibilities. One cannot live completely in the present without being wholly responsible for the past

In Taoism, death is neither feared nor desired but instead, one should enjoy living. Death is illustrated from the Chuang-Tzu. Death and life are each other's companion and therefore should not be feared. A person is eternal in their life (Tu, 1985).

They perform funeral rites or periodic rites on behalf of the ancestors. They honor the dead. They also perform rites on behalf of the community such installing the ritual space, rites of fasting, rites of communion or offering and rites to disperse the ritual space.

They normally go around singing, praising, dancing, and eating sacred food. Daoists celebrates many deities every month. Quite a number of Confucian holidays are derived from other religions. They celebrate the Chinese New year and the Ghost Festival among many others (Tu, 1985). Some of the unique celebrations of Confucians are the Ching Ming and the Confucius’s Birthday.

Wk 4 sources

Frederick F. Mote (1971) Intellectual Foundations of China. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Frederick F. Mote (1971) Intellectual Foundations of China. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Tu Weiming (1985) The Continuity of Being: Chinese Visions of Nature- Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albany, N.Y.: the State University of New York Press

Frederick F. Mote (1971) Intellectual Foundations of China. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Frederick F. Mote (1971) Intellectual Foundations of China. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Tu Weiming (1985) The Continuity of Being: Chinese Visions of Nature- Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albany, N.Y.: the State University of New York Press

Tu Weiming (1985) The Continuity of Being: Chinese Visions of Nature- Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albany, N.Y.: the State University of New York Press

Frederick F. Mote (1971) Intellectual Foundations of China. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Week 5

Shinto

They believe that the universe was created for them by their gods

They believe that Kami is the same as their God. Kami exists everywhere and answers prayers of the faithful.

Believe that humans are part of the natural realm and sacred.

Good and evil is based on purity. Believes that humans were born pure. Sin and pollution make one impure.

The concept of salvation is based on a belief that all living things have a soul, spirit or an essence called kami. Therefore kami should be respected and honored. One is regarded as saved if they honor kami.

Shinto believes that human spirits remain forever after death just like the spirit of kami.

Acknowledging various sacred places like mountains, springs, etc., believers respect animals as God's messengers; one goes through a Tori when entering a shrine. Believers wash their bodies in a river near the shrine. Other practices includes Harae, Misogi, Imi, Kagura, omairi, etc

Taisai is the main festival involving shrine and the surroundings. They dance and celebrate in the streets with the rest of the community.

Wk 5 sources

Breen, J. & Mark T. eds. (2000). Shintō in History: Ways of the Kami. Honolulu, Hi: Hawaii University Press.

Josephson, J. (2012). The Invention of Religion in Japan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Havens, N. (2006). "Shinto". In Paul L. Swanson & Clark Chilson, (eds.). Nanzan Guide to Japanese Religions. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Herbert, J. (1967). Shinto The Fountainhead of Japan. New York: Stein and Day

Breen, J. & Mark T. eds. (2000). Shintō in History: Ways of the Kami. Honolulu, Hi: Hawaii University Press.

Havens, N. (2006). "Shinto". In Paul L. Swanson & Clark Chilson, (eds.). Nanzan Guide to Japanese Religions. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Havens, N. (2006). "Shinto". In Paul L. Swanson & Clark Chilson, (eds.). Nanzan Guide to Japanese Religions. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Breen, J. & Mark T. eds. (2000). Shintō in History: Ways of the Kami. Honolulu, Hi: Hawaii University Press.