Munger’s Mental Models
A Lesson on Elementary, Worldly Wisdom As It Relates To Investment
Management & Business
Charles Munger, USC Business School, 1994
I'm going to play a minor trick on you today because the subject of my talk is the art
of stock picking as a subdivision of the art of worldly wisdom. That enables me to start
talking about worldly wisdom—a much broader topic that interests me because I think
all too little of it is delivered by modern educational systems, at least in an effective
way.
And therefore, the talk is sort of along the lines that some behaviorist psychologists
call Grandma's rule after the wisdom of Grandma when she said that you have to eat
the carrots before you get the dessert.
The carrot part of this talk is about the general subject of worldly wisdom which is a
pretty good way to start. After all, the theory of modern education is that you need a
general education before you specialize. And I think to some extent, before you're
going to be a great stock picker, you need some general education.
So, emphasizing what I sometimes waggishly call remedial worldly wisdom, I'm going
to start by waltzing you through a few basic notions.
What is elementary, worldly wisdom? Well, the first rule is that you can't really know
anything if you just remember isolated facts and try and bang 'em back. If the facts
don't hang together on a latticework of theory, you don't have them in a usable form.
You've got to have models in your head. And you've got to array your experience—
both vicarious and direct—on this latticework of models. You may have noticed
students who just try to remember and pound back what is remembered. Well, they
fail in school and in life. You've got to hang experience on a latticework of models in
your head.
What are the models? Well, the first rule is that you've got to have multiple models—
because if you just have one or two that you're using, the nature of human psychology
is such that you'll torture reality so that it fits your models, or at least you'll think it
does. You become the equivalent of a chiropractor who, of course, is the great boob in
medicine.
It's like the old saying, "To the man with only a hammer, every problem looks like a
nail." And of course, that's the way the chiropractor goes about practicing medicine.
But that's a perfectly disastrous way to think and a perfectly disastrous way to operate
in the world. So you've got to have multiple models.
And the models have to come from multiple disciplines—because all the wisdom of the
world is not to be found in one little academic department. That's why poetry
professors, by and large, are so unwise in a worldly sense. They don't have enough
models in their heads. So you've got to have models across a fair array of disciplines.
You may say, "My God, this is already getting way too tough." But, fortunately, it isn't
that tough—because 80 or 90 important models will carry about 90% of the freight in m aking you a worldlywise person. And, of those, only a m ere handful really carry
very heavy freight.
So let's briefly review what kind of m odels and techniques constitute this basic
knowledge that everybody has to have before they proceed to being really good at a
narrow art like stock picking.
First there's m athem atics. Obviously, you've got to be able to handle num bers and
quantities— basic arithm etic. And the great useful m odel, after com pound interest, is
the elem entary m ath of perm utations and com binations. And that was taught in m y
day in the sophom ore year in high school. I suppose by now in great private schools,
it's probably down to the eighth grade or so.
It's very sim ple algebra. It was all worked out in the course of about one year between
Pascal and Ferm at. They worked it out casually in a series of letters.
It's not that hard to learn. W hat is hard is to get so you use it routinely alm ost
everyday of your life. The Ferm at/Pascal system is dram atically consonant with the
way that the world works. And it's fundam ental truth. So you sim ply have to have the
technique.
Many educational institutions— although not nearly enough— have realized this. At
Harvard Business School, the great quantitative thing that bonds the firstyear class
together is what they call decision tree theory. All they do is take high school algebra
and apply it to real life problem s. And the students love it. They're am azed to find that
high school algebra works in life....
By and large, as it works out, people can't naturally and autom atically do this. If you
understand elem entary psychology, the reason they can't is really quite sim ple: The
basic neural network of the brain is there through broad genetic and cultural evolution.
And it's not Ferm at/Pascal. It uses a very crude, shortcuttype of approxim ation. It's
got elem ents of Ferm at/Pascal in it. However, it's not good.
So you have to learn in a very usable way this very elem entary m ath and use it
routinely in life— just the way if you want to becom e a golfer, you can't use the natural
swing that broad evolution gave you. You have to learn— to have a certain grip and
swing in a different way to realize your full potential as a golfer.
If you don't get this elem entary, but m ildly unnatural, m athem atics of elem entary
probability into your repertoire, then you go through a long life like a onelegged m an
in an asskicking contest. You're giving a huge advantage to everybody else.
One of the advantages of a fellow like Buffett, whom I've worked with all these years,
is that he autom atically thinks in term s of decision trees and the elem entary m ath of
perm utations and com binations....
Obviously, you have to know accounting. It's the language of practical business life. It
was a very useful thing to deliver to civilization. I've heard it cam e to civilization
through Venice which of course was once the great com m ercial power in the
Mediterranean. However, doubleentry bookkeeping was a hell of an invention.
And it's not that hard to understand.
But you have to know enough about it to understand its lim itations— because although
accounting is the starting place, it's only a crude approxim ation. And it's not very hard
to understand its lim itations. For exam ple, everyone can see that you have to m ore or
less just guess at the useful life of a jet airplane or anything like that. Just because you
express the depreciation rate in neat num bers doesn't m ake it anything you really
know.
In term s of the lim itations of accounting, one of m y favorite stories involves a very great businessm an nam ed Carl Braun who created the CF Braun Engineering
Com pany. It designed and built oil refineries— which is very hard to do. And Braun
would get them to com e in on tim e and not blow up and have efficiencies and so forth.
This is a m ajor art.
And Braun, being the thorough Teutonic type that he was, had a num ber of quirks. And
one of them was that he took a look at standard accounting and the way it was applied
to building oil refineries and he said, "This is asinine."
So he threw all of his accountants out and he took his engineers and said, "Now, we'll
devise our own system of accounting to handle this process." And in due tim e,
accounting adopted a lot of Carl Braun's notions. So he was a form idably willful and
talented m an who dem onstrated both the im portance of accounting and the im portance
of knowing its lim itations.
He had another rule, from psychology, which, if you're interested in wisdom , ought to
be part of your repertoire— like the elem entary m athem atics of perm utations and
com binations.
His rule for all the Braun Com pany's com m unications was called the five W 's— you had
to tell who was going to do what, where, when and why. And if you wrote a letter or
directive in the Braun Com pany telling som ebody to do som ething, and you didn't tell
him why, you could get fired. In fact, you would get fired if you did it twice.
You m ight ask why that is so im portant? W ell, again that's a rule of psychology. Just as
you think better if you array knowledge on a bunch of m odels that are basically
answers to the question, why, why, why, if you always tell people why, they'll
understand it better, they'll consider it m ore im portant, and they'll be m ore likely to
com ply. Even if they don't understand your reason, they'll be m ore likely to com ply.
So there's an iron rule that just as you want to start getting worldly wisdom by asking
why, why, why, in com m unicating with other people about everything, you want to
include why, why, why. Even if it's obvious, it's wise to stick in the why.
W hich m odels are the m ost reliable? W ell, obviously, the m odels that com e from hard
science and engineering are the m ost reliable m odels on this Earth. And engineering
quality control— at least the guts of it that m atters to you and m e and people who are
not professional engineers— is very m uch based on the elem entary m athem atics of
Ferm at and Pascal:
It costs so m uch and you get so m uch less likelihood of it breaking if you spend this
m uch. It's all elem entary high school m athem atics. And an elaboration of that is what
Dem ing brought to Japan for all of that quality control stuff.
I don't think it's necessary for m ost people to be terribly facile in statistics. For
exam ple, I'm not sure that I can even pronounce the Poisson distribution. But I know
what a Gaussian or norm al distribution looks like and I know that events and huge
aspects of reality end up distributed that way. So I can do a rough calculation.
But if you ask m e to work out som ething involving a Gaussian distribution to ten
decim al points, I can't sit down and do the m ath. I'm like a poker player who's learned
to play pretty well without m astering Pascal.
And by the way, that works well enough. But you have to understand that bellshaped
curve at least roughly as well as I do.
