Theory of Hrchitecture History.

1. __ _ JAPANESE POSTURE is typified in this print by Harunobu (1725· 1770), an artist best known for his scenes from the daily lives of girls and young men. This picture is called "The Beginning of Spring," 122 V1 \7 � � I r (J) n t from the series "Customs of the Four Seasons." The man at left has struck a formal pose. Kneeling on the engawa, or porch, he in· dicates to the young lady the first signs of an approaching shower. © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF POSTURE Ivlan differs fron1 the apes by his standing posture, but this IS only one among sonle 1,000 body positions of whjch he is capable.

Here an anthropologist discusses their distl'iblltion and rationale The ways in which we sit, kneel or stand are determined not only by the human anatomy but also by culture. The peoples of the world differ in posture styles just as they do in styles of clothing, housing, cooking and music.

Yet curiously this important touchstone of cultural differences has received little serious attention from science. About 20 years ago the French sociologist Marcel Mauss called attention to such matters in a stimulating paper called "The Tech niques of the Body," but he did not go much beyond the suggestion that their investigation might open up a fertile field for research on the borderline be tween cultm:e and biology. A few anthro pologists have written about the postural habits of particular tribes or countries.

And that is about the limit of the litera ture on the subject.

It is hard to understand why students of man and society have left this chap ter of his behavior so blank. Studies of postural patterns could tell us a great deal about man's biological and cultural evolution. And the subject is not Witllout practical importance. Postures and re lated motor-habits are intimately linked with many aspects of daily life: they af fect the design of our clothing, footgear, furniture, dwellings, offices, vehicles, tools and machines. Moreover, they speak an eloquent language in social intercourse. Most of us look to postural cues, as well as facial expressions and speech itself, in our never-ending efforts to interpret or evaluate people's motives, moods or behavior.

Information on which to base a world- wide survey of postural habits is scarce, but sufficient to make at least a beginning. Happily the anthropologists' cameras often make up for omissions in their notes. From their photographs and by Gordon "'. J-lewcs others it is possible to obtain a surprising amount of information about postural habits in many of the world's cultures.

One must take care not to be misled, however, by posed or group pictures of natives in which the photogra pher has lined up his subjects like mem bers of a baseball or basketball squad.

The older anthropological literature, especially, contains a great many such pictures, partly because of slow emul sions and poor lenses and partly because of inability to break away from the tradi tion that having a picture made is a situation calling for the greatest formal ity-a tradition which seems to have de veloped long before photography was invented, and which is not limited to Western civilization. In more recent pub lications there is a higher frequency of candid shots, showing people in ordi nary positions and engaged in ordinary tasks.

Other valuable sources of information on posture are the paintings and sculp tures of the artists from all ages, taking us back to the Stone Age. The sculptors of ancient Greece produced anatomical ly realistic figures in a rather limited range of postures-partly dictated by their use of marble and other heavy stone and partly by the monumental function of so many of their works. The art of ancient India depicts supernatural beings, ascetics and other extraordinary persons engaged in prayer, meditation, religious dances or preparation for rit uals. Much the same thing is true of the art of ancient China, Mexico, Peru and Egypt. Painting and sculpture generally tend to depict formalized, ceremonial, idealized or otherwise artificial poses.

Ancient Egyptian art is particularly noted for the rigid and unnatural pos tures of its figures. Nevertheless we have more definite information on the every- day postural habits of the Egyptians than of any other ancient people. The early Egyptians considerately left us lit tle models showing figures pulling at the oars of boats, handling various tools, butchering cattle, grinding grain, and so forth.

For world-wide comparisons we must limit ourselves to static postures-sitting, syuatting, kneeling and standing-be cause the data on cultural differences in body movements are still too scanty. The human body is capable of assuming something on the order of 1,000 different steady postures. By "steady" we mean a static position which can be maintained comfortably for some time. Obviously there are basic anatomical and physio logical factors which prevent us from standing on our heads for any great length of time, whatever our cultural background. But aside from such limit8- tions, it is surprising to see what a va riety of positions various peoples find comfortable. Culture and training have accustomed millions of people in the world to sit restfully in postures which to vVestern chair-sitters seem not only bizarre but extremely uncomfortable.

