Crises at Every Level of Service

Crisis Intervention and Crisis Team Models in Schools Karen S. Knox and Albert R.

Roberts The need for crisis intervetition plans and programs in schools has become more evident during the past decade with the increased incidence of school violence and other traumatic situations experienced by students, educators, school personnel, parents, and relatives of those involved. This need has resulted in an increase of professional literature, curriculum, and resources that address crisis intervention in school settings. Much has been learned from tragic school incidents in tbe 1990s, and tbat knowledge and experience bas contributed to more comprebensive planning and development to meet tbe needs of tbe scbool community. Tbis article presents an overview of tbe literature on scbool crisis intervention and discusses scbool crisis team models and interventions used in a variety of traumatic situations.

KEYWORDS: crisis intervention; natural disasters; school crisis team; school violence; trauma H istorically, students, teachers, and their families and relatives have experienced cri- ses in schools, but recent incidents of school violence have made it clear that being pre- pared for crises and their aftermath is today's reality.

This article presents a review of the professional literature on school crisis intervention and types of crises that can occur.

A school crisis response model is presented that addresses the different levels of organization and intervention for macro and micro service delivery. A case example illustrates how the model can be applied in a school crisis.

It must be remembered that each incident is unique, and even the most comprehensive plans cannot anticipate all the possible scenarios and ef- fects of crises in schools. However, crisis planning and preparedness can help address the traumatic effects and provide short-term treatment for those affected. Although more empirically based studies on the effectiveness of school-based crisis inter- vention programs are needed, the experiences and efforts of those directly involved in school crises have helped develop the current knowledge base and intervention models.

LITERATURE REVIEW Those with personal experience with school cri- ses and tragedies have contributed much of the pro- fessional literature over the past 10 years. One of the first school crises to receive national media at- tention was the Chowchilla school bus kidnapping in California in 1976, in which the children were buried underground and missing for 27 hours be- fore escaping from the kidnappers. The children received no school or local mental health services, and a study found that five years later, all of the children evidenced posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms (Terr, 1983). Other research studies and articles during the late 1980s presented experiences of school violence and how the schools responded to increase awareness about the effects on those involved and the need to be prepared (DiUard, 1989; SandaU, 1986; Watson, Poda, Miller, Rice, & West, 1990).

Watson and colleagues (1990) discussed their experiences with an off-campus crisis involving an overturned bus accident with 47 students and teachers returning from a field trip and a campus incident in which an armed intruder shot several students and teachen, killing two third-graders.The authors presented a practical training guide and rec- ommendations on how to plan for the manage- ment of school emergencies.

Their book includes information on using technology to meet com- munication needs, dealing with the media, parent reactions, counseling services, school safety plans.

CCC Code:

1532-8759/05 $3.00 O2005 National Association of 5ocial Workers 93 and staff training. The authors also provide sample school and district emergency safety plans as guides for those who want to develop response systems in their schools.

The Stockton school shooting, which resulted in five student deaths and 29 wounded students, was discussed in a symposium at the meeting of the National Association of School Psychologists in San Francisco in 1990, bringing attention to the need for school crisis planning. Before this incident, the school had conducted crisis drills on the playground where the shooting occurred that resulted in saved lives (Poland, 1994).

Poland, who chaired the sym- posium, has written many articles on crisis inter- vention in schools on training crisis team mem- bers, communication issues, media policies and procedures, security and law enforcement person- nel, transportation and evacuation strategies, and crisis drills and readiness activities. He also offered practical examples of school crises such as bomb threats, gang activity, fights, natural disasters, youth suicide, and gun or shooting incidents (Pitcher & Poland, 1992; Poland, 1989; 1993,1994; Poland & Pitcher, 1990).

