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received 09/09/10 Re vised 03/24/11 Accepted 11/16/11 g ender d ifferences in Contextual Predictors of u rban, e arly Adolescents’ Subjective Well-Being Elizabeth M. V era, B. Isabel Moallem, Kimberly R. V acek, Sha’kema Blackmon, Laura D. Coyle, Kenia L. Gomez, Kristen Lamp, Kimberly J. Langrehr , Paula Luginbuhl, Megan K. Mull, Kyle J. T elander, and J. Corey Steele gender differences in predicting subjective well-being (SWB) were examined in 168 urban adolescents. School satisfaction predicted life satisfaction for boys; for girls, family satisfaction predicted life satisfaction and neighborhood satisfaction predicted negative affect. Self-esteem predicted positive affect for both genders, but friends satisfaction and ethnic identity failed to predict SWB.

Keywords: adolescents of color, life satisfaction Se examinaron las diferencias de género al predecir el bienestar subjetivo (SWB, por sus siglas en inglés) de 168 adolescentes urbanos. La satisfacción escolar predijo la satisfacción vital en los chicos; en las chicas, la satisfacción familiar predijo la satisfacción vital, y la satisfacción en el vecindario predijo los sentimientos negativos. La autoestima predijo sentimientos positivos en ambos géneros, pero la satisfacción con los amigos y la identidad étnica no fueron predictores del SWB.

Palabras clave: adolescentes de color, satisfacción vital U rban adolescents have been the focus of a great deal of negative social science research (Rodriguez & Morrobel, 2004), and, as a result, far less is known of the psychological wellness of this population. Studies of subjective well-being (SWB) constitute one important area of research on positive mental health outcomes in adolescents. Researchers define SWB as encompass - ing three interrelated factors: global life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect (Lent, 2004; Robbins & Kliewer , 2000). The majority of studies in this area have focused on identifying individual correlates of SWB, such as self-esteem (Diener , Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999), as well as demographic predictors, such as income level, education, and marital status ( Oishi, D iener, L ucas, & S uh, 1 999). Although studies have found that overall SWB levels do not var y by gender , c lass, o r n ationality, t he c riteria o n w hich l ife s atisfaction i s a ssessed m ay Elizabeth M. Vera, B. Isabel Moallem, Kimberly R. Vacek, Sha’kema Blackmon, Laura D. Coyle, Kenia L. Gomez, Kristen Lamp, Kimberly J. Langrehr, Paula Luginbuhl, Megan K. Mull, Kyle J. Telander, and J. Corey Steele, Counseling Psychology Program, Loyola University Chicago. Sha’kema Blackmon is now at Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Research, University of Memphis.

Laura D. Coyle is now at Department of Psychology, Fayetteville State University. Paula Luginbuhl is now at Counseling Psychology Program, University of Oregon. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Elizabeth M. Vera, Counseling Psychology Program, School of Education, Loyola University Chicago, 820 North Michigan Avenue, Lewis Towers, Room 1145, Chicago, IL 60611 (e- mail: [email protected]). journal of Multicultural counseling and develop Ment • July 2012 • Vol. 40 175 be culturally dependent. For example, Diener , in a variety of international studies (e.g., Diener et al., 1999), has found that in collectivist cultures (i.e., where interdependence is emphasized over individuality), family well-being is a stronger predictor of life satisfaction than are individual variables (e.g., self-esteem), whereas in individualistic cultures, the opposite is true. Although the majority of this research has used cross-national comparisons, far less is known about contextual influences on SWB within diverse populations in the United States (Edwards & Lopez, 2006). Even less is known about these variables in adolescent populations. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine context-specific predictors of SWB in a diverse, urban, early adolescent sample.Understanding the contextual factors that influence the well-being of ado - lescents may be particularly valuable in working with urban adolescents, for whom cultural contexts (e.g., neighbor hood, school) may var y in terms of quality . For example, it may be that satisfaction with one’ s neighbor hood is more relevant to overall SWB of urban adolescents than would be the case in suburban samples. Additionally , for ethnic minority adolescents, who often constitute the majority of adolescents residing in urban contexts, the contexts of race and ethnicity may have relevance to overall SWB (Umaña-T aylor, Diversi, & Fine, 2002). Feeling good about one’ s ethnic group membership and having a strong, positive affiliation to those within that ethnic group have been found to be important predictors of many psychological outcomes in adolescents (Phinney & Ong, 2007). Sue and Constantine (2003) argued that any examination of well-being in ethnic minority populations should include ethnic identity in its design. Despite this admonition, relatively few studies have examined the role of ethnic identity in predicting SWB specifically .