And, of course, the engineering idea of a backup system is a very powerful idea. The
engineering idea of breakpoints— that's a very powerful m odel, too. The notion of a
critical m ass— that com es out of physics— is a very powerful m odel.
All of these things have great utility in looking at ordinary reality. And all of this cost benefit analysis— hell, that's all elem entary high school algebra, too. It's just been
dolled up a little bit with fancy lingo.
I suppose the next m ost reliable m odels are from biology/ physiology because, after
all, all of us are program m ed by our genetic m akeup to be m uch the sam e.
And then when you get into psychology, of course, it gets very m uch m ore
com plicated. But it's an ungodly im portant subject if you're going to have any worldly
wisdom .
And you can dem onstrate that point quite sim ply: There's not a person in this room
viewing the work of a very ordinary professional m agician who doesn't see a lot of
things happening that aren't happening and not see a lot of things happening that are
happening.
And the reason why is that the perceptual apparatus of m an has shortcuts in it. The
brain cannot have unlim ited circuitry. So som eone who knows how to take advantage
of those shortcuts and cause the brain to m iscalculate in certain ways can cause you to
see things that aren't there.
Now you get into the cognitive function as distinguished from the perceptual function.
And there, you are equally— m ore than equally in fact— likely to be m isled. Again, your
brain has a shortage of circuitry and so forth— and it's taking all kinds of little
autom atic shortcuts.
So when circum stances com bine in certain ways— or m ore com m only, your fellow m an
starts acting like the m agician and m anipulates you on purpose by causing your
cognitive dysfunction— you're a patsy.
And so just as a m an working with a tool has to know its lim itations, a m an working
with his cognitive apparatus has to know its lim itations. And this knowledge, by the
way, can be used to control and m otivate other people....
So the m ost useful and practical part of psychology— which I personally think can be
taught to any intelligent person in a week— is ungodly im portant. And nobody taught it
to m e by the way. I had to learn it later in life, one piece at a tim e. And it was fairly
laborious. It's so elem entary though that, when it was all over, I felt like a fool.
And yeah, I'd been educated at Cal Tech and the Harvard Law School and so forth. So
very em inent places m iseducated people like you and m e.
The elem entary part of psychology— the psychology of m isjudgm ent, as I call it— is a
terribly im portant thing to learn. There are about 20 little principles. And they interact,
so it gets slightly com plicated. But the guts of it is unbelievably im portant.
Terribly sm art people m ake totally bonkers m istakes by failing to pay heed to it. In
fact, I've done it several tim es during the last two or three years in a very im portant
way. You never get totally over m aking silly m istakes.
There's another saying that com es from Pascal which I've always considered one of
the really accurate observations in the history of thought. Pascal said in essence, "The
m ind of m an at one and the sam e tim e is both the glory and the sham e of the
universe."
And that's exactly right. It has this enorm ous power. However, it also has these
standard m isfunctions that often cause it to reach wrong conclusions. It also m akes
m an extraordinarily subject to m anipulation by others. For exam ple, roughly half of the
arm y of Adolf Hitler was com posed of believing Catholics. Given enough clever
psychological m anipulation, what hum an beings will do is quite interesting.
Personally, I've gotten so that I now use a kind of twotrack analysis. First, what are the factors that really govern the interests involved, rationally considered? And
second, what are the subconscious influences where the brain at a subconscious level
is autom atically doing these things— which by and large are useful, but which often
m isfunction.
One approach is rationality— the way you'd work out a bridge problem : by evaluating
the real interests, the real probabilities and so forth. And the other is to evaluate the
psychological factors that cause subconscious conclusions— m any of which are wrong.
Now we com e to another som ewhat less reliable form of hum an wisdom —
m icroeconom ics. And here, I find it quite useful to think of a free m arket econom y— or
partly free m arket econom y— as sort of the equivalent of an ecosystem ....
This is a very unfashionable way of thinking because early in the days after Darwin
cam e along, people like the robber barons assum ed that the doctrine of the survival of
the fittest authenticated them as deserving power— you know, "I'm the richest.
Therefore, I'm the best. God's in his heaven, etc."
And that reaction of the robber barons was so irritating to people that it m ade it
unfashionable to think of an econom y as an ecosystem . But the truth is that it is a lot
like an ecosystem . And you get m any of the sam e results.
Just as in an ecosystem , people who narrowly specialize can get terribly good at
occupying som e little niche. Just as anim als flourish in niches, sim ilarly, people who
specialize in the business world— and get very good because they specialize—
frequently find good econom ics that they wouldn't get any other way.
And once we get into m icroeconom ics, we get into the concept of advantages of scale.
Now we're getting closer to investm ent analysis— because in term s of which businesses
succeed and which businesses fail, advantages of scale are ungodly im portant.
For exam ple, one great advantage of scale taught in all of the business schools of the
world is cost reductions along the socalled experience curve. Just doing som ething
com plicated in m ore and m ore volum e enables hum an beings, who are trying to
im prove and are m otivated by the incentives of capitalism , to do it m ore and m ore
efficiently.
The very nature of things is that if you get a whole lot of volum e through your joint,
you get better at processing that volum e. That's an enorm ous advantage. And it has a
lot to do with which businesses succeed and fail....
Let's go through a list— albeit an incom plete one— of possible advantages of scale.
Som e com e from sim ple geom etry. If you're building a great spherical tank, obviously
as you build it bigger, the am ount of steel you use in the surface goes up with the
square and the cubic volum e goes up with the cube. So as you increase the
dim ensions, you can hold a lot m ore volum e per unit area of steel.
And there are all kinds of things like that where the sim ple geom etry— the sim ple
reality— gives you an advantage of scale.
For exam ple, you can get advantages of scale from TV advertising. W hen TV
advertising first arrived— when talking color pictures first cam e into our living room s— it
was an unbelievably powerful thing. And in the early days, we had three networks that
had whatever it was— say 90% of the audience.
W ell, if you were Procter & Gam ble, you could afford to use this new m ethod of
advertising. You could afford the very expensive cost of network television because
you were selling so m any cans and bottles. Som e little guy couldn't. And there was no
way of buying it in part. Therefore, he couldn't use it. In effect, if you didn't have a big
volum e, you couldn't use network TV advertising which was the m ost effective
technique. So when TV cam e in, the branded com panies that were already big got a huge tail
wind. Indeed, they prospered and prospered and prospered until som e of them got fat
and foolish, which happens with prosperity— at least to som e people....
And your advantage of scale can be an inform ational advantage. If I go to som e
rem ote place, I m ay see W rigley chewing gum alongside Glotz's chewing gum . W ell, I
know that W rigley is a satisfactory product, whereas I don't know anything about
Glotz's. So if one is 40 cents and the other is 30 cents, am I going to take som ething I
don't know and put it in m y m outh— which is a pretty personal place, after all— for a
lousy dim e?
So, in effect, W rigley , sim ply by being so well known, has advantages of scale— what
you m ight call an inform ational advantage.
Another advantage of scale com es from psychology. The psychologists use the term
social proof. W e are all influenced— subconsciously and to som e extent consciously— by
what we see others do and approve. Therefore, if everybody's buying som ething, we
think it's better. W e don't like to be the one guy who's out of step.
Again, som e of this is at a subconscious level and som e of it isn't. Som etim es, we
consciously and rationally think, "Gee, I don't know m uch about this. They know m ore
than I do. Therefore, why shouldn't I follow them ?"
The social proof phenom enon which com es right out of psychology gives huge
advantages to scale— for exam ple, with very wide distribution, which of course is hard
to get. One advantage of CocaCola is that it's available alm ost everywhere in the
world.
W ell, suppose you have a little soft drink. Exactly how do you m ake it available all
over the Earth? The worldwide distribution setup— which is slowly won by a big
enterprise— gets to be a huge advantage.... And if you think about it, once you get
enough advantages of that type, it can becom e very hard for anybody to dislodge you.