Another major contributor to this field is Schonfeld, who is with the Department of Pediat- rics and Institute for Child Study at Yale University School of Medicine and director of the Regional School Crisis Prevention and Response Program of New Haven, Connecticut. His professional lit- erature in journals and books includes school-based crisis intervention, bereavement services, and death issues (Kline, Schonfeld, & Lichtenstein, 1995; Lichtenstein, Schonfeld, Kline, & Speese-Linehan, 1995; Newgass & Schonfeld, 1996,2000; Schonfeld, Kline, & Members of the Crisis Intervention Com- mittee, 1994).The Regional School Crisis Preven- tion and Response Program was formed in 1991 to address how schools might best prepare for crises and had three goals:

• to develop a systematic organizational pro- tocol to respond to school crises • to train school staff to deliver crisis interven- tion services • to increase collaboration between schools and community mental health and social services providers (Newgass & Schonfeld, 2000).

As of 2000 the program had trained more than 7,000 school and community staff, consulted with more than 300 district- and school-level crisis re- sponse teams, and provided technical assistance to schools during more than 175 crises (Newgass & Schonfeld, 2000).

Other literature presents the need for crisis plan- ning for school counselors and teachers (Allen et al., 2002; Callahan, 1998; Eaves, 2001; Kennedy, 1999) and addresses school crises such as death and loss in the school community (King, 2001; Klicker, 2000), school violence (MacNeil & Stewart, 2000; Trump, 2000; Wanko, 2001; Watson & Watson, 2002), and students with emotional and behavioral difficulties (Rock, 2000; Thome & Ivens, 1999).

The most current and comprehensive sources of- fer school crisis prevention and intervention mod- els and best practices with a variety of crisis situa- tions, such as sexual harassment or assault, children of divorce and remarriage, bullying, dating violence, illness and disabilities, moving and relocation, hate crimes and attacks on gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths, eating disorders, and parent-adolescent cri- ses (Brock, Lazarus, & Jimerson, 2002; Brock, Sandoval, & Lewis, 2001; Sandoval, 2002; Schonfeld, 2002).

These references are similar to the earlier literature in that the authors presented their own professional experiences or reported from their research.There is limited empirical evidence docu- menting the effectiveness of school crisis interven- tion programs. Establishment of evidence-based procedures is critical, and evaluation procedures should be included in a school crisis response model to improve planning and intervention at the macro and micro levels.

SCHOOL CRISIS RESPONSE MODELS From the literature review, we found similarities among the authors' recommendations on how to plan for and respond to a school crisis that can be integrated into a model for intervention.This model addresses the levels and types of intervention and presents a framework for development and imple- mentation of a crisis response plan that involves the school system and local community. Poland (1994) recommended that schools organize crisis inter- vention models on three levels:

• Primary prevention—activities such as con- flict resolution, gun safety and safe driving courses, alcohol and drug awareness programs, teenage parenting resources, and suicide pre- vention programs 94 Children & Schools VOLUME 27, NUMBER 2 APRIL 2005 • Secondary intervention—steps in the after- math of the crisis to minimize its effects and to keep the situation from escalating, includ- ing evacuating students to safety, immediate crisis intervention to address the emotional and physical safety needs of those involved, notification to parents, and the media re- sponse • Tertiary intervention—more long-term counsehng and assistance.

These three levels of intervention require par- ticipation and support from key personnel at dif- ferent levels or divisions of the school system, from the administration to school principals and other campus faculty and staff.

Key contributors and their tasks and responsibihties may vary depending on the needs of the community and the size and num- ber of school districts and campuses involved.

Nev^fgass and Schonfeld (2000) recommended a hierarchical model:

• Regional resource teams comprise a multidisci- plinary team with representatives from school administration, mental health staff, pohce, academic staff, and social services staff that meets quarterly to review programs, proto- cols, and policies; to provide support and train- ing to district-level teams; and to act as an information clearinghouse.

• District-leuel teams provide crisis response over- sight for the school system and should in- clude central office administrators and men- tal health staff who oversee district policies and procedures, resource allocation, staff train- ing and supervision, and technical assistance to the schools in the district at the time of crisis.

• School-based crisis teams consist of the school administrators, school nurse, social workers, school counselors, support staff, and teachers who provide direct crisis intervention ser- vices and ongoing counseling services.

The advantage of having a combination of the three is to address different levels of crises, from incidents involving only one school campus to those involving more than one school in a district or the entire community.