One recent study that did examine contextual predictors of SWB in urban adolescents of color focused on determining whether culturally relevant contexts (e.g., ethnic identity , neighbor hood satisfaction) would significantly predict school satisfaction and overall life satisfaction (Shin, Morgan, Buhin, T ruitt, & V era, 2010). Although this study found that neighbor hood satisfaction was a significant predictor of both school and overall life satisfaction, ethnic identity was only a significant predictor of school satisfaction. Although the investigation does lend support to the hypothesis that the life satisfaction of urban, ethnic minority adolescents may be significantly influenced by con - textual factors, the study did not examine gender differences that may exist in predicting SWB in this population. Even though gender differences have not been found in overall levels of life satisfaction (Huebner , V alois, Paxton, & Drane, 2005), there are theo - retical reasons to believe that gender differences in predicting SWB merit i nvestigation. F or e xample, g ender i ntensification t heory s uggests t hat d uring adolescence, girls and boys become more sensitive to cultural expectations of gender roles in their beliefs and behaviors (Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 176 journal of Multicultural counseling and develop Ment • July 2012 • Vol. 40 2006). Accordingly , girls may become more relationship-focused and boys may become focused on behaviors for which they feel valued (e.g., sports). Thus, from a developmental perspective, gender differences in which factors influence overall well-being during this phase of life may then be expected. The limited research that has been done on contextual predictors of SWB suggests that gender may influence relationships between domain-specific satisfaction and well-being in adolescents. For example, Garnefski (2000) found that family variables were more strongly related to affective well-being in girls than in boys, whereas school va riables we re m ore s trongly re lated to th e d evelopment of be havioral disorders for boys. However , this study focused on only the prediction of negative mental health outcomes (i.e., depression, anxiety , conduct disorders) and not positive elements of SWB or life satisfaction. Thus, in addition to exploring the relevance of contextual factors and ethnic ide\�n - tity as predictors of SWB in a diverse, urban sample of early adolescents, the current study also focused on whether gender might moderate the relationships among these variables. On the basis of the existing research, this study focused on determining which types of contextual and identity variables (e.g., self-esteem, ethnic identity) might be significantly related to SWB in an urban, ethnic minor- ity adolescent sample. The study extends previous research that has found support for the importance of context and identity variables but has either failed to examine gender differences or examined only negative aspects of well-being as outcome variables. Thus, the following research questions guided the current study:

Resear ch Question 1: What relationships exist between SWB (i.e., positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction); ethnic identity; self-est eem; and satisfaction with family , school, friends, and neighbor hood in a sample of urban, ethnic minority adolescents?

Resear ch Question 2: Does satisfaction with specific contexts (e.g., family , school, friends, neighbor hood) and identity-related variables (i.e., ethnic identity , self-esteem) differentially predict SWB for boys versus girls in a sample of urban, ethnic minority adolescents? method participants Participants in the current study were 168 adolescents (55% male) enrolled in a public, urban school in a large midwestern city ranging in age from 12 to 15 years ( M = 13.5). The participants were Latino (52%), biracial (15%), journal of Multicultural counseling and develop Ment • July 2012 • Vol. 40 177 African American (10%), Middle Eastern (7%), Asian American (10%), Native American (2%), and European American (4%). Most participants (90%) qualified for free lunch programs at their school and were members of immigrant families, with 76% speaking a language other than English in the home.Measures Multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (MSLSS; Huebner , 1994) for chil- dren.

The MSLSS is a 40-item scale designed to measure five domains of life satisfaction:

family , friends, school, neighbor hood, and self-satisfaction (i.e., self-esteem).

Scores on each subscale range from 8 to 40. Higher scores on the subscales indicate greater satisfaction with the various domains. Sample items are “I enjoy being at home with my family” (Family subscale) and “My friends are great” (Friends subscale). Reliability of scores from diverse ado - lescents on the initial psychometric testing of the MSLSS subscales was found to range from .82 to .85 (Huebner , 1994). Evidence of construct validity was also supported by the author of the scale. Multi-Group Ethnic Identity Measure–Revised (MEIM-R; Phinney & Ong, 2006).