There are, of course, postures which can be considered universal, because they are common in all cultures and times. The ordinary upright stance, with the arms hanging straight down or with the hands clasped in front or behind, certainly belongs in this category. Chair sitting does not, however. At least a fourth of mankind habitually takes the load off its feet by crouching in a deep squat, both at rest and at work.

Fully aware of the limitations of our information, we have made a pre liminary set of world maps showing the distribution of various static postures.

Chair-sitting and furniture, possibly the chief distinguishing postural attri butes of Western civilization, go hand in hand, though it is difficult to tell which 20 21 22 30 57 59 59.5 is cause and which effect-whether the habit of sitting on a support led to the invention of stools, benches and chairs or vice versa. It is true that a rock, ledge, log or house platform may serve as a bench, but the fact is that people who lack special furniture for the purpose 23 24 24 59.6 70 71 72 25 seldom sit the way we do. Growing up in a "furnished" environment evidently fos ters sitting postures which the casual use of rocks or logs does not. In Japan, where people are accustomed to sit on the floor at home, you will sometimes see a person sitting on his heels on a seat in the thea- 25.5 73 74 75 POSTURE TYPES are shown in this sampling from the classifica- among western American Indians. In the next row are variations tion scheme of Hewes. The figures numbered 301 through 306 (top of the one-legged Nilotic stance, found in the Sudan, Venezuela row on I.his page) are common resting positions; by contrast, the and elsewhere. Chair-sitting (third row) spread from the ancient arm-on-shoulder postures of the next four figures are found mainly Neal' East, but the Arabs there have replaced it with floor-sitting 124 © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ter or a train. Among habitual chair sitters over the world there is a surpris ing variety of cultural differences in sit ting posture, many of which can be clas sified on the basis of the way the legs or ankles are crossed.

Chairs, stools and benches were in use � A � clb (, 88 89 89.5 in Egypt and Mesopotamia at least 5,000 years ago. While commoners and slaves sat on stools or benches, the kings, priests and other exalted personages in ancient Egypt used chairs. The Chinese began using chairs fairly late in their history: 2,000 years ago they sat on the � 100 101 II � 102 103 104 104.5 105 107 110 III III 113 �taz 121 121 122 123 JJ&�dn � jN 126.5 127 127 128 113 114 ~ 123.5 124 129 floor, as the Japanese and Koreans do today. In southern and southeastern Asia chairs have never become items of com mon use. Even in the Middle East and in North Africa the Islamic peoples seem to have returned to sitting on the floor possibly because of the cultural prestige 102 102 103 108 110 115 116 �&) � v � 125 125 postures (fourth and fifth rows). Sitting cross·legged (top row on this page) predominates south and east of Near Eastern influence. Sedentary kneeling postures (102 to 104) are typically Japanese; sitting with the legs folded to one side (106 through 108) is a femi· nine trait, a rare exception being the male Mohave Indians. The deep squat (fourth row on this page) is uncomfortable for adult Europeans but replaces the sitting posture for at least a fourth of mankind. The last two rows show various asymmetrical postures. 125 © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ... b • • • ••• ft. ., ., fJ...� •• @8 • o • .... • • • "" o .. ... V • • • • t> • • • .• • o • MALE o FEMALE o .. o o o • a,G1_� • � @O ., .

� UNSPECIFIED @ ARCHAEOLOGICAL CROSS·LEGGED POSTURES occur widely throughout southern Asia and aboriginal America, especially among men. Complicated •• o 70 .O() 71 .011 72 • • o • • o MALE • FEMALE () UNSPECIFIED • @ ARCHAEOLOGICAL • SITTING WITH LEGS EXTENDED is especially common among American Indians and in Melanesia. It is often used by women, 126 • • variants such as the yoga or lotus posture (84) do not occur outside Asia, where they are practiced by religious adepts . • � . • o • • perhaps because it allows them to hold or nurse an infant while carrying out sedentary tasks such as craft work or preparing rood. © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC of the nomadic Arabs. Stools and similar low sitting supports have cropped up in Negro Africa, where they are reserved for chiefs or kings, and in parts of the Pacific and of Latin America.