A comprehensive model must incorporate all levels of intervention and resources to adequately plan for and respond to the diverse school crises that could be anticipated. Coordinat- ing and implementing the many needs involved in a school crisis can be confusing and cause response delays if previous planning has not been established.

(Table 1 shows how to organize the needs, tasks.

Levels of Jitterv«tttion Primary prevention Secondary intervention ^Tertiary intervention Table 1:

School Crisis Response Model Regional Level Community-level crisis response plan and team policies and procedures Support and resources Networking Activate community response team and plan involving school, emergency medical personnel, police, and mental health and social services providers Technical assistance Networking with community resources Policy and procedures evaluation Ongoing planning and needs assessment for the region District Level Emergency response policies and procedures Safety and security issues Training and education Communication systems Activate district-level plan and procedures Coordinate school crisis teams Link to regional level Communication and media Resource allocation for schools Ongoing support and resources Program and response plan evaluation District team meetings to improve procedures and prevention strategies Sch(M>l Levei Emergency and evacuation plans and drills Prevention programs Support services Crisis intervention team Activate school crisis plan and teams Emergency and evacuation procedures Notification/communication Debriefmg/demobilization Short-term crisis counseling Referral for long-term counseling or other services Memorialization needs Follow-up with school crisis team members Practice evaluation of interven- tions and programs KNOX AND ROBERTS / Crisis Intervention and Crisis Team Models in Schools 95 and roles of school systems in a comprehensive model.) AlthoughTable 1 does not include all of the tasks and activities involved at each level, it gives a frame- work for how to distribute and organize the steps and procedures to be implemented for a timely and coordinated response.

Other pertinent issues regard- ing the unique needs of each school and the sur- rounding community need to be addressed.

For example, larger metropolitan areas with several school districts may have more problems coordi- nating services and personnel because of student body size and geographic considerations, whereas smaller school districts may have limitations in re- sources and technical assistance.

SCHOOL-BASED CRiSiS TEAiViS The purpose of the school-based crisis team is to delegate the roles and duties during and after a cri- sis.

Team size varies depending on the size of the school district and individual schools within the district, but typically ranges from four to eight members. If the team is too large, it can be unman- ageable and difEcult to schedule meetings and trainings. If the team is too smaU, there may not be enough members to cover critical tasks.

It is rec- ommended that teams be multidisciplinary, includ- ing school administrators, school counselors or so- cial workers, the school nurse, teachers, and support staff.

There should also be alternates or members that serve as backup or on a rotating basis to address problems with members being unavailable or suf- fering burnout.

Suggested roles for the school-based crisis team include a team leader who is responsible for plan- ning and presiding at team meetings and oversees the functioning of the team and its members, and an assistant team leader who assists in these tasks and is responsible if the team leader is unavailable.

Other important roles include a media coordinator who serves as the contact person for media inquir- ies, and a staff notification coordinator who estab- lishes and initiates a telephone tree to notify team members and other school staff after school hours.

The purpose of a telephone tree is to communicate with people affected by the crisis, such as students, families, and staff, in an organized manner.The tele- phone tree is designed like a pyramid, with the prin- cipal at the top.The principal notifies the vice prin- cipal, who then notifies the designated group leaders, who then call other people, and so forth.

No per- son should call more than 10 people, and the fol- lowing information should be given:

• the facts of the crisis as currently known • the date, time, and place of the team or staff meeting • a request not to speculate about the crisis while carrying out phone tree duties • a reminder to maintain confidentiality (Edu- cational Service District 105,1997).

Also needed is the in-house communication coordinator who screens incoming calls, maintains a phone log, assists the staff notification coordina- tor, and maintains a phone directory of regional- and district-level teams and staff and community resources.

A crowd management coordinator col- laborates with the school security personnel, local law enforcement, and emergency departments for supervising evacuation and crowd control proce- dures and ensuring the safe and organized move- ment of students and staff to minimize the risk of harm (Schonfeld et al., 1994).

Brock and colleagues (2001) recommended as- signing a team member to the role of evaluator, whose main responsibilities include conducting drills and readiness checks, designing questionnaires and structured interviews, and collecting data on crisis team performance and outcome.They advise that the evaluator should have a budget and be fa- miliar with program and practice evaluation meth- ods.