There's another kind of advantage to scale. In som e businesses, the very nature of
things is to sort of cascade toward the overwhelm ing dom inance of one firm .
The m ost obvious one is daily newspapers. There's practically no city left in the U.S.,
aside from a few very big ones, where there's m ore than one daily newspaper.
And again, that's a scale thing. Once I get m ost of the circulation, I get m ost of the
advertising. And once I get m ost of the advertising and circulation, why would anyone
want the thinner paper with less inform ation in it? So it tends to cascade to a
winnertakeall situation. And that's a separate form of the advantages of scale
phenom enon.
Sim ilarly, all these huge advantages of scale allow greater specialization within the
firm . Therefore, each person can be better at what he does.
And these advantages of scale are so great, for exam ple, that when Jack W elch cam e
into General Electric, he just said, "To hell with it. W e're either going to be # 1 or #2 in
every field we're in or we're going to be out. I don't care how m any people I have to
fire and what I have to sell. W e're going to be #1 or #2 or out."
That was a very toughm inded thing to do, but I think it was a very correct decision if
you're thinking about m axim izing shareholder wealth. And I don't think it's a bad thing
to do for a civilization either, because I think that General Electric is stronger for
having Jack W elch there.
And there are also disadvantages of scale. For exam ple, we— by which I m ean
Berkshire Hathaway— are the largest shareholder in Capital Cities/ABC. And we had
trade publications there that got m urdered where our com petitors beat us. And the way they beat us was by going to a narrower specialization.
W e'd have a travel m agazine for business travel. So som ebody would create one
which was addressed solely at corporate travel departm ents. Like an ecosystem ,
you're getting a narrower and narrower specialization.
W ell, they got m uch m ore efficient. They could tell m ore to the guys who ran corporate
travel departm ents. Plus, they didn't have to waste the ink and paper m ailing out stuff
that corporate travel departm ents weren't interested in reading. It was a m ore efficient
system . And they beat our brains out as we relied on our broader m agazine.
That's what happened to The Saturday Evening Post and all those things. They're gone.
W hat we have now is Motocross— which is read by a bunch of nuts who like to
participate in tournam ents where they turn som ersaults on their m otorcycles. But they
care about it. For them , it's the principal purpose of life. A m agazine called Motocross
is a total necessity to those people. And its profit m argins would m ake you salivate.
Just think of how narrowcast that kind of publishing is. So occasionally, scaling down
and intensifying gives you the big advantage. Bigger is not always better.
The great defect of scale, of course, which m akes the gam e interesting— so that the big
people don't always win— is that as you get big, you get the bureaucracy. And with the
bureaucracy com es the territoriality— which is again grounded in hum an nature.
And the incentives are perverse. For exam ple, if you worked for AT&T in m y day, it
was a great bureaucracy. W ho in the hell was really thinking about the shareholder or
anything else? And in a bureaucracy, you think the work is done when it goes out of
your inbasket into som ebody else's inbasket. But, of course, it isn't. It's not done
until AT&T delivers what it's supposed to deliver. So you get big, fat, dum b,
unm otivated bureaucracies.
They also tend to becom e som ewhat corrupt. In other words, if I've got a departm ent
and you've got a departm ent and we kind of share power running this thing, there's
sort of an unwritten rule: "If you won't bother m e, I won't bother you and we're both
happy." So you get layers of m anagem ent and associated costs that nobody needs.
Then, while people are justifying all these layers, it takes forever to get anything done.
They're too slow to m ake decisions and nim bler people run circles around them .
The constant curse of scale is that it leads to big, dum b bureaucracy— which, of course,
reaches its highest and worst form in governm ent where the incentives are really
awful. That doesn't m ean we don't need governm ents— because we do. But it's a
terrible problem to get big bureaucracies to behave.
So people go to stratagem s. They create little decentralized units and fancy m otivation
and training program s. For exam ple, for a big com pany, General Electric has fought
bureaucracy with am azing skill. But that's because they have a com bination of a
genius and a fanatic running it. And they put him in young enough so he gets a long
run. Of course, that's Jack W elch.
But bureaucracy is terrible.... And as things get very powerful and very big, you can
get som e really dysfunctional behavior. Look at W estinghouse. They blew billions of
dollars on a bunch of dum b loans to real estate developers. They put som e guy who'd
com e up by som e career path— I don't know exactly what it was, but it could have
been refrigerators or som ething— and all of a sudden, he's loaning m oney to real
estate developers building hotels. It's a very unequal contest. And in due tim e, they
lost all those billions of dollars.
CBS provides an interesting exam ple of another rule of psychology— nam ely, Pavlovian
association. If people tell you what you really don't want to hear what's unpleasant—
there's an alm ost autom atic reaction of antipathy. You have to train yourself out of it.
It isn't foredestined that you have to be this way. But you will tend to be this way if you don't think about it.
Television was dom inated by one network— CBS in its early days. And Paley was a
god. But he didn't like to hear what he didn't like to hear. And people soon learned
that. So they told Paley only what he liked to hear. Therefore, he was soon living in a
little cocoon of unreality and everything else was corrupt— although it was a great
business.
So the idiocy that crept into the system was carried along by this huge tide. It was a
Mad Hatter's tea party the last ten years under Bill Paley.
And that is not the only exam ple by any m eans. You can get severe m isfunction in the
high ranks of business. And of course, if you're investing, it can m ake a lot of
difference. If you take all the acquisitions that CBS m ade under Paley, after the
acquisition of the network itself, with all his advisors— his investm ent bankers,
m anagem ent consultants and so forth who were getting paid very handsom ely— it was
absolutely terrible.
For exam ple, he gave som ething like 20% of CBS to the Dum ont Com pany for a
television set m anufacturer which was destined to go broke. I think it lasted all of two
or three years or som ething like that. So very soon after he'd issued all of that stock,
Dum ont was history. You get a lot of dysfunction in a big fat, powerful place where no
one will bring unwelcom e reality to the boss.
So life is an everlasting battle between those two forces— to get these advantages of
scale on one side and a tendency to get a lot like the U.S. Agriculture Departm ent on
the other side— where they just sit around and so forth. I don't know exactly what they
do. However, I do know that they do very little useful work.
On the subject of advantages of econom ies of scale, I find chain stores quite
interesting. Just think about it. The concept of a chain store was a fascinating
invention. You get this huge purchasing power— which m eans that you have lower
m erchandise costs. You get a whole bunch of little laboratories out there in which you
can conduct experim ents. And you get specialization.
If one little guy is trying to buy across 27 different m erchandise categories influenced
by traveling salesm en, he's going to m ake a lot of poor decisions. But if your buying is
done in headquarters for a huge bunch of stores, you can get very bright people that
know a lot about refrigerators and so forth to do the buying.
The reverse is dem onstrated by the little store where one guy is doing all the buying.
It's like the old story about the little store with salt all over its walls. And a stranger
com es in and says to the storeowner, "You m ust sell a lot of salt." And he replies, "No,
I don't. But you should see the guy who sells m e salt."
So there are huge purchasing advantages. And then there are the slick system s of
forcing everyone to do what works. So a chain store can be a fantastic enterprise.
It's quite interesting to think about W alMart starting from a single store in Bentonville,
Arkansas against Sears, Roebuck with its nam e, reputation and all of its billions. How
does a guy in Bentonville, Arkansas with no m oney blow right by Sears, Roebuck? And
he does it in his own lifetim e— in fact, during his own late lifetim e because he was
already pretty old by the tim e he started out with one little store....
He played the chain store gam e harder and better than anyone else. W alton invented
practically nothing. But he copied everything anybody else ever did that was sm art—
and he did it with m ore fanaticism and better em ployee m anipulation. So he just blew
right by them all.