No less widely practiced than chair sitting is the deep squat. To us it seems perhaps the height of primitivity, if not of indecorousness: adults in Western culture are likely to use the deep squat only when far from the amenities of plumbing. It was considered uncouth by the ancient Greeks, as is suggested by the fact that satyrs sat in this fashion when they piped tunes on Pan's pipes.

Yet millions of people in many parts of Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania customarily work and rest in this pos ture. The deep squat is very similar to the habitual resting position of the chimpanzee, and perhaps all of us might squat throughout our lives if our cultures did not train us into other postures. It is a position perfectly easy for young chil dren in any culture to assume, but diffi cult and uncomfortable for an adult who has not been accustomed to it.

Ranking slightly behind chair-sitting and the deep squat is the cross legged sitting posture that we call sitting "Turkish" or "tailor" fashion. This is the predominant way of sitting among peo ples in a great arc from North Africa through the Middle East to India, south east Asia and Indonesia, with outliers in central Asia, Korea, Japan, Micronesia and Polynesia. The position with each foot tucked under the knee of the oppo site leg is most common, but there are eight or 10 distinct variations of the cross-legged posture, some of which are practically limited to adepts trained in these special forms, as in Hindu or Bud dhist temples. Cross-legged sitting was very common among Indians in the New World: it appears in ancient Mayan sculptures and mural paintings and in figurines and pottery of many tribes of North and South America. And of course people in modern Western culture sit cross-legged on occasion-either at work (e.g., some tailors) or informally at par ties and picnics. A sizable minority of adults in our culture retain sufficiently flexible joints and tendons to sit in this manner. But convention and clothing re strict the practice. Women are unlikely to sit cross-legged in mixed company if they are wearing short or tight-fitting skirts, but may do so in slacks, shorts or a full skirt. Sitting on the floor with the legs stretched straight ahead or crossed at the ankles or knees is definitely a feminine posture, according to our survey. The M20 research microscope Were you to search the world over for an instrument that combines mechanical and optical excellence with finest construction and flawless finish ••. plus unmatched versatility in many fields af microscopy .•• you would find it in the Wild M20.