Other options would be to partner with a local university or social services agency that could pro- vide consultants for research projects.

The evalua- tor can also be responsible for the demobilization and debriefing with crisis team members after a crisis response.

Demobilization refers to evaluative information gathering and can be done through written sur- veys or structured interviews with individuals or in a group setting. Information on the process and procedures, problems with implementation of the crisis response plan, and unforeseen circumstances or factors affecting the efforts are examples of the types of information gathered during demobiliza- tion.

Debriefing refers to stress-relieving activities and processing of the incident. Typically, debrief- ing occurs between 24 and 72 hours after the criti- cal incident and can be done individually or with the team as a group. Debriefing entails activities that encourage team members to ventilate their Children & Schools VOLUME 27, NUMBER 2 APRIL 2005 feelings and emotional reactions to the crisis and its effects. Debriefing meetings should encourage team members to support each other and not be critical. The evaluator works for successful resolu- tion of the trauma experienced during the crisis and the team's response. Some crisis team mem- bers may need referral for professional counseling, and there should be a plan for recruiting or rotat- ing team m^embers to minimize burnout.

It is important to have a building plan to provide space for medical triage, safety, shelter, communi- cation, and other emergency needs for law enforce- ment and medical personnel while dealing with the immediate crisis.

There also should be desig- nated support rooms adequately staffed by quali- fied counseling personnel and district team mem- bers to provide mental health triage, referral, and brief time-hmited interventions. School crisis team members need to develop guidelines for referring students and monitoring their status, as weU as pro- cedures for getting parental permission for treat- ment, referrals for ongoing treatment or school- based support groups, and other foUow-up services as needed (Schonfeld et al., 1994).

The school crisis team also may need to deal with issues of memorialization, which may include how to convey formally the condolences of the school or class; how to handle personal belongings; appropriate displays of memorials such as flowers, candles, photos, and the hke; attending funeral and school memorial or recognition services.

The na- ture and timing of such memorializations need to be given careful thought and planning to ensure that they do not escalate the effects of the crisis or prematurely try to place closure (Schonfeld et al., 1994).

TRAINING AND RESOURCES FOR SCHOOL CRISIS TEAMS Training requires time, money, and effort that many financially burdened school districts may be reluc- tant to fund. However, training curriculum, manu- als, and workshops are available to help. School districts may want to cross-train crisis team mem- bers at various levels or provide specialized train- ing relevant to the team members' roles and re- sponsibilities. In-service trainers who could conduct workshops on a regular basis as needed would be cost-effective and provide continuity in the training, which should be viewed as an ongo- ing need.

School crisis team members who provide direct counseling and crisis intervention services would need more in-depth and specialized training on crisis counseling skills and types of crises. Brock and colleagues' (2001) training manual and inten- sive two-day in-service training has the following modules:

• Crisis interuenors:

lecture and discussion of experiences, reactions, and motivations • Crisis intervention:

theory, models, PTSD, child developmental issues, and psychologi- cal traumatization • Group aisis intervention:

lecture and role plays • Psychological first-aid:

lecture, demonstration, and role plays.

Appendix A of the manual provides the entire training curriculum, complete with the presenta- tion lectures, experiential exercises, and handouts.

The only item not included is a video on PTSD in children that can be purchased, but the infor- mation on how to purchase it is provided.

Also in- cluded in the appendixes is content focusing on tips for teachers and parents, sample letters and announcements, and a questionnaire on the student's perception of how safe she or he feels on campus.

Two other resources that provide training manuals and step-by-step processes to facilitate the devel- opment of school-based crisis teams are available.

First, Decker's (1997) 10-Step Approach incorpo- rates macro-level responsibilities such as appoint- ing a districtwide task force to establish policy, safety, and crisis management plans, conducting assess- ments of school crisis management plans and build- ing security, and identifying the critical compo- nents for implementation and evaluation.

Decker (1997) emphasized the importance of prevention programs such as conflict resolution, and student assistance and peer mediation; he also rec- ommended being proactive in dealing with gangs and including parents as partners in prevention ef- forts.