He also had a very interesting com petitive strategy in the early days. He was like a
prizefighter who wanted a great record so he could be in the finals and m ake a big TV hit. So what did he do? He went out and fought 42 palookas. Right? And the result was
knockout, knockout, knockout— 42 tim es.
W alton, being as shrewd as he was, basically broke other sm all town m erchants in the
early days. W ith his m ore efficient system , he m ight not have been able to tackle
som e titan headon at the tim e. But with his better system , he could destroy those
sm all town m erchants. And he went around doing it tim e after tim e after tim e. Then, as
he got bigger, he started destroying the big boys.
W ell, that was a very, very shrewd strategy.
You can say, "Is this a nice way to behave?" W ell, capitalism is a pretty brutal place.
But I personally think that the world is better for having W alMart. I m ean you can
idealize sm all town life. But I've spent a fair am ount of tim e in sm all towns. And let m e
tell you you shouldn't get too idealistic about all those businesses he destroyed.
Plus, a lot of people who work at W alMart are very high grade, bouncy people who
are raising nice children. I have no feeling that an inferior culture destroyed a superior
culture. I think that is nothing m ore than nostalgia and delusion. But, at any rate, it's
an interesting m odel of how the scale of things and fanaticism com bine to be very
powerful.
And it's also an interesting m odel on the other side— how with all its great advantages,
the disadvantages of bureaucracy did such terrible dam age to Sears, Roebuck. Sears
had layers and layers of people it didn't need. It was very bureaucratic. It was slow to
think. And there was an established way of thinking. If you poked your head up with a
new thought, the system kind of turned against you. It was everything in the way of a
dysfunctional big bureaucracy that you would expect.
In all fairness, there was also m uch that was good about it. But it just wasn't as lean
and m ean and shrewd and effective as Sam W alton. And, in due tim e, all its
advantages of scale were not enough to prevent Sears from losing heavily to W alMart
and other sim ilar retailers.
Here's a m odel that we've had trouble with. Maybe you'll be able to figure it out better.
Many m arkets get down to two or three big com petitors— or five or six. And in som e of
those m arkets, nobody m akes any m oney to speak of. But in others, everybody does
very well.
Over the years, we've tried to figure out why the com petition in som e m arkets gets
sort of rational from the investor's point of view so that the shareholders do well, and
in other m arkets, there's destructive com petition that destroys shareholder wealth.
If it's a pure com m odity like airline seats, you can understand why no one m akes any
m oney. As we sit here, just think of what airlines have given to the world— safe travel,
greater experience, tim e with your loved ones, you nam e it. Yet, the net am ount of
m oney that's been m ade by the shareholders of airlines since Kitty Hawk, is now a
negative figure— a substantial negative figure. Com petition was so intense that, once it
was unleashed by deregulation, it ravaged shareholder wealth in the airline business.
Yet, in other fields— like cereals, for exam ple— alm ost all the big boys m ake out. If
you're som e kind of a m edium grade cereal m aker, you m ight m ake 15% on your
capital. And if you're really good, you m ight m ake 40% . But why are cereals so
profitable— despite the fact that it looks to m e like they're com peting like crazy with
prom otions, coupons and everything else? I don't fully understand it.
Obviously, there's a brand identity factor in cereals that doesn't exist in airlines. That
m ust be the m ain factor that accounts for it.
And m aybe the cereal m akers by and large have learned to be less crazy about
fighting for m arket share— because if you get even one person who's hellbent on gaining m arket share.... For exam ple, if I were Kellogg and I decided that I had to
have 60% of the m arket, I think I could take m ost of the profit out of cereals. I'd ruin
Kellogg in the process. But I think I could do it.
In som e businesses, the participants behave like a dem ented Kellogg. In other
businesses, they don't. Unfortunately, I do not have a perfect m odel for predicting how
that's going to happen.
For exam ple, if you look around at bottler m arkets, you'll find m any m arkets where
bottlers of Pepsi and Coke both m ake a lot of m oney and m any others where they
destroy m ost of the profitability of the two franchises. That m ust get down to the
peculiarities of individual adjustm ent to m arket capitalism . I think you'd have to know
the people involved to fully understand what was happening.
In m icroeconom ics, of course, you've got the concept of patents, tradem arks,
exclusive franchises and so forth. Patents are quite interesting. W hen I was young, I
think m ore m oney went into patents than cam e out. Judges tended to throw them out—
based on argum ents about what was really invented and what relied on prior art. That
isn't altogether clear.
But they changed that. They didn't change the laws. They just changed the
adm inistration— so that it all goes to one patent court. And that court is now very m uch
m ore propatent. So I think people are now starting to m ake a lot of m oney out of
owning patents.
Tradem arks, of course, have always m ade people a lot of m oney. A tradem ark system
is a wonderful thing for a big operation if it's well known.
The exclusive franchise can also be wonderful. If there were only three television
channels awarded in a big city and you owned one of them , there were only so m any
hours a day that you could be on. So you had a natural position in an oligopoly in the
precable days.
And if you get the franchise for the only food stand in an airport, you have a captive
clientele and you have a sm all m onopoly of a sort.
The great lesson in m icroeconom ics is to discrim inate between when technology is
going to help you and when it's going to kill you. And m ost people do not get this
straight in their heads. But a fellow like Buffett does.
For exam ple, when we were in the textile business, which is a terrible com m odity
business, we were m aking lowend textiles— which are a real com m odity product. And
one day, the people cam e to W arren and said, "They've invented a new loom that we
think will do twice as m uch work as our old ones."
And W arren said, "Gee, I hope this doesn't work because if it does, I'm going to close
the m ill." And he m eant it.
W hat was he thinking? He was thinking, "It's a lousy business. W e're earning
substandard returns and keeping it open just to be nice to the elderly workers. But
we're not going to put huge am ounts of new capital into a lousy business."
And he knew that the huge productivity increases that would com e from a better
m achine introduced into the production of a com m odity product would all go to the
benefit of the buyers of the textiles. Nothing was going to stick to our ribs as owners.
That's such an obvious concept— that there are all kinds of wonderful new inventions
that give you nothing as owners except the opportunity to spend a lot m ore m oney in a
business that's still going to be lousy. The m oney still won't com e to you. All of the
advantages from great im provem ents are going to flow through to the custom ers. Conversely, if you own the only newspaper in Oshkosh and they were to invent m ore
efficient ways of com posing the whole newspaper, then when you got rid of the old
technology and got new fancy com puters and so forth, all of the savings would com e
right through to the bottom line.
In all cases, the people who sell the m achinery— and, by and large, even the internal
bureaucrats urging you to buy the equipm ent— show you projections with the am ount
you'll save at current prices with the new technology. However, they don't do the
second step of the analysis which is to determ ine how m uch is going stay hom e and
how m uch is just going to flow through to the custom er. I've never seen a single
projection incorporating that second step in m y life. And I see them all the tim e.
Rather, they always read: "This capital outlay will save you so m uch m oney that it will
pay for itself in three years."
So you keep buying things that will pay for them selves in three years. And after 20
years of doing it, som ehow you've earned a return of only about 4% per annum .
That's the textile business.
And it isn't that the m achines weren't better. It's just that the savings didn't go to you.
The cost reductions cam e through all right. But the benefit of the cost reductions didn't
go to the guy who bought the equipm ent. It's such a sim ple idea. It's so basic. And yet
it's so often forgotten.
Then there's another m odel from m icroeconom ics which I find very interesting. W hen
technology m oves as fast as it does in a civilization like ours, you get a phenom enon
which I call com petitive destruction. You know, you have the finest buggy whip factory
and all of a sudden in com es this little horseless carriage. And before too m any years
go by, your buggy whip business is dead. You either get into a different business or
you're dead— you're destroyed. It happens again and again and again.
And when these new businesses com e in, there are huge advantages for the early
birds. And when you're an early bird, there's a m odel that I call "surfing"— when a
surfer gets up and catches the wave and just stays there, he can go a long, long tim e.
But if he gets off the wave, he becom es m ired in shallows....