Sextuple revolving nosepiece Is optional Built-in illumination 120W) Beam splitting phototube permits bi· nocular focusing for photomicrography Phase contrast and other attachments for virtually every observation method BOOKLET M20 SENT ON REQUEST WILD HEERBRUGG I NSTRU M ENTS, inc. Main at Covert Streets Port Washington, N_ Y. POrt Washington 7-4843 SALES • fULL fACTORY SERVICES For lab and plant tests ••• the� Null Indicator Use this modern successor to the spotlight galvanometer for null detection or polarity indication, in either research or production line tests. Its sensitivity is adjustable to a high of .001 microamp/mm (1 microvolt/mm). Period ofless than � second speeds testing. It withstands vibration, shock, severe overloads. Needs no leveling or special mounting. MINNEAPOLIS-HoNEYWELL REGULATOR Co., Industrial Division, Wayne and Windrim Aves., Philadelphia 44, Pa.-in H HON(YW£U Canada, Toronto 17, Ontario. PRICE $175.00 F. O. B. PHILADELPHIA. Delivery from stock. For complete {acts, ask for Data Slwet No. 10.0-12. IIoneywel1 BROWN .NSTRUMENTS Make your own tiny genius computers G ENIACS AND TYNIACS Scientific-Entertaining-Instructive-Safe Use our improved construction kits including all parts, and wipers making all switches work wellthe improved kits made by the originator of all Tyniacs, most Geniacs, Simon, Squee, etc. Safety KI: GENIAC ELECTRIC BRAIN KIT: Contains 64-page manual (publication P 30, separately $3.) and over 400 parts (including 6 multiple switches). Arithmetical, logical, reasoning, computing, puzzle-solving, and game-playing machines (see list below). Each Geniac displays intelligent behavior, runs on one flashlight battery, requires no soldering (all connections with nuts and bolts). This kit is the outcome of five years of our design and development work with small robots. The kit is sImple enough for Intelligent boys; yet instructive to anyone because it demonstrates in easily-put-together models the fascinating variety of computing and reasoning circuits ........ $16.95 (add SOc for shipment in U.S. west of Miss.; add $1.60 for shipment outside U.S.). Returnable in one week for full refund if not satisfactory. Some of the possible GENIACS: Logic Machines: Syllogism Machine; Intelligence Test. Game-Playing Machines: Tit-Tat-Toe, Nim. Arithmetical Machines (both decimal and binary): Adder, Subtracter. Multiplier, Divider. Cryptographic Machines: Secret Coder, Secret Decoder, Combination Locks. Puzzle-Solving Machines: the Space Ship Airlock; the Fox, JIen, Corn, and JIlred Man: Douglas Macdonald's Will; the Uranium Shipment and the Space Pirates. K3: TYNIAC ELECTRIC BRAIN KIT: Smaller kit with over 300 parts, 48-vage manual, templates, etc., tor making 13 entirely NEW machines including games BLACK �f:rT£�pm��r��t w2e�'t ��c'Miss:; $1.'40' outside' U�§·.�� We offer over 40 PUBLICATIONS, KITS, Etc. on Com-�Ua\et!':;,,:.:r��o�i�ahOg��'bo��,be��c:ati��rt��a::,se:r��t Culture, Science, etc. Write for our new FREE catalogs. We are Berkeley Enterprises, Inc. (affiliate C!:f E�r:nund. C. Berkeley and Associates), producers of SCientifiC kitS, makers and exhibitors of small robots (Simon, Squee, Relay Tit-Tat-Toe as pictured in "Life", March 19, 1956, etc.), publishers (the monthly Computers and Automation, P 2 $5.50, annual subscription), etc. ______ MAIL THIS COUPON.-----· ; ��k,:,��i�:t��r�r.i.sisll!��·Newtonvilie 60, Mass. ; I :�e�Sr�:�::d ;r;:e7 i�� rCI::I� re�;nd �l no::�tiSf:C: I I ��ie!s:ns��e m$�·f��·�··��,;��·��n�� !�l!iis�y:u��i: I I cations, etc.-My name and address are attached. I 127 © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC t \,�.- � 0 • 0 0 • 0 o • 0 • GOOD o MEDIUM o POOR • iii 0 ARCHAEOLOGICAL 0 o o Cl) 0 c9 G 0 GOO ..

o o (;) G (;) • o o 00 o SOURCES OF INFORMATION used by Hewes are here mapped and rated for reliability. The data cover the postural habits of some 481 human cultural groups, ancient and modern, as well as pos· tures used by the gibbon, orangutan, chimpanzee and gorilla. reasons for its being sex-linked are not clear. Perhaps the habit was acquired because the position permits a woman to nurse a baby and at the same time carryon other tasks. Sitting in this man ner fits in well with working on a belt loom, mat-weaving, basketmaking and other crafts usually carried on by women in so-called primitive societies. The pos ture is particularly common in Melane sia and in Indian cultures of western North America.

Sitting on the heels with the knees resting on the floor is the formal sitting position for both men and women in Japan, and is the regular prayer position in the Islamic world and many other cul tures of Eurasia. In Negro Africa, Mex ico and parts of Indonesia this position is used mainly by women. Sitting with the legs folded to one side is a widespread feminine practice, both in "primitive" and highly developed civilizations:

when chairs or benches are unavailable, women in our own culture frequently sit this way. The habit might be supposed to be dictated by narrow skirts, but it occurs among many peoples where no such clothing is worn.