The MEIM-R is a six-item instrument that measures participants’ level of ex - ploration of their ethnic group membership and commitment to their ethnic group.

Scores range from 6 to 30. Higher scores indicate a higher level of commitment to and exploration of one’ s ethnic identity . The reliability of scores from this scale was estimated to be .81 by Phinney and Ong (2006). Construct validity was also provided by the authors of the scale after extensive psychometric testing of the measure with adolescents and young adults from multiple ethnic groups.

Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988).

The P ANAS is a 20-item brief measure designed to examine predominant affective states, a component of SWB. The measure consists of two subscales (10 items each) measuring positive and negative affect, respectively . Scores range from 10 to 50 for each subscale, with higher scores reflecting more frequent emotions in each categor y. Past research has shown that the P ANAS has adequate construct validity (W atson et al., 1988) and acceptable reliability , including studies with samples of diverse adolescents (Crocker , 1997; Huebner & Dew , 1995; V era et al., 2008). Satisfaction W ith Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985).

The SWLS is a five-item general measure of satisfaction with the quality of one’ s life (e.g., “I feel my life is close to per fect” and “If I could live my life over , I would change nothing”). Scores range from 5 to 35, with higher s cores in dicating g reater ov erall li fe s atisfaction. P ast r esearch ha s pr ovided support for the validity and reliability of this instrument with individuals of various ages and ethnicities (Pavot & Diener , 1993; V era et al., 2008). 178 journal of Multicultural counseling and develop Ment • July 2012 • Vol. 40 procedure Participants were recruited for the study in conjunction with a school-based outreach program aimed at enhancing decision-making skills and identity exploration. Separate consents were obtained for the psychoeducation and research components of the project such that participants in the psychoedu - cation program need not participate in the research aspect. The participants responded to the sur vey 1 week prior to the outreach program. Sur veys were read aloud to control for var ying reading abilities, and although a major- ity of the students were bilingual, all the students were able to respond to sur vey questions in English. A total of 187 adolescents, or all the students in the seventh and eighth grades of the school, were eligible for participation in the outreach program and research component. Because of absences on data collection day , the number of completed sur veys was 168. Institutional review board approval was obtained for this project. results Descriptive statistics were calculated for the variables of interest in this study (see T able 1). Prior to the inferential analyses, the data were examined for normal - ity, linearity , and outliers. T o address the first research question, we calculated correlation coefficients to estimate the relationships between the contextual predictor variables, self-esteem, ethnic identity , and SWB outcomes (i.e., life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect). The full correlation matrix is presented in Table 1. All the contextual variables had significant relationships with one or more components of SWB in predictable directions (e.g., family satisfaction was related to positive affect). Ethnic identity was significantly related to life satisfaction but not to either affective dimension of SWB. Table 1 Correlation Coefficient Matrix, Descriptive Statistics, and Reliability of Main Variables Variable 1.

f amily 2.

f r iends 3. School 4.

n B 5.

se 6.

ei 7.

ls 8 .

pa 9.

na 1 Note. family = family satisfaction; friends = friends satisfaction; school = school satisfaction; n B = neighborhood satisfaction; S e = self-esteem; e I = ethnic identity; LS = life satisfaction; PA = positive affect; n A = negative affect.

* p < .05. **p < .01.— .33** .43** .43** .52** .16* .52** .19* –.19*2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MSD a — .28** .31** .37** .24** .16 .18* –.16*— .35** .45** .30** .47** .26* –.09— .26* .21* .37** .12 –.30**— .27** .46** .43** –.19*— .20* .14 –.02 — .31** –.13 — .17* — 21.3 28.1 21.1 19.9 23.9 22.8 20.8 32.2 26.6 5.8 5.0 4.7 4.3 5.1 4.6 6.7 6.2 6.4 .91 .80 .79 .77 .86 .83 .80 .81 .83 journal of Multicultural counseling and develop Ment • July 2012 • Vol. 40 179 To address the second research question, we computed six multiple regres - sion equations to examine the ability of the predictor variables to account for significant variance in the SWB outcome variables. Three of the equations used data from the girls in the sample, and three focused on data from the boys.