But people get long runs when they're right on the edge of the wave— whether it's
Microsoft or Intel or all kinds of people, including National Cash Register in the early
days.
The cash register was one of the great contributions to civilization. It's a wonderful
story. Patterson was a sm all retail m erchant who didn't m ake any m oney. One day,
som ebody sold him a crude cash register which he put into his retail operation. And it
instantly changed from losing m oney to earning a profit because it m ade it so m uch
harder for the em ployees to steal....
But Patterson, having the kind of m ind that he did, didn't think, "Oh, good for m y retail
business." He thought, "I'm going into the cash register business." And, of course, he
created National Cash Register.
And he "surfed". He got the best distribution system , the biggest collection of patents
and the best of everything. He was a fanatic about everything im portant as the
technology developed. I have in m y files an early National Cash Register Com pany
report in which Patterson described his m ethods and objectives. And a welleducated
orangutan could see that buying into partnership with Patterson in those early days,
given his notions about the cash register business, was a total 100% cinch.
And, of course, that's exactly what an investor should be looking for. In a long life, you
can expect to profit heavily from at least a few of those opportunities if you develop
the wisdom and will to seize them . At any rate, "surfing" is a very powerful m odel.
However, Berkshire Hathaway , by and large, does not invest in these people that are "surfing" on com plicated technology. After all, we're cranky and idiosyncratic— as you
m ay have noticed.
And W arren and I don't feel like we have any great advantage in the hightech sector.
In fact, we feel like we're at a big disadvantage in trying to understand the nature of
technical developm ents in software, com puter chips or what have you. So we tend to
avoid that stuff, based on our personal inadequacies.
Again, that is a very, very powerful idea. Every person is going to have a circle of
com petence. And it's going to be very hard to advance that circle. If I had to m ake m y
living as a m usician.... I can't even think of a level low enough to describe where I
would be sorted out to if m usic were the m easuring standard of the civilization.
So you have to figure out what your own aptitudes are. If you play gam es where other
people have the aptitudes and you don't, you're going to lose. And that's as close to
certain as any prediction that you can m ake. You have to figure out where you've got
an edge. And you've got to play within your own circle of com petence.
If you want to be the best tennis player in the world, you m ay start out trying and soon
find out that it's hopeless— that other people blow right by you. However, if you want to
becom e the best plum bing contractor in Bem idji, that is probably doable by twothirds
of you. It takes a will. It takes the intelligence. But after a while, you'd gradually know
all about the plum bing business in Bem idji and m aster the art. That is an attainable
objective, given enough discipline. And people who could never win a chess
tournam ent or stand in center court in a respectable tennis tournam ent can rise quite
high in life by slowly developing a circle of com petence— which results partly from what
they were born with and partly from what they slowly develop through work.
So som e edges can be acquired. And the gam e of life to som e extent for m ost of us is
trying to be som ething like a good plum bing contractor in Bem idji. Very few of us are
chosen to win the world's chess tournam ents.
Som e of you m ay find opportunities "surfing" along in the new hightech fields— the
Intels, the Microsofts and so on. The fact that we don't think we're very good at it and
have pretty well stayed out of it doesn't m ean that it's irrational for you to do it.
W ell, so m uch for the basic m icroeconom ics m odels, a little bit of psychology, a little
bit of m athem atics, helping create what I call the general substructure of worldly
wisdom . Now, if you want to go on from carrots to dessert, I'll turn to stock picking—
trying to draw on this general worldly wisdom as we go.
I don't want to get into em erging m arkets, bond arbitrage and so forth. I'm talking
about nothing but plain vanilla stock picking. That, believe m e, is com plicated enough.
And I'm talking about com m on stock picking.
The first question is, "W hat is the nature of the stock m arket?" And that gets you
directly to this efficient m arket theory that got to be the rage— a total rage— long after
I graduated from law school.
And it's rather interesting because one of the greatest econom ists of the world is a
substantial shareholder in Berkshire Hathaway and has been for a long tim e. His
textbook always taught that the stock m arket was perfectly efficient and that nobody
could beat it. But his own m oney went into Berkshire and m ade him wealthy. So, like
Pascal in his fam ous wager, he hedged his bet.
Is the stock m arket so efficient that people can't beat it? W ell, the efficient m arket
theory is obviously roughly right— m eaning that m arkets are quite efficient and it's
quite hard for anybody to beat the m arket by significant m argins as a stock picker by
just being intelligent and working in a disciplined way.
Indeed, the average result has to be the average result. By definition, everybody can't beat the m arket. As I always say, the iron rule of life is that only 20% of the people
can be in the top fifth. That's just the way it is. So the answer is that it's partly efficient
and partly inefficient.
And, by the way, I have a nam e for people who went to the extrem e efficient m arket
theory— which is "bonkers". It was an intellectually consistent theory that enabled them
to do pretty m athem atics. So I understand its seductiveness to people with large
m athem atical gifts. It just had a difficulty in that the fundam ental assum ption did not
tie properly to reality.
Again, to the m an with a ham m er, every problem looks like a nail. If you're good at
m anipulating higher m athem atics in a consistent way, why not m ake an assum ption
which enables you to use your tool?
The m odel I like— to sort of sim plify the notion of what goes on in a m arket for
com m on stocks— is the parim utuel system at the racetrack. If you stop to think about
it, a parim utuel system is a m arket. Everybody goes there and bets and the odds
change based on what's bet. That's what happens in the stock m arket.
Any dam n fool can see that a horse carrying a light weight with a wonderful win rate
and a good post position etc., etc. is way m ore likely to win than a horse with a terrible
record and extra weight and so on and so on. But if you look at the odds, the bad
horse pays 100 to 1, whereas the good horse pays 3 to 2. Then it's not clear which is
statistically the best bet using the m athem atics of Ferm at and Pascal. The prices have
changed in such a way that it's very hard to beat the system .
And then the track is taking 17% off the top. So not only do you have to outwit all the
other betters, but you've got to outwit them by such a big m argin that on average, you
can afford to take 17% of your gross bets off the top and give it to the house before
the rest of your m oney can be put to work.
Given those m athem atics, is it possible to beat the horses only using one's
intelligence? Intelligence should give som e edge, because lots of people who don't
know anything go out and bet lucky num bers and so forth. Therefore, som ebody who
really thinks about nothing but horse perform ance and is shrewd and m athem atical
could have a very considerable edge, in the absence of the frictional cost caused by
the house take.
Unfortunately, what a shrewd horseplayer's edge does in m ost cases is to reduce his
average loss over a season of betting from the 17% that he would lose if he got the
average result to m aybe 10% . However, there are actually a few people who can beat
the gam e after paying the full 17% .
I used to play poker when I was young with a guy who m ade a substantial living doing
nothing but bet harness races.... Now, harness racing is a relatively inefficient m arket.
You don't have the depth of intelligence betting on harness races that you do on
regular races. W hat m y poker pal would do was to think about harness races as his
m ain profession. And he would bet only occasionally when he saw som e m ispriced bet
available. And by doing that, after paying the full handle to the house— which I
presum e was around 17% — he m ade a substantial living.
You have to say that's rare. However, the m arket was not perfectly efficient. And if it
weren't for that big 17% handle, lots of people would regularly be beating lots of other
people at the horse races. It's efficient, yes. But it's not perfectly efficient. And with
enough shrewdness and fanaticism , som e people will get better results than others.
The stock m arket is the sam e way— except that the house handle is so m uch lower. If
you take transaction costs— the spread between the bid and the ask plus the
com m issions— and if you don't trade too actively, you're talking about fairly low
transaction costs. So that with enough fanaticism and enough discipline, som e of the
shrewd people are going to get way better results than average in the nature of things. It is not a bit easy. And, of course, 50% will end up in the bottom half and 70% will
end up in the bottom 70% . But som e people will have an advantage. And in a fairly low
transaction cost operation, they will get better than average results in stock picking.