The book provides case scenarios of crises with recomniendations for specific steps and ac- tions to deal with these incidents. Examples are provided for accidents, medical emergencies, ex- plosions, fires, gas leaks, hazardous spills, power fail- ures, plane crashes near the campus, and natural disasters such as fioods, hurricanes, and tornadoes.

Case scenarios focusing on school violence such KNOX AND ROBERTS / Crisis Intervention and Crisis Team Models in Schools 97 as bomb threats, kidnapping, sexual assaults, gang or cult activities, shootings, weapons on campus, deaths, and suicides are also included.

The other excellent resource for school crisis management is the training manual developed by crisis response team members from Educational Service District 105,Yakima,Washington (1997).

This training manual is designed to help school personnel develop a crisis management plan and teams; it provides guidelines, checklists, and re- sources for planning before a crisis.

Especially help- ful is the Quick Reference Guide that gives ex- amples of crises, identifies the steps and tasks associated with each crisis, and has space available to include local resources and contact numbers for each crisis.

It is a flip chart format that lends itself to easy and timely reference information on acci- dents, bomb threats, building destruction, commu- nicable diseases, death and dying, disasters, drug overdoses, gangs, medical situations, mental health situations, missing students, physical and sexual abuse, suicide, and violence.

The remainder of the training manual consists of sections for principals, counselors, teachers, and support staff describing their respective responsibilities and roles.

Other resources for school crisis management can be found on the Internet at the following Web sites:

• www.aaets.com (The American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress) • www.schoolcrisisresponse.com • www.keepschoolssafe.org (National Associa- tion of Attorneys General & National School Boards Association) • www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/infores/crt/ pdfwelc.htm (Community Crisis Response Team Training Manual from the U.S.

Depart- ment of Justice, Office for Victims of Crime . www.ncptsd.org (National Center for PTSD) • www.compassionatefriends.org (Compas- sionate Friends support groups for bereaved parents) • www.tlcinstitute.org (The National Institute for Trauma and Loss in Children) • www.crisisinterventionnetwork.com CASE EXAMPLE The tornadoes that struckJarrell,Texas,a small com- munity of 800 people, on May 27,1997, killed 27 people, including 13 schoolchildren. The Double Creek Estates subdivision was the hardest hit; houses were leveled, and seven families were killed. The children who were killed ranged in age from five to 17, with three in elementary school and 10 in middle or high school. School had let out for summer just days before the tornadoes struck, leaving everyone wondering if fewer people would have died, be- cause the schools were not hit as hard.

This case example shows how a crisis can affect a community and would necessitate crisis inter- vention at the regional, district, and school levels.

If school had been in session, the crisis response plans would have been implemented immediately at all three levels.

At the primary prevention level, the regional, district, and school emergency plans should include a decision tree on how to respond if torna- does hit the local area.

Preventive measures, such as emergency procedures and drills, identification of rooms and spaces where students and staff should go for safety in the event of tornadoes or other disasters, and notification and evacuation procedures, should already have been addressed.

At the secondary intervention level, regional team members would coordinate with community emer- gency response units, such as EMS, fire, and police.

Any regional team members on the scene would liaison with school crisis team members as well.

Technical assistance or resources critical to safety, notification, evacuation, and other emergency pro- cedures would be initiated also.

District team members would coordinate with the schools to assess which emergency procedures to activate.With weather and building damage con- siderations, the schools would either be used as emergency shelters and for medical triage or be evacuated. With either option, resources would need to be mobilized, and the emergency com- munication and notification systems would begin.

The district level would also coordinate and serve as a link between the regional level and the school level.

School crisis team members would initiate their respective school crisis plan and proceed with emer- gency procedures as necessary. The team leader would oversee the team functioning and coordi- nate with local emergency responders and the dis- trict-level team contact.

The staff notification co- ordinator would initiate the telephone tree, and the in-house communication coordinator would moni- tor incoming communications and serve as a link Children & Schools VOLUME 27, NUMBER 2 APRIL 2005 between the district level and the school.The crowd management coordinator would assist local authori- ties and emergency personnel in evacuating or moving students to safer areas if possible. Other team members and counselors would participate in the emergency procedures, but also would begin crisis intervention services. If the school is to be used as an emergency shelter, students and staff will need basics such as water, food, places to sit or be comfortable, and bathroom accessibility. Crisis re- actions among the survivors would need to be dealt with both individually and with groups.