The "cowboy squat," a semikneeling position with one knee up and the other down, represents another class of sitting postures which has an extremely wide and ancient distribution. Ancient Greek sculptures show the cowboy squat, often 128 as a shooting position for archery, and bowmen are depicted in the same posi tion in cave paintings of the Middle Stone Age in Spain. Crapshooters still work in this position. Versions of the pos ture are popular among the Australian aborigines, North American Indians and African Negroes. It is primarily a male position, rarely encountered among fe males.

The posture that has received the most attention from anthropologists, probably because it strikes us as most bizarre, is the so-called "N ilotic stance" -a storklike pose consisting of standing on one leg with the sole of the other foot planted against it somewhere in the knee region. It is a favorite stance of the tall tribesmen on the Upper Nile in the southern Sudan, and it crops up elsewhere in Africa, among hill folk in India, among the aborigines of Australia and among Indian tribes in South Amer ica. In the Sudan it is a common resting position for cowherds, who go barefoot and naked and therefore have no prob lem in assuming the posture. If they wore shoes and had to worry about get ting clothing dirty, they would find it less convenient. The Nilotic stance is hardly likely to be adopted by a per son wearing hobnailed boots or French heels. But it is a rarity in any case:

there are a great many barefoot and naked or nearly naked peoples in the world who apparently would never dream of standing around on one leg.

plainly a whole complex of factors- anatomical, physiological, psycholog ical, cultural, environmental, technologi cal-is involved in 'the evolution of the many different postural habits that the peoples of the earth have assumed.

There are sex-linked factors, such as clothing, pregnancy, nursing and carry ing a baby on the back, which lead to differences in the sitting positions of men and women. Clothing and footgear obviously affect the ways of sitting and standing, both for men and women. Nu trition plays a part, for the amount of fat in strategic places may determine whether squatting is comfortable or not.

Styles of house construction have their influence: houses built on platforms or with porches, affording opportunities for dangling the legs over the edge, help de velop sitting habits which call for furni ture. Terrain and vegetation may deter mine sitting or standing habits out-of doors. Herdsmen in regions of tall grass have to stand to watch their stock, while in a short -grass or tundra area the herder may sit or squat. Cold, wet or snowy ground does not invite sitting, but in dry areas people readily form the habit of resting directly on the ground. Occu pational activities and techniques give rise to special postures: sitting positions © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC H IGH ENERGY f el for thought THE fuel propellant of the future may prove to be an inor ganic material, with metallic properties, capable of releasing tremendous heat burning capacity. Such an inorganometallic will likely contain a compound of lithium. For lithium offers uniquely valuable properties ... properties that aid in con tributing an unusually high power-to-weight ratio so neces sary for military missiles and rockets.

Lithium, for example, combines low density with high heat of combustion to give a much sought after ratio of extraordi nary chemical energy per unit of weight. On this score alone it proves of inestimable value.

Will these properties improve your product? · .. low density ... high flash point · .. high heat capacity ... easily cut with a knife · .. high heat of fusion ... ductile, can be extruded and rolled · .. chemically reactive ... readily melted or cast · .. low melting point ... lighter than magnesium or aluminum ... can be dispersed in suitable media Consult our PR&D department on your use-research problems. Up-to-date Product Data Sheets plus laboratory quantities of lithium metal, metal dis persions, metal derivatives and salts are yours for the asking. LITHIUM CORPORATION PROCESSORS OF LITHIUM METAL. METAL DISPERSIONS. METAL DERIVA· TIVES: Amide. Hydride. Nitride. SALTS: Bromide. Carbonate. Chloride. Hydroxide. SPECIAL COMPOUNDS: Aluminate. Borate. Borosilicate. Cobaltite • • Manganite. Molybdate. Silicate. Titanate. Zirconate. Zirconium Silicate OF AM E RIG A, I N G. 2685 RAND TOWER, MINNEAPOLIS 2, MINN. BRANCH SALES OFFICES: New York. Pittsburgh. Chicago. MINES: Keystone, Custer, Hill City, South Dakota. Bessemer City, North Carolina. Cat Lake, Manitoba. Amos Area, Quebec. PLANTS: SI. Louis Park, Minnesota. Bessemer City, North Carolina. RESEARCH LABORATORY: SI. Louis Park, Minn. 129 © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC r Deliquescent Domains Western Electric has announced that their relays will no longer be available for sale to manufacturers.