How do you get to be one of those who is a winner— in a relative sense— instead of a
loser?
Here again, look at the parim utuel system . I had dinner last night by absolute
accident with the president of Santa Anita. He says that there are two or three betters
who have a credit arrangem ent with them , now that they have offtrack betting, who
are actually beating the house. They're sending m oney out net after the full handle— a
lot of it to Las Vegas, by the way— to people who are actually winning slightly, net,
after paying the full handle. They're that shrewd about som ething with as m uch
unpredictability as horse racing.
And the one thing that all those winning betters in the whole history of people who've
beaten the parim utuel system have is quite sim ple. They bet very seldom .
It's not given to hum an beings to have such talent that they can just know everything
about everything all the tim e. But it is given to hum an beings who work hard at it— who
look and sift the world for a m ispriced be— that they can occasionally find one.
And the wise ones bet heavily when the world offers them that opportunity. They bet
big when they have the odds. And the rest of the tim e, they don't. It's just that sim ple.
That is a very sim ple concept. And to m e it's obviously right— based on experience not
only from the parim utuel system , but everywhere else.
And yet, in investm ent m anagem ent, practically nobody operates that way. W e
operate that way— I'm talking about Buffett and Munger. And we're not alone in the
world. But a huge m ajority of people have som e other crazy construct in their heads.
And instead of waiting for a near cinch and loading up, they apparently ascribe to the
theory that if they work a little harder or hire m ore business school students, they'll
com e to know everything about everything all the tim e.
To m e, that's totally insane. The way to win is to work, work, work, work and hope to
have a few insights.
How m any insights do you need? W ell, I'd argue: that you don't need m any in a
lifetim e. If you look at Berkshire Hathaway and all of its accum ulated billions, the top
ten insights account for m ost of it. And that's with a very brilliant m an— W arren's a lot
m ore able than I am and very disciplined— devoting his lifetim e to it. I don't m ean to
say that he's only had ten insights. I'm just saying, that m ost of the m oney cam e from
ten insights.
So you can get very rem arkable investm ent results if you think m ore like a winning
parim utuel player. Just think of it as a heavy odds against gam e full of craziness with
an occasional m ispriced som ething or other. And you're probably not going to be sm art
enough to find thousands in a lifetim e. And when you get a few, you really load up. It's
just that sim ple.
W hen W arren lectures at business schools, he says, "I could im prove your ultim ate
financial welfare by giving you a ticket with only 20 slots in it so that you had 20
punches— representing all the investm ents that you got to m ake in a lifetim e. And once
you'd punched through the card, you couldn't m ake any m ore investm ents at all."
He says, "Under those rules, you'd really think carefully about what you did and you'd
be forced to load up on what you'd really thought about. So you'd do so m uch better."
Again, this is a concept that seem s perfectly obvious to m e. And to W arren it seem s
perfectly obvious. But this is one of the very few business classes in the U.S. where anybody will be saying so. It just isn't the conventional wisdom .
To m e, it's obvious that the winner has to bet very selectively. It's been obvious to m e
since very early in life. I don't know why it's not obvious to very m any other people.
I think the reason why we got into such idiocy in investm ent m anagem ent is best
illustrated by a story that I tell about the guy who sold fishing tackle. I asked him , "My
God, they're purple and green. Do fish really take these lures?" And he said, "Mister, I
don't sell to fish."
Investm ent m anagers are in the position of that fishing tackle salesm an. They're like
the guy who was selling salt to the guy who already had too m uch salt. And as long as
the guy will buy salt, why they'll sell salt. But that isn't what ordinarily works for the
buyer of investm ent advice.
If you invested Berkshire Hathawaystyle, it would be hard to get paid as an
investm ent m anager as well as they're currently paid— because you'd be holding a
block of W alMart and a block of CocaCola and a block of som ething else. You'd just
sit there. And the client would be getting rich. And, after a while, the client would think,
"W hy am I paying this guy half a percent a year on m y wonderful passive holdings?"
So what m akes sense for the investor is different from what m akes sense for the
m anager. And, as usual in hum an affairs, what determ ines the behavior are incentives
for the decision m aker.
From all business, m y favorite case on incentives is Federal Express. The heart and
soul of their system — which creates the integrity of the product— is having all their
airplanes com e to one place in the m iddle of the night and shift all the packages from
plane to plane. If there are delays, the whole operation can't deliver a product full of
integrity to Federal Express custom ers.
And it was always screwed up. They could never get it done on tim e. They tried
everything— m oral suasion, threats, you nam e it. And nothing worked.
Finally, som ebody got the idea to pay all these people not so m uch an hour, but so
m uch a shift— and when it's all done, they can all go hom e. W ell, their problem s
cleared up overnight.
So getting the incentives right is a very, very im portant lesson. It was not obvious to
Federal Express what the solution was. But m aybe now, it will hereafter m ore often be
obvious to you.
All right, we've now recognized that the m arket is efficient as a parim utuel system is
efficient with the favorite m ore likely than the long shot to do well in racing, but not
necessarily give any betting advantage to those that bet on the favorite.
In the stock m arket, som e railroad that's beset by better com petitors and tough unions
m ay be available at onethird of its book value. In contrast, IBM in its heyday m ight be
selling at 6 tim es book value. So it's just like the parim utuel system . Any dam n fool
could plainly see that IBM had better business prospects than the railroad. But once
you put the price into the form ula, it wasn't so clear anym ore what was going to work
best for a buyer choosing between the stocks. So it's a lot like a parim utuel system .
And, therefore, it gets very hard to beat.
W hat style should the investor use as a picker of com m on stocks in order to try to beat
the m arket— in other words, to get an above average longterm result? A standard
technique that appeals to a lot of people is called "sector rotation". You sim ply figure
out when oils are going to outperform retailers, etc., etc., etc. You just kind of flit
around being in the hot sector of the m arket m aking better choices than other people.
And presum ably, over a long period of tim e, you get ahead. However, I know of no really rich sector rotator. Maybe som e people can do it. I'm not
saying they can't. All I know is that all the people I know who got rich— and I know a
lot of them — did not do it that way.
The second basic approach is the one that Ben Graham used— m uch adm ired by
W arren and m e. As one factor, Graham had this concept of value to a private owner—
what the whole enterprise would sell for if it were available. And that was calculable in
m any cases.
Then, if you could take the stock price and m ultiply it by the num ber of shares and get
som ething that was one third or less of sellout value, he would say that you've got a
lot of edge going for you. Even with an elderly alcoholic running a stodgy business, this
significant excess of real value per share working for you m eans that all kinds of good
things can happen to you. You had a huge m argin of safety— as he put it— by having
this big excess value going for you.
But he was, by and large, operating when the world was in shell shock from the 1930s
— which was the worst contraction in the Englishspeaking world in about 600 years.
W heat in Liverpool, I believe, got down to som ething like a 600year low, adjusted for
inflation. People were so shellshocked for a long tim e thereafter that Ben Graham
could run his Geiger counter over this detritus from the collapse of the 1930s and find
things selling below their working capital per share and so on.
And in those days, working capital actually belonged to the shareholders. If the
em ployees were no longer useful, you just sacked them all, took the working capital
and stuck it in the owners' pockets. That was the way capitalism then worked.
Nowadays, of course, the accounting is not realistic because the m inute the business
starts contracting, significant assets are not there. Under social norm s and the new
legal rules of the civilization, so m uch is owed to the em ployees that, the m inute the
enterprise goes into reverse, som e of the assets on the balance sheet aren't there
anym ore.
Now, that m ight not be true if you run a little auto dealership yourself. You m ay be
able to run it in such a way that there's no health plan and this and that so that if the
business gets lousy, you can take your working capital and go hom e. But IBM can't, or
at least didn't. Just look at what disappeared from its balance sheet when it decided
that it had to change size both because the world had changed technologically and
because its m arket position had deteriorated.