For each equation, the predictor variables were ethnic identity , self- esteem, family satisfaction, school satisfaction, neighbor hood satisfaction, and friends satisfaction. The three outcome variables were life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect. W e used forced-entr y regression—as op - posed to hierarchical regression—because there were not sufficient studies conducted in this area to have specific hypotheses about which identity or context-specific predictors would be most relevant for the participants. W e used a .01 significance criterion to minimize T ype I error . The analyses for boys revealed the following set of patterns. With life satisfac - tion as the outcome variable, 47% of the variance was accounted for by all the predictors, and school satisfaction emerged as the only significant predictor . For the outcome variable of positive affect, 29% of the variance was explained by all the predictors, with self-esteem emerging as the only significant pre - dictor.

For the outcome variable of negative affect, 12% of the variance was explained overall, with no specific predictors being statistically significant. For girls, the total amount of variance in life satisfaction accounted for by all the predictors was 55%. The only significant predictor of life satisfaction was family satisfaction. For positive affect, 26% of the variance was explained by the full model, and self-esteem emerged as the only significant predictor . For negative affect, 24% of the variance was explained by the predictors, with only neighbor hood satisfaction emerging as a significant predictor . T ables 2 and 3 contain summar y statistics from these analyses. Table 2 Multiple Regression a nalyses for Predicting l ife Satisfaction Variable Boys e thnic identity family satisfaction fr iends satisfaction School satisfaction n eighborhood satisfaction Self-esteem g irls e thnic identity family satisfaction fr iends satisfaction School satisfaction n eighborhood satisfaction Self-esteem B Note. forced-entr y regression was used for the analysis.

** p < .01. SE B .01 .20 –.16 .54 .27 .13 .23 .53 –.18 .16 .16 .47b t .14 .14 .14 .16 .19 .14 .21 .20 .20 .21 .21 .27 .01 .19 –.14 .42 .17 .11 .12 .40 –.11 .09 .10 .30 0.05 1.41 –1.16 3.23** 1.41 0.91 1.08 2.62** –0.92 0.74 0.80 1.72 180 journal of Multicultural counseling and develop Ment • July 2012 • Vol. 40 discussion The results of the study suggest that context-specific variables are relevant to SWB in diverse, urban, early adolescents, which complements the research findings of G arnefski (2000), Huebner et al. (2005), and Shin et al. (2010). Although ethnic and neighbor hood contextual variables were significantly correlated with several SWB outcomes, both failed to emerge as significant predictors in the majority of the regression analyses, with one important ex - ception (i.e., neighbor hood satisfaction predicted negative affect for girls). Furthermore, gender was found to influence which contexts are most predic - tive of overall SWB within this sample. Specifically , family satisfaction, neigh - borhood satisfaction, and self-esteem were the most significant predictors of SWB for girls but not boys. For boys, school satisfaction and self-esteem were the most significant predictors of SWB. Although most of the results from the current investigation are consistent with previous studies (e.g., G arnefski, 2000), several new findings were revealed. For example, the importance of self-esteem for the well-being of boys and girls has been supported by past studies (Ben-Zur , 2003). Additionally, G arnefski (2000) found school satisfaction to predict boy’ s antisocial behavior . Because school is one domain in which competencies develop that contribute to the emerging self-concept of boys, it may be more closely tied to their SWB. Gen - der intensification theor y would predict such a finding (Ruble et al., 2006). On the other hand, for girls, self-concept may be defined more relationally Table 3 Multiple Regression a nalyses for Predicting Positive a ffect and Negative a ffect Variable Boys e thnic identity family satisfaction fr iends satisfaction School satisfaction n eighborhood satisfaction Self-esteem g irls e thnic identity family satisfaction fr iends satisfaction School satisfaction n eighborhood satisfaction Self-esteem B Note. forced-entr y regression was used for the analysis.