This type of disaster draws the media's attention, so the media coordinator would need to take charge and might need assistance from the in-house com- munications coordinator and the crowd manage- ment coordinator. After the incident, the school crisis response teams would need demobilization and debriefing services, and the team evaluator would be responsible for implementing interviews and meetings on a regular basis.The evaluator would also implement the evaluation process so that the teams would be able to give and get feedback on their eflFectiveness and on improvements that can be made.

The ongoing crisis counseling would entail set- ting up the support rooms and recruiting profes- sional counselors experienced in this type of counseling to volunteer to assist school crisis team members.

With additional help from social work- ers, psychologists, psychiatrists, and clergy, school crisis team members would not be so over- whelmed. In natural disasters, resources such as the Red Cross and the Federal Emergency Manage- ment Agency can help the community.Victim ser- vices counselors fix)m local law enforcement agen- cies also are involved in such critical incidents.

Another factor to consider is vicarious traumati- zation affecting these volunteers, who would also need debriefing sessions and support.

At the tertiary level of intervention, foUow-up services would need to be provided for certain times and events, such as when the schools reopen and classes resume, anniversaries of the disaster, graduations, and other school activities that remind survivors of those who were killed. The local schools would also need to deal with memoriali- zation services and provide support groups and community referrals as needed for the students, their families, and school staff and faculty. Evalua- tion of the crisis response plans and procedures would take place at the regional, district, and school levels to revise or improve services and outcomes for the future.

Six years later, the town has rebuilt physically, but not emotionally. Residents say they wUl never forget—It will always be a part of JarreU.

Residents StiU have problems with the way the police and emergency workers responded and with how the disaster relief and donation funds were distributed.

However, healing is evident.

The town now has a population of 1,200 with most of the survivors stay- ing in the community. Most of the homes have been rebuilt.

JarreU Memorial Park is on land do- nated by one of the deceased family's survivors.The park has a community center, two underground shelters, a playground, and two baseball fields. A pink granite memorial in downtown JarreU com- memorates those who died.

Residents say that sport- ing events have been healing and bonding experi- ences for the town, given that eight of the children kiUed were involved in school athletics. Both the school district and the community have learned from this experience and have made changes to meet crisis response needs more effectively in the future.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION Literature and resources for school crisis manage- ment have increased over the past decade, and edu- cators and school districts are better prepared for crises.With heightened alerts more common in the United States, being lax or complacent about cri- sis management plans for schools, governments, and businesses is a thing of the past. What is most needed is empirical and evaluative research on the effectiveness of crisis management plans and ser- vices.

The crisis intervention field has historicaUy evaluated and tried to learn from and improve ser- vices to those in crisis.

Because school crisis man- agement has increased in attention and need over the past decade, we hope the research needed to validate the knowledge base and interventions wiU be forthcoming. With increased federal funding in this area, we recommend that school districts seek those resources to implement and evaluate school crisis response plans and procedures to be prepared for future emergencies.

We also hope that this ar- ticle has provided insight and interest in social workers and other professional counselors to con- tinue their learning and experience with school crisis intervention. ^3 KNOX AND ROBERTS / Crisis Intervention and Crisis Team Models in Schools 99 REFERENCES Allen, M., Burt, K., Bryan, E., Carter, D., Orsi, R, & Durkan, L. (2002). School counselors' preparation for and participation in crisis intervention.

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Karen S.

Knox, PhD, LCSVf^ is associate professor and director of field.

School of Social Work, Texas State University, 601 University, San Marcos,TX 78666;e-mail:

[email protected]. Albert R.

Roberts, PhD, is professor of criminal justice and social work.

Administration of Justice Department, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway; e-mail:

prof.albertroberts@comcast.

net.

Accepted January 28, 2004 100 Children &Schoob VOLUME 27, NUMBER 2 APRIL 2005