And in term s of blowing it, IBM is som e exam ple. Those were brilliant, disciplined
people. But there was enough turm oil in technological change that IBM got bounced off
the wave after "surfing" successfully for 60 years. And that was som e collapse— an
object lesson in the difficulties of technology and one of the reasons why Buffett and
Munger don't like technology very m uch. W e don't think we're any good at it, and
strange things can happen.
At any rate, the trouble with what I call the classic Ben Graham concept is that
gradually the world wised up and those real obvious bargains disappeared. You could
run your Geiger counter over the rubble and it wouldn't click.
But such is the nature of people who have a ham m er— to whom , as I m entioned, every
problem looks like a nail that the Ben Graham followers responded by changing the
calibration on their Geiger counters. In effect, they started defining a bargain in a
different way. And they kept changing the definition so that they could keep doing what
they'd always done. And it still worked pretty well. So the Ben Graham intellectual
system was a very good one.
Of course, the best part of it all was his concept of "Mr. Market". Instead of thinking the
m arket was efficient, he treated it as a m anicdepressive who com es by every day.
And som e days he says, "I'll sell you som e of m y interest for way less than you think it's worth." And other days, "Mr. Market" com es by and says, "I'll buy your interest at a
price that's way higher than you think it's worth." And you get the option of deciding
whether you want to buy m ore, sell part of what you already have or do nothing at all.
To Graham , it was a blessing to be in business with a m anicdepressive who gave you
this series of options all the tim e. That was a very significant m ental construct. And it's
been very useful to Buffett, for instance, over his whole adult lifetim e.
However, if we'd stayed with classic Graham the way Ben Graham did it, we would
never have had the record we have. And that's because Graham wasn't trying to do
what we did.
For exam ple, Graham didn't want to ever talk to m anagem ent. And his reason was
that, like the best sort of professor aim ing his teaching at a m ass audience, he was
trying to invent a system that anybody could use. And he didn't feel that the m an in
the street could run around and talk to m anagem ents and learn things. He also had a
concept that the m anagem ent would often couch the inform ation very shrewdly to
m islead. Therefore, it was very difficult. And that is still true, of course— hum an nature
being what it is.
And so having started out as Graham ites which, by the way, worked fine— we gradually
got what I would call better insights. And we realized that som e com pany that was
selling at 2 or 3 tim es book value could still be a hell of a bargain because of
m om entum s im plicit in its position, som etim es com bined with an unusual m anagerial
skill plainly present in som e individual or other, or som e system or other.
And once we'd gotten over the hurdle of recognizing that a thing could be a bargain
based on quantitative m easures that would have horrified Graham , we started thinking
about better businesses.
And, by the way, the bulk of the billions in Berkshire Hathaway have com e from the
better businesses. Much of the first $200 or $300 m illion cam e from scram bling around
with our Geiger counter. But the great bulk of the m oney has com e from the great
businesses.
And even som e of the early m oney was m ade by being tem porarily present in great
businesses. Buffett Partnership, for exam ple, owned Am erican Express and Disney
when they got pounded down.
Most investm ent m anagers are in a gam e where the clients expect them to know a lot
about a lot of things. W e didn't have any clients who could fire us at Berkshire
Hathaway. So we didn't have to be governed by any such construct. And we cam e to
this notion of finding a m ispriced bet and loading up when we were very confident that
we were right. So we're way less diversified. And I think our system is m iles better.
However, in all fairness, I don't think a lot of m oney m anagers could successfully sell
their services if they used our system . But if you're investing for 40 years in som e
pension fund, what difference does it m ake if the path from start to finish is a little
m ore bum py or a little different than everybody else's so long as it's all going to work
out well in the end? So what if there's a little extra volatility.
In investm ent m anagem ent today, everybody wants not only to win, but to have a
yearly outcom e path that never diverges very m uch from a standard path except on
the upside. W ell, that is a very artificial, crazy construct. That's the equivalent in
investm ent m anagem ent to the custom of binding the feet of Chinese wom en. It's the
equivalent of what Nietzsche m eant when he criticized the m an who had a lam e leg
and was proud of it.
That is really hobbling yourself. Now, investm ent m anagers would say, "W e have to be
that way. That's how we're m easured." And they m ay be right in term s of the way the
business is now constructed. But from the viewpoint of a rational consum er, the whole system 's "bonkers" and draws a lot of talented people into socially useless activity.
And the Berkshire system is not "bonkers". It's so dam ned elem entary that even bright
people are going to have lim ited, really valuable insights in a very com petitive world
when they're fighting against other very bright, hardworking people.
And it m akes sense to load up on the very few good insights you have instead of
pretending to know everything about everything at all tim es. You're m uch m ore likely
to do well if you start out to do som ething feasible instead of som ething that isn't
feasible. Isn't that perfectly obvious?
How m any of you have 56 brilliant ideas in which you have equal confidence? Raise
your hands, please. How m any of you have two or three insights that you have som e
confidence in? I rest m y case.
I'd say that Berkshire Hathaway's system is adapting to the nature of the investm ent
problem as it really is.
W e've really m ade the m oney out of high quality businesses. In som e cases, we
bought the whole business. And in som e cases, we just bought a big block of stock. But
when you analyze what happened, the big m oney's been m ade in the high quality
businesses. And m ost of the other people who've m ade a lot of m oney have done so in
high quality businesses.
Over the long term , it's hard for a stock to earn a m uch better return than the business
which underlies it earns. If the business earns 6% on capital over 40 years and you
hold it for that 40 years, you're not going to m ake m uch different than a 6% return—
even if you originally buy it at a huge discount. Conversely, if a business earns 18% on
capital over 20 or 30 years, even if you pay an expensive looking price, you'll end up
with a fine result.
So the trick is getting into better businesses. And that involves all of these advantages
of scale that you could consider m om entum effects.
How do you get into these great com panies? One m ethod is what I'd call the m ethod of
finding them sm all get 'em when they're little. For exam ple, buy W alMart when Sam
W alton first goes public and so forth. And a lot of people try to do just that. And it's a
very beguiling idea. If I were a young m an, I m ight actually go into it.
But it doesn't work for Berkshire Hathaway anym ore because we've got too m uch
m oney. W e can't find anything that fits our size param eter that way. Besides, we're set
in our ways. But I regard finding them sm all as a perfectly intelligent approach for
som ebody to try with discipline. It's just not som ething that I've done.
Finding 'em big obviously is very hard because of the com petition. So far, Berkshire's
m anaged to do it. But can we continue to do it? W hat's the next CocaCola investm ent
for us? W ell, the answer to that is I don't know. I think it gets harder for us all the
tim e....
And ideally and we've done a lot of this— you get into a great business which also has a
great m anager because m anagem ent m atters. For exam ple, it's m ade a great
difference to General Electric that Jack W elch cam e in instead of the guy who took
over W estinghouse— a very great difference. So m anagem ent m atters, too.
And som e of it is predictable. I do not think it takes a genius to understand that Jack
W elch was a m ore insightful person and a better m anager than his peers in other
com panies. Nor do I think it took trem endous genius to understand that Disney had
basic m om entum s in place which are very powerful and that Eisner and W ells were
very unusual m anagers.
So you do get an occasional opportunity to get into a wonderful business that's being run by a wonderful m anager. And, of course, that's hog heaven day. If you don't load
up when you get those opportunities, it's a big m istake.
Occasionally, you'll find a hum an being who's so talented that he can do things that
ordinary skilled m ortals can't. I would argue that Sim on Marks— who was second
generation in Marks & Spencer of England— was such a m an. Patterson was such a
m an at National Cash Register. And Sam W alton was such a m an.
These people do com e along— and in m any cases, they're not all that hard to identify.
If they've got a reasonable hand— with the fanaticism and intelligence and so on that
these people generally bring to the party— then m anagem ent can m atter m uch.