** p < .01. SE B .03 –.22 .20 .15 .06 .47 .25 .02 –.37 .00 .03 .57b t .15 .15 .15 .17 .21 .16 .11 .20 .21 .21 .20 .29 .02 –.21 .18 .13 .03 .42 .18 .02 –.30 .00 .02 .49 0.21 –1.39 1.34 0.88 0.28 2.85** 1.15 0.09 –1.79 –0.02 0.13 1.98**B SE B bt –.12 –.09 –.27 .14 –.03 .00 .33 .01 –.13 .09 –.51 –.36 .16 .16 .15 .18 .21 .17 .25 .23 .24 .24 .23 .33 –.11 –.09 –.26 .13 –.02 .00 .19 .01 –.09 .06 –.36 –.26 –0.79 –0.57 –1.73 0.81 –0.15 0.00 1.30 0.02 –0.56 0.39 –2.15** –1.09 Positive affect Negative affect journal of Multicultural counseling and develop Ment • July 2012 • Vol. 40 181 and by familial relationships in particular , hence the importance of family satisfaction to SWB for girls, also echoed in previous research (G arnefski, 2000) and theor y (Ruble et al., 2006). The failure of friends satisfaction to significantly predict any SWB variables may reflect some of the instability that comes with peer relationships at this age as a res ult of com mon so cial con flicts (e. g., bu llying and rel ational agg res- sion; Dolgin, 2011; V era et al., 2008). Thus, to protect well-being, adolescents may ground their evaluations of overall life satisfaction in more stable fac - tors, such as identity and family . This interpretation is supported by the fact that only positive and negative affect were significantly correlated to friends satisfaction in this sample, both of which are more likely to be influenced by day-to-day changes in friendship statuses.

The importance of neighbor hood and ethnic domains to SWB in urban, early adolescents has not been definitively determined by previous research. In this data set, neighbor hood satisfaction was relevant only to predicting girls’ negative affect. Many past studies have indicated that neighbor hood v ariables a re r elated t o p sychopathology i n u rban a dolescents ( Schaefer- McDaniel, 2007). This study in general suggests that even negative percep - tions of neighbor hood satisfaction do not preclude the existence of positive a ffect a nd ov erall li fe s atisfaction, a ho peful fi nding. I t i s i nteresting, ho wever, that neighbor hood satisfaction was predictive of negative affect for girls. It is possible that for early adolescent girls, who are now more likely to spend time in the neighbor hood without their parents’ super vision, problems re - lated to the neighbor hood (e.g., safety concerns, unwanted attention from males) may begin to elicit negative affect more than would be the case for their male counterparts.A per haps more unexpected finding in this study is the failure of ethnic identity to emerge as a significant predictor of SWB despite previous find - ings (Edwards & Lopez, 2006; Y oon, Lee, & Goh, 2008). This result could be an indication of the perceived salience of ethnicity in the lives of early adolescents as a result of school context. Although the participants att\�end a relatively diverse school, it is a majority–minority school where Latinos and other minorities are the largest ethnic group. Sellers (e.g., Sellers, Chavous, & Cooke, 1998) conducted research on racial centrality , or salience, for eth - nic minority youth suggesting that centrality affects patterns of relationships between rac ial ide ntity an d aca demic out comes. Fu rthermore, Sh in et al. (2010) failed to find evidence that ethnic identity was significantly related to overall life satisfaction.

l i M itations This study has several shortcomings. First, although the sample size was large enough for the analyses conducted, it was too small to examine some interaction effects (e.g., between the predictors, gender , and ethnic group); 182 journal of Multicultural counseling and develop Ment • July 2012 • Vol. 40 these interaction effects are more difficult to detect because they typically account for small amounts of variance and require greater power and, thus, larger samples (Jaccard, T urrisi, & W an, 1990). Second, the participants all lived in the same neighbor hood and attended the same school. It was also not possible to examine racial differences given the number of non-Latino participants in our sample.

iM plications for c ounseling Prevention programs and inter ventions aimed at enhancing well-being in urban adolescents of color may be informed by the results of this study . Given the unique influence of school satisfaction on the overall life satisfaction of boys but not girls, it may be important for counselors to foster experiences that enhance school belonging for boys, such as participation in teams or clubs.

Although this may not be a new type of inter vention per se, it may be particularly important for urban, ethnic minority male adolescents, who are at greater risk for dropping out of school and, consequently , finding fewer o pportunities f or c onventional s uccess i n t heir f uture c areers ( Orfield, L osen, W ald, & Swanson, 2004). Because family satisfaction was predictive of overall life satisfaction for girls, it may be important to design inter ventions that include family members or create opportunities for girls to strengthen the support they receive from family in efforts to enhance their SWB (e.g., family therapy). Attending to negative neighbor hood influences that may exacerbate negative affect for urban female adolescents may also be important in counseling inter ventions. Such inter ventions might be less culturally relevant for adolescents residing in rural or suburban environments. Finally, the importance of self-esteem in predicting SWB for both boys and girls suggests that it is important for coun - selors to rely on traditional inter ventions to enhance self-esteem in positive mental health promotion efforts.

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