The problem -obviously -will be to find satis factory equivalents.

The Sigma Type72AOZ -t60TS can replace the WE 255A polar telegraph relay. It is functionally interchangeable by design and mechanically inter changeable by means of an adapter. The "72" has been exposed to such varied field service that comparative experience for most applications can be cited.

130 COMPARISON -WE 2S5A AND SIGMA 72A02. 160T9 255A 72AOZ·160TS RESISTANCE PER COIL.. OHMS TURNS PER COIL INOUCTANCE PER COIL.. HENRY 136::1:: 10% 3200 0.9 '" ,004 CONTACT GAP, NORMAL MINIMUM, INCHES CURRENT SENSITIVITY. ONE COIL. M .... 0.56,1.5 NORMAL RANGE OF SIGNAL LEVEL, MA. 10.60 MAXIMUM INTELLIGIBLE SPEED. PULSES/SEC. (700/0 CONTACT EFFICIENCY) WORDS/MIN. fOUtV, BIAS DISTORTION ALLOWED,S MA. SIGNAl. 60 CPS PERCENT BREAK. 100 WORDS/MIN .. 20 MA. SIGNAL TOTAL COIL DISSIPATION FOR 400 C. RISE. WATTS 2.2 • * AS MEASURED IN SIGMA LABORATORY t60 ;:::1::;10% 2400 1.0 .004 0.6' 1.4 10·60 .00 1350 2% 4% 1.3 As for the WE 280, there is no exact Sigma replacement. We do have five different polar relays which, depending on your application, may be equivalent even though not interchangeable.

Thus, if you do not need an exact duplicate of a Western Electric polar relay, there is undoubtedly a suitable Sigma polar relay available immediately. If you do, your comments may be all the incentive we need for providing a new design. SIGMA SIGMA INSTRUMENTS, INC., 40 Pearl Street, So. Braintree, Boston 85, Massachusetts and stances are affected by a people's tools and vehicles-e.g., the loom, the implements for grinding food, the canoe or kayak, the longbow, the bicycle, the racing sulky.

It is conceivable that the handling of infants may shape their eventual pos ture, making some postures easy and others difficult. If tight swaddling or cradling, or being carried on the moth er's back or hip for two or three years, can affect motor habits to anything like the extent that some investigators claim it affects the development of personality, significant cultural differences in posture should be traceable to these practices.

probably the most interesting aspect of the whole subject is the question of cultural attitudes toward posture. Pos tural etiquette varies from culture to cul ture, and from one period to another.

Religious taboos or concepts of decorum ban certain postures in a given culture.

Some societies go to great lengths to en sure propriety in the manner of sitting, kneeling, bowing or standing on all pub lic occasions, maintaining careful dis tinctions on the basis of sex, .age and social status.

Western culture has undergone a re laxation of its postural code in the last several generations, and this change is reflected in the deSigns of furniture and clothing. The chairs of the 16th and 17th centuries, with vertical backs and hard seats, were remarkably uncomfortable by modern standards. The 18th century saw the introduction of curved chairs and couches, with soft upholstery. Along with this came much greater latitude for informal sitting postures-though cos tume styles, especially for women, pre vented much genuine relaxation. In the 19th century Europe and America re turned to fairly rigid postural standards, and it was not until about the period of the First World War that the avant garde began taking to the floor at par ties and the studio couch began to replace the settee. Certain segments of our culture, of course, preserve severe postural codes: for example, formal mili tary drill, ceremonialized duties and some forms of religious worship. Correct "form" is also indispensable in calis thenics, classical ballet, fencing, golf and so on.