However, averaged out, betting on the quality of a business is better than betting on
the quality of m anagem ent. In other words, if you have to choose one, bet on the
business m om entum , not the brilliance of the m anager.
But, very rarely, you find a m anager who's so good that you're wise to follow him into
what looks like a m ediocre business.
Another very sim ple effect I very seldom see discussed either by investm ent
m anagers or anybody else is the effect of taxes. If you're going to buy som ething
which com pounds for 30 years at 15% per annum and you pay one 35% tax at the
very end, the way that works out is that after taxes, you keep 13.3% per annum .
In contrast, if you bought the sam e investm ent, but had to pay taxes every year of
35% out of the 15% that you earned, then your return would be 15% m inus 35% of
15% — or only 9.75% per year com pounded. So the difference there is over 3.5% . And
what 3.5% does to the num bers over long holding periods like 30 years is truly eye
opening. If you sit back for long, long stretches in great com panies, you can get a
huge edge from nothing but the way that incom e taxes work.
Even with a 10% per annum investm ent, paying a 35% tax at the end gives you 8.3%
after taxes as an annual com pounded result after 30 years. In contrast, if you pay the
35% each year instead of at the end, your annual result goes down to 6.5% . So you
add nearly 2% of aftertax return per annum if you only achieve an average return by
historical standards from com m on stock investm ents in com panies with tiny dividend
payout ratios.
But in term s of business m istakes that I've seen over a long lifetim e, I would say that
trying to m inim ize taxes too m uch is one of the great standard causes of really dum b
m istakes. I see terrible m istakes from people being overly m otivated by tax
considerations.
W arren and I personally don't drill oil wells. W e pay our taxes. And we've done pretty
well, so far. Anytim e som ebody offers you a tax shelter from here on in life, m y advice
would be don't buy it.
In fact, any tim e anybody offers you anything with a big com m ission and a 200page
prospectus, don't buy it. Occasionally, you'll be wrong if you adopt "Munger's Rule".
However, over a lifetim e, you'll be a long way ahead— and you will m iss a lot of
unhappy experiences that m ight otherwise reduce your love for your fellow m an.
There are huge advantages for an individual to get into a position where you m ake a
few great investm ents and just sit back and wait: You're paying less to brokers. You're
listening to less nonsense. And if it works, the governm ental tax system gives you an
extra 1, 2 or 3 percentage points per annum com pounded.
And you think that m ost of you are going to get that m uch advantage by hiring
investm ent counselors and paying them 1% to run around, incurring a lot of taxes on
your behalf'? Lots of luck. Are there any dangers in this philosophy? Yes. Everything in life has dangers. Since it's
so obvious that investing in great com panies works, it gets horribly overdone from
tim e to tim e. In the "NiftyFifty" days, everybody could tell which com panies were the
great ones. So they got up to 50, 60 and 70 tim es earnings. And just as IBM fell off the
wave, other com panies did, too. Thus, a large investm ent disaster resulted from too
high prices. And you've got to be aware of that danger....
So there are risks. Nothing is autom atic and easy. But if you can find som e fairly
priced great com pany and buy it and sit, that tends to work out very, very well indeed
— especially for an individual,
W ithin the growth stock m odel, there's a subposition: There are actually businesses,
that you will find a few tim es in a lifetim e, where any m anager could raise the return
enorm ously just by raising prices— and yet they haven't done it. So they have huge
untapped pricing power that they're not using. That is the ultim ate nobrainer.
That existed in Disney. It's such a unique experience to take your grandchild to
Disneyland. You're not doing it that often. And there are lots of people in the country.
And Disney found that it could raise those prices a lot and the attendance stayed right
up.
So a lot of the great record of Eisner and W ells was utter brilliance but the rest cam e
from just raising prices at Disneyland and Disneyworld and through video cassette
sales of classic anim ated m ovies.
At Berkshire Hathaway, W arren and I raised the prices of See's Candy a little faster
than others m ight have. And, of course, we invested in CocaCola— which had som e
untapped pricing power. And it also had brilliant m anagem ent. So a Goizueta and
Keough could do m uch m ore than raise prices. It was perfect.
You will get a few opportunities to profit from finding underpricing. There are actually
people out there who don't price everything as high as the m arket will easily stand.
And once you figure that out, it's like finding in the street— if you have the courage of
your convictions.
If you look at Berkshire's investm ents where a lot of the m oney's been m ade and you
look for the m odels, you can see that we twice bought into twonewspaper towns which
have since becom e onenewspaper towns. So we m ade a bet to som e extent....
In one of those— The W ashington Post— we bought it at about 20% of the value to a
private owner. So we bought it on a Ben Graham style basis— at onefifth of obvious
value— and, in addition, we faced a situation where you had both the top hand in a
gam e that was clearly going to end up with one winner and a m anagem ent with a lot of
integrity and intelligence. That one was a real dream . They're very high class people—
the Katharine Graham fam ily. That's why it was a dream — an absolute, dam n dream .
Of course, that cam e about back in '7374. And that was alm ost like 1932. That was
probably a oncein40yearstype denouem ent in the m arkets. That investm ent's up
about 50 tim es over our cost.
If I were you, I wouldn't count on getting any investm ent in your lifetim e quite as good
as The W ashington Post was in '73 and '74.
But it doesn't have to be that good to take care of you.
Let m e m ention another m odel. Of course, Gillette and Coke m ake fairly lowpriced
item s and have a trem endous m arketing advantage all over the world. And in Gillette's
case, they keep surfing along new technology which is fairly sim ple by the standards of
m icrochips. But it's hard for com petitors to do.
So they've been able to stay constantly near the edge of im provem ents in shaving. There are whole countries where Gillette has more than 90% of the shaving market.
GEICO is a very interesting model. It's another one of the 100 or so models you ought
to have in your head. I've had many friends in the sick business fixup game over a
long lifetime. And they practically all use the following formula—I call it the cancer
surgery formula:
They look at this mess. And they figure out if there's anything sound left that can live
on its own if they cut away everything else. And if they find anything sound, they just
cut away everything else. Of course, if that doesn't work, they liquidate the business.
But it frequently does work.
And GEICO had a perfectly magnificent business submerged in a mess, but still
working. Misled by success, GEICO had done some foolish things. They got to thinking
that, because they were making a lot of money, they knew everything. And they
suffered huge losses.
All they had to do was to cut out all the folly and go back to the perfectly wonderful
business that was lying there. And when you think about it, that's a very simple model.
And it's repeated over and over again.
And, in GEICO's case, think about all the money we passively made.... It was a
wonderful business combined with a bunch of foolishness that could easily be cut out.
And people were coming in who were temperamentally and intellectually designed so
they were going to cut it out. That is a model you want to look for.
And you may find one or two or three in a long lifetime that are very good. And you
may find 20 or 30 that are good enough to be quite useful.
Finally, I'd like to once again talk about investment management. That is a funny
business because on a net basis, the whole investment management business together
gives no value added to all buyers combined. That's the way it has to work.
Of course, that isn't true of plumbing and it isn't true of medicine. If you're going to
make your careers in the investment management business, you face a very peculiar
situation. And most investment managers handle it with psychological denial just like a
chiropractor. That is the standard method of handling the limitations of the investment
management process. But if you want to live the best sort of life, I would urge each of
you not to use the psychological denial mode.
I think a select few—a small percentage of the investment managers—can deliver
value added. But I don't think brilliance alone is enough to do it. I think that you have
to have a little of this discipline of calling your shots and loading up—you want to
maximize your chances of becoming one who provides above average real returns for
clients over the long pull.
But I'm just talking about investment managers engaged in common stock picking. I
am agnostic elsewhere. I think there may well be people who are so shrewd about
currencies and this, that and the other thing that they can achieve good longterm
records operating on a pretty big scale in that way. But that doesn't happen to be my
milieu. I'm talking about stock picking in American stocks.
I think it's hard to provide a lot of value added to the investment management client,
but it's not impossible.