We train our children to conform to cultural norms of posture by verbal in struction, by actual phYSical positioning of the body in the "proper" posture for specific occasions and by ridiculing or otherwise punishing deviations. We may go so far as to denounce deviations as disrespectful, immoral or as evidence of © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC PHOTO COMPARES heat con ductivity of CARBOFRAX brick and fireclay. Water separated from heat by 9 inches of CARBOFRAX brick boils turbulently, but barely gets warm on fireclay. Refractories -for high heat conductivity High heat conductivity-roughly 11 times that of fireclay and about 70% that of chrome-nickel steels-is one of the properties of CARBOFRAX@ silicon carbide refractories. It is an ideal mate rial for mufiles, radiant tubes, retorts and similar structures where you need exceptional resistance to direct flame plus the ability to conduct heat efficiently. At 2200°F, thermal conduc tivity of CARBOFRAX brick is 109BTU/hr., sq. ft. and OF/in.

of thickness. CARBOFRAX refractories typify the many super refractories pioneered by Carborundum. Each has a wide range of properties.

One, for example, is formed into precision parts that look like cast iron yet resist over 3000°F. Another, a new ceramic fiber, filters and insulates at temperatures no existing mineral or glass fiber can take. CARBORUNDUM Regislered Trade Mark For valuable information about high temperature problems -and other pertinent information about refractories-or for help on your own particular problem -fill in and mail this coupon today; ,--------MAIL THIS COUPON TODAY ------. Refractories Division, The Carborundum Company, Perth Amboy, N. J., Dept. Q27 Please send me:

D Forlhcoming issue of Refractories Magazine D Bullelin on Properlies of Carborundum's Super Refractories D Here is a descriplion of my high lemperalure problem. Can you help me? Name' ______________ Tille' _______ _ Company' _____________________ _ 5Irooll ______________________ _ Cily' ___________ --'-Zono __ 5Iale. ______ _ © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC J HAVE THE ENGINEERING ABILITY ••• HAVE THE ENGINEERING FUTURE' • Great combination ... your ability and the opportumtles only a pioneer and leader in commercial electronics can offer! Join this team of creative-minded engineers and your ability wins first the recognition and then the responsibility it deserves in a small-group engineering organization.

The future looks practically limitless, speaking from our position today in the vanguard of precedent-shattering electronics develop ments. Current and appealing openings exist in:

Data Handling and Computers Broadcast Equipment Scientific and Industrial Equipment Sound Products Communications Attractive salaries to start ... advancement on merit. Liberal company-paid benefits make your future even more secure.

Senior or Junior EE's or ME's ... men who will accept no measure ments for their future except their own achievements ... you are invited to send a complete resume to Box 1859, Grand Central Station, New York, N. Y. Designed For PRECISION BREADBOARD KITS by PIC For INDUSTRY -SCHOOL -LABORATORIES -Mill· TARY ENGINEERING or DEVELOPMENT CONTRACTS Practical, low cost kits of standardized preci· sion instrument components for rapid assembly of mechanical breadboards and servo control systems. NINE MODELS NOW AVAILABLE- 1/8" -3/16" -1/4" SHAFT SIZES Master kits contain over 650 precision parts and components, including Base Plates. Gears. Shafts. Hangers. Bearings. Differentials. Couplings. Limit Stops, etc. All contained in sturdy, compartmented, leather carrying case, complete with assembly tools. Basic kits may be expanded at any time, by addition of STOCK parts and components listed in the new, 128·page PIC Catalog #11. WRITE TODAY for further information, parts lists and �prices. " ..",. NEW CATALOG AVAILABLE! �';�.� �.�.'_". 128 Page, of ,tandardi,.d Pred,ion ,�,.;.-. Parts Qnd Components available for IMMEDIATE DELIVERY from '¥ � �!?orl�d· �p�c��ti�� dS�rk�t; � • SEND FOR YOUR COpy NOW. 132 PIC design corp.

Du'. of BENRUS \'V' ATCH Co., INC.

477 Atlantic Ave. East Rockaway, N. Y. You Get Things Done With Boardmaster Visual Control * Gives Graphic Picture of Your OperationsSpotlighted by Color * Facts at a glance-Saves Time, Saves Money, Prevents Errors * Simple to operate-Type or Write on Cards, Snap in Grooves * Ideal for Production, Traffic, Inventory, Scheduling, Sales, Etc. * Made of Metal. Compact and Attractive. Over 100,000 in Use Complete price $4950 including cards IF R EEl 24·PAGE BOOKLET NO. C-l00 Without Obligation Write for Your Copy Today GRAPHIC SYSTEMS 55 West 42nd Street. New York 36, N. Y. drunkenness or mental abnormality. Our language has terms that carry overtones of disapproval for postural noncom form ity: e.g., "sprawling," "slumping," "lounging," "cringing." I t seems quite clear that a better knowl- edge and understanding of postural habits could benefit us in many ways. At present nearly all our complex tools, in strument panels, control boards, benches, lathes, etc., have been planned for the use of people accustomed to the postural traditions of Western cultures. Human engineers might profitably consider a wider range of postures in planning for working or resting space requirements, not only because some of our traditional postures may be less efficient than those employed by Asians or Africans, but also because it might be easier to train our people to use a wider range of postures than to keep on trying to fit furniture de signed for drawing rooms, throne rooms or banquet halls into crowded quarters.

Some work has been done to adjust the human body to travel in very fast-mov ing aircraft(i.e., the prone position has been found best). But we ought to go much further and explore the possible usefulness to us of the various cross legged, squatting, kneeling and other postures which so many millions of peo ple outside the orbit of Western civiliza tion have found convenient for their daily work.

At a more basic level, the study of postural behavior could tell us much about functional relationships between postures and environment, about rela tionships between different cultures and about human history. One of the ques tions on which it might throw light is the biological evolution of man from our primate ancestors. The role of postural and motor-habit patterns in the processes of adaptation and selection which brought about changes in the shape of the pelvis, in limb proportions and in foot structure is one of the most impor tant themes in our attempt to understand the emergence of man. It has been ably discussed by a number of anatomists, paleontologists and physical anthropolo gists, but so far not within the context of a coordinated program of postural re search on all levels.

The well-known cultural anthropolo gist A. L. Kroeber once remarked that posture "is one of the most interesting matters in the whole range of customs." Even those who may not agree with this view must at least grant that we ought to learn a great deal more about human postural habits than we know at the present time. © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC by the drop in 1889 .. by the tanker todayl The first production of Formaldehyde in 1889 by Merchlin and Losekann was measured in a handful of kilograms and carefully doled out to laboratories and manufacturers. Today, Celanese alone regularly delivers millions of gallons of this workhorse chemical by tanker, barge, highway and rail. And today's Formaldehyde ... the Formaldehyde developed by progressive Celanese reo Basic reasons Acids Functional Fluids Polyols search ... is a specialized chemical produced in a variety of concentrations to meet specific process requirements, to help speed and improve the manufacture of thousands of products. Celanese, one of the world's largest producers of Formaldehyde, now supplies: Formalin (37%), Paraformaldehyde (fIake-91 %), Formcel Solution (Formaldehyde in specified alcohols) and Trioxane (anhydrous trimer). Harnessing this workhorse chemical into these much needed specialized types, as well as distributing them in continuous commercial quantities, are part of a Celanese program to render better service to industry through more productive basic materials. Celanese Corporation of America, Chemical Division, Dept. 58Z-B, 180 Madison Avenue, New York 16, N. Y. Celanese® Formcel® •. � ...... for improved products Alcohols Gasoline Additives Plasticizers t.�& Agricultural, automotive, aviation, building. electrical, paper, pharmaceutical, plastics, surface coatings, textile. Aldehydes Glycols Salts Anhydrides Ketones Solvents Esters Oxides Vinyl Monomers CHEMICALS © 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC