300 words soc religion disscussion bored

R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 1 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 Prin t P u b lic atio n D ate :

Fe b 2011 Sub je ct:

Re lig io n, S ocia l S cie nce S tu d ie s o f R e lig io n Onlin e P u b lic atio n D ate :

Sep 2009 DO I:

10 .1 0 93/o xfo rd hb /9 78019 958 8961.0 13 .0 011 Relig io n a n d P ow er Meerte n B . te r B org The O xfo rd H an db ook o f th e S ocio lo gy o f R elig io n Edit e d b y P ete r B . C la rk e O xfo rd H an dbooks O nlin e Abstr a ct a nd K eyw ord s T his a rtic le e xam in es th e w ork in gs o f r e lig io us p ow er. It d esc rib es h ow p eople e xert p ow er o ver e ach o th er b y m eans o f ‘r e lig io n’, b y r e fe re nce to m atte rs o f w hic h th e e xis te nce c annot b e p ro ven o r fa ls if ie d b y s c ie ntif ic m eans. T he d is c ussio n fir s t d esc rib es th e te rm s ‘p ow er’ a nd ‘r e lig io n’, a nd m erg es th e tw o in to ‘r e lig io us p ow er’. It a ls o in tr o duces a h ypoth esis a bout th e fu nctio nin g o f r e lig io us p ow er, d em onstr a tin g th is w it h a r a th er c urio us e xam ple o f r e lig io us p ow er k n ow n a s p illa ris a tio n in th e N eth erla nds in th e fir s t h alf o f th e tw entie th c entu ry , a nd it s r e le vance fo r th e s it u atio n in th e w orld to day.

K eyw ord s: re lig io us p ow er , pilla ris a tio n , Neth erla nds , re lig io n , pow er I n tro ductio n I n th is e ssa y, I w ill in vestig ate th e w ork in gs o f r e lig io us p ow er. H ow is it p ossib le th at p eople e xert p ow er o ver e ach o th er b y m eans o f ‘r e lig io n’, b y r e fe re nce to m atte rs o f w hic h th e e xis te nce c annot b e p ro ved ( o r in deed fa ls if ie d) b y s c ie ntif ic m eans?

I w ill fir s t d esc rib e th e te rm s ‘p ow er’ a nd ‘r e lig io n’, n o e asy ta sk to b egin w it h , a nd th en m erg e th e tw o in to ‘ r e lig io us p ow er’. A c le ar d is tin ctio n m ust b e m ade b etw een r e lig io us p ow er, o n th e o ne h and, a nd th e p ow er o f r e lig io us le aders a nd in stit u tio ns, o n th e o th er. O nce a c erta in d egre e o f c onceptu al c la rit y h as b een a tta in ed, I w ill i n tr o duce a h ypoth esis a bout th e fu nctio nin g o f r e lig io us p ow er. I w ill d em onstr a te th is w it h a r a th er c urio us e xam ple o f r e lig io us p ow er k n ow n a s p illa riz atio n in th e N eth erla nds in th e fir s t h alf o f th e tw entie th c entu ry , a nd it s r e le vance fo r th e s it u atio n in th e w orld to day.

A M atte r o f D efin it io n A s te rm s, ‘p ow er’ a nd ‘r e lig io n’ h ave a t le ast th is m uch in c om mon, th at to r e ach c onceptu al a gre em ent a bout th eir p re cis e m eanin g s e em s n ext to im possib le . (p . 1 95) This is d ue to th e fa ct th at w e a re d ealin g h ere w it h b asic e le m ents o f h um an e xis te nce. P o w er a nd r e lig io n a re b oth c orn ers to nes o f h um an lif e . N ot o nly a re p ow er a nd r e lig io n a lm ost to o p re cario us to b e a naly se d, th ey a re a ls o w ell- n ig h u nid entif ia ble . T hey a re a lw ays p re se nt, o ne w ay o r a noth er, in te gra te d w it h e very th in g h um an b ein gs a re a nd d o. T hey a re a lm ost im perv io us to o bje ctiv e a naly sis , w hic h d em ands th at w e is o la te th em fr o m th eir c onte xt. C onse quently , th ese te rm s n eed to b e r e defin ed a ll th e tim e, d ependin g o n th e s it u atio n, a nd n o s in gle d efin it io n is tr u ly s a tis fy in g. If w e a re to d efin e r e lig io n o r p ow er, w e m ust d is e nta ngle th em fr o m lif e , a nd th at is a lw ays u nsa tis fa cto ry . B ut it c an p ro vid e u s w it h c oncepts t h at h elp o ur u nders ta ndin g o f h um an lif e .

R elig io n p ro vid es a n a nsw er to th e h um an c ondit io n. It h elp s h um an b ein gs to c om e to te rm s w it h a nd c ope w it h R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 2 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 t h eir v uln era bilit y , fa llib ilit y , a nd m orta lit y . It le nds h um an e xis te nce m eanin g in s p it e o f o ur fin it e ness. It g iv es p eople th e h ope a nd c oura ge to c ontin ue, in s p it e o f th e o verw helm in g e vid ence o f h opele ssn ess. I d o n ot lim it th e t e rm ‘r e lig io n’ to b elie f in a g od. B elie f in p olit ic al d octr in es, s u ch a s c om munis m o r fa sc is m , c an a ls o b e r e lig io us in n atu re , a s c an ad h oc r e lig io us m ovem ents fo cusin g o n fo otb all s ta rs , p op s ta rs , e tc . I w ill n ot d w ell o n s u ch ‘ im plic it r e lig io n’ b ecause it is d ealt w it h e ls e w here in th is v olu m e ( C hapte r 44 ). It c an, h ow ever, b e s u bje ct to th e s a m e d ynam ic s in r e la tio n to p ow er a s is r e lig io n in th e m ore tr a dit io nal s e nse .

W hen I s p eak a bout r e lig io n, I a m r e fe rrin g to pow ers , m eanin gs, o r r e alit ie s t h at t ra nsce nd w hat is o rd in arily t h ought o f a s h um an . W it h th is b ro ad a ppro ach I a void m any o f th e d if fic ult ie s th at a re d is c usse d in th e e xte nsiv e l it e ra tu re o n th is to pic . I a void q uestio ns o f b elie f a nd d is b elie f, o n th e o ne h and, a nd r it u al, o n th e o th er, a s w ell a s t h e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een fe elin g a nd th ought. W it h th e p hra se ‘to tr a nsc end w hat is o rd in arily th ought o f a s h um an’, t h e d efin it io n is s u bsta ntia l ( ra th er th an fo rm al o r fu nctio nal) , w hile h avin g a m ple s c ope.

‘ P o w er’ is a q ualit y in here nt in a ll h um an r e la tio nsh ip s, a t le ast p artly d ete rm in in g th e c hara cte r o f a s o cie ty . T he s ig nif ic ance o f p ow er to e very in div id ual m ake s it in to s o m eth in g th at is d esir a ble , in tim id atin g, a nd d angero us. O ne m ig ht s a y th at th is a lo ne g iv es p ow er s o m eth in g o f th e s a cre d.

I n th is e ssa y, I w ill m ake n o d is tin ctio n b etw een p ow er a nd s o cia l p ow er. F ro m th is p oin t o n, I w ill u se th e te rm ‘ p ow er’ a s s h orth and fo r ‘s o cia l p ow er’. Socia l p ow er is t h e c h ance o f g ettin g p eople t o d o t h in gs . T his d efin it io n i s s im ple a nd a bstr a ct. It a bstr a cts fr o m th e p re condit io ns m any e xperts s e t to b e a ble to r e ally s p eak a bout p ow er:

f o r in sta nce, th at it s h ould in volv e c onfr o nta tio n, in equalit y , c onflic tin g in te re sts , c oerc io n, o r e ven v io le nce. In m y v ie w , s o cia l p ow er c an in clu de p ers u asio n, c onse nsu s, a nd c onse nt. W it h r e lig io us p ow er th is is o fte n th e c ase .

( p . 1 96) My c oncept a ls o a bstr a cts fr o m th e s c ope o f p ow er; in m y v ie w , it h as a r o le to p la y in fa ce-to -fa ce r e la tio ns, o n a g lo bal s c ale , a nd a nyw here in b etw een. P o w er d oes n ot n ecessa rily r e quir e e xplic it d ecis io n m akin g o r a ctio n. W it h r e lig io us p ow er, d ecis io ns a re o fte n im plic it o r n on-e xis te nt, a nd p assiv it y c erta in ly h as a r o le to p la y.

B ut it s till r e m ain s n ecessa ry to d efin e th e c om bin atio n: r e lig io us p ow er. H ere w e m ust d is tin guis h b etw een t h e ‘p ow er o f a r e lig io n’ a nd ‘r e lig io us p ow er’. T he p ow er o f r e lig io n is a p ow er o f: o f r e lig io us fu nctio narie s, o f r e lig io us o rg aniz atio ns, a nd o f in stit u tio ns. T hose w ho d is c uss th e p ow er o f a r e lig io n u su ally r e fe r to i n stit u tio naliz ed r e lig io n, w it h out e xplic atin g th e s o urc es o f p ow er. T hese n eed n ot b e r e lig io us in c hara cte r.

I n deed, th e p ow er o f r e lig io us fu nctio narie s o r in stit u tio ns c an d eriv e fr o m a nyth in g. T he p ow er o f th e R om an C ath olic C hurc h in th e e arly M id dle A ges w as b ase d a s m uch o n it s m onopoly o f th e a rt o f w rit in g a s o n it s m onopoly in p ro vid in g th e s a cra m ents . T he p ow er o f C ard in al d e R ic helie u in s e vente enth -c entu ry F ra nce r e ste d o n a c om bin atio n o f tr a dit io n a nd p olit ic al c om pete nce, r a th er th an o n h is p ie ty .

T he p ow er o f r e lig io n is n ot th e fo cal p oin t o f th is e ssa y. It is r e lig io us p ow er, r e fe rrin g to th e s o urc e o f p ow er. It is ‘ p ow er fr o m ’ r a th er th an ‘p ow er o f’. I c an n ow d efin e ‘r e lig io us p ow er’ a s fo llo w s: th e c h ance o f g ettin g p eople t o d o t h in gs, b y m akin g r e fe re nce t o ‘ re alit ie s ’ or m eanin gs t h at t ra nsce nd w hat is o rd in arily t h ought o f a s h um an .

T his w ork in g d efin it io n w ill s u ffic e fo r th e p urp ose s o f th is e ssa y.

P o w er a nd B arte r, C apabilit ie s a nd D esir e s T o u nders ta nd th e e xerc is e o f p ow er, it is u se fu l to v ie w it a s a k in d o f b arte r. F ro m th is p ers p ectiv e, th e e xerc is e o f s o cia l p ow er c an b e s e en to d epend o n th e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een c apabilit ie s, o n th e o ne h and, a nd d esir e s, o n t h e o th er. S om eone's p ow er o bvio usly d epends o n h is o w n c apacit ie s to p ro vid e w hat th e o th er p arty d esir e s. B ut i t a ls o d epends o n th e in te nsit y o f th ose d esir e s. If th at in te nsit y is lo w , if th e o th er p arty h ard ly c are s w heth er o r n ot h is d esir e s a re fu lf ille d, th e r e su lt in g p ow er b ase d o n a c apacit y to p ro vid e fo r th ose d esir e s is n ot v ery g re at. If t h e d esir e s a re in te nse , if th e o th er p arty fe els h ard ly a ble to c ope w it h out th eir fu lf ilm ent, th e r e su lt in g p ow er is v ery g re at. E xam ple s fr o m th e e ro tic s p here im media te ly s p rin g to m in d. T he m is tr e ss w hose lo ver w ill d o a nyth in g f o r o ne g la nce, o ne k in d w ord , lo se s th is p ow er a s th e la tte r's lo ve d im in is h es. T he e conom ic p ow er o ver a n a sc etic m onk is a g ood e xam ple o f w hat I m ean. B y (p . 1 97) mit ig atin g h is m ate ria l d esir e s, th e h erm it c an p ra ctic ally s h ake o ff e conom ic p ow er. A noth er r e le vant e xam ple is th e s u ic id e te rro ris t, w hose la ck o f d esir e to liv e g iv es h im p ow er o ver h is o pponent, w hose o nly h ope is to g et b ack h om e s a fe ly . If p ow er d epends o n b oth c apabilit y a nd d esir e , in th e p hysic al, e conom ic , a nd e ro tic fie ld s, w hat a bout r e lig io us s o urc es o f p ow er?

1 2 R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 3 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 A F u nctio n f o r R elig io n in t h e S urv iv a l o f t h e H um an S pecie s R elig io n d eriv es fr o m th e h um an c apacit y fo r tr a nsc endence. H ere I d o n ot u nders ta nd ‘tr a nsc endence’ a s a d iv in e a ttr ib ute , a c hara cte ris tic o f a g od o r a g odly p la ce, b ut a s a h um an c apabilit y .

T he c apacit y to tr a nsc end is th e i m agin atio n to lo ok b eyond th e h ere a nd n ow . It e nable s h um an b ein gs to s h if t th e lim it s o f th eir w orld b eyond th e i m media te h oriz ons o f s p ace a nd tim e. T hey c an im agin e w orld s im perc eptib le to th eir s e nse s. T hey a re a ls o a ble t o tr a nsc end th eir o w n p hysic alit y . T hey a re a ble to im agin e p la ces o r w ays in w hic h th ey w ill c ontin ue to liv e o n a fte r d eath .

T his h um an c apacit y h as a dvanta ges a nd d is a dvanta ges. O ne o f th e a dvanta ges is th at h um an b ein gs a re c apable o f c re atin g th eir o w n w orld v ie w , im ply in g th at th ey a re p artly c apable o f c re atin g th eir o w n w orld . H ence t h e g re at v arie ty o f w orld v ie w s a nd c ult u re s g re atly e xceeds w hat h as b een d ete rm in ed b io lo gic ally . T his i n cre ase s th e s p ecie s' c hances o f s u rv iv al. It h elp s h um an b ein gs to fig ht th e th re ats p ose d b y th e p hysic al w orld .

F o r in sta nce, it is tr a nsc endence w hic h e nable s h um an b ein gs to b uild d yke s a gain st a p ossib le r is e in s e a-le vel o r t o ir rig ate th e d ese rt. B oth o n th e s o cie ta l a nd o n th e in div id ual le vel, th e c apacit y to tr a nsc end th e h ere a nd n ow m ake s it p ossib le to p la n fo r th e fu tu re , a nd th us in cre ase th e c hance o f s u rv iv al.

B ut th e h um an u rg e to tr a nsc end th e h ere a nd n ow a ls o h as s ig nif ic ant d is a dvanta ges: h um an b ein gs c an b ecom e a w kw ard ly — in deed, te rrif y in gly — aw are o f th e u lt im ate h opele ssn ess o f th eir s it u atio n. T hey k n ow th ey w ill d ie , th ey f e ar th ey m ig ht s u ffe r, th ey a re a nxio us th at th ey m ig ht fa il. T hey s e nse th at th e c ult u ra l ‘r e alit y ’ th ey liv e in is s h adow y, a nd th at ‘r e alit y ’ a nd ‘tr u th ’ a re c ontin ually b ein g ta m pere d w it h . S uch in sig hts c an le ad to a p ara ly sin g f e ar, c ancellin g o ut th e a dvanta ges o f th is c apacit y to tr a nsc end. U lt im ate ly , p eople c an s u rv iv e, p hysic ally a nd e m otio nally , in a s ta te o f s u ch onto lo gic a l in se cu rit y o nly fo r a lim it e d p erio d (p . 1 98) of tim e. T hey h ave a s tr o ng d esir e fo r a nyth in g th at c an lib era te th em fr o m th is p ara ly sin g c ondit io n.

L u ckily , th e c apacit y fo r tr a nsc endence th at is th e s o urc e o f th is lu rk in g a nxie ty c an a ls o p ro vid e it s s o lu tio n. T he a bilit y to d oubt, to th e p oin t o f to ta l d esp air , a ls o im plie s th e a bilit y to im agin e ‘r e alit ie s’ o r d evelo p m eanin gs th at c an lim it th e d am age, th at c an g iv e a p urp ose to a ny s ta te o f m is e ry , o r c om pensa te fo r it . T hese r e alit ie s c an, b ut n eed n ot, b e g ods, o r s p ir it s . A ny r e alit y , s p ecif ic o r a bstr a ct, th at is c onceiv ed o f a s o utla stin g, o verc om in g, o r s u rp assin g h um an fr a ilt y c an p erfo rm th e jo b.

R elig io n, th en, is a p la yer in th e c onte st b etw een h um an fr a ilt y a nd tr a nsc endence. It lie s in th e a lt e rn atio n b etw een a n a w are ness o f fin it e ness a nd v uln era bilit y , o n th e o ne h and, a nd fa it h in ‘r e alit ie s’ o r m eanin gs th at c an m it ig ate t h is p ara ly sin g fe ar, o n th e o th er. V ic to ry is w hen fe ar is tu rn ed in to it s o pposit e : h ope. W hat p eople n eed, t h ere fo re , is p erh aps n ot r e lig io n a s s u ch, b ut o nto lo gic al s e curit y . T hey n eed to fe el th at th eir w orld v ie w , th e m eanin gs th ey a tta ch to th e w orld a ro und th em , w ill h old .

W here ver a nd w henever o nto lo gic al s e curit y b ecom es s h aky , o r s h ow s s e rio us d efe cts , a d esir e a ris e s to r e pair it .

A w id e v arie ty o f s tr a te gie s h ave b een d evelo ped to m ain ta in a s ta te o f o nto lo gic al s e curit y .

H um an b ein gs a re t h us o ccupie d in r e pair in g a nd s tr e ngth enin g th eir w orld v ie w a nd b oostin g th eir o nto lo gic al s e curit y o r a s u bsta ntia l p art o f th eir liv es.

U lt im ate ly , h ow ever, th is r e para tio n a nd s tr e ngth enin g o f a w orld v ie w c annot b e d one in h um an te rm s. A n a nchor i s n eeded, w hic h c an b e th ro w n o ut to s te ady th e s h ip , a nd a llo w it to w eath er th e s to rm . T here is a fu ndam enta l n eed fo r a s u perh um an ‘r e alit y ’, a n u lt im ate g uara nte e a gain st th e u nderm in in g o f a w orld v ie w a nd th e fe ar a nd d esp air th at e nsu e. R elig io n m eets th is n eed. It o ffe rs ‘s a lv atio n’ fr o m h um an fa llib ilit y a nd th e fa llib ilit y o f th e h um anly c onstr u cte d w orld v ie w . It is th e fin al a ntid ote a gain st th e n egativ e e ffe cts o f m an's c apabilit y to t r a nsc end. F ro m th is p ers p ectiv e, r e lig io us m eanin gs th at m anage to g uara nte e s te adfa st o nto lo gic al s e curit y a re e sse ntia l to th e c ontin ued e xis te nce o f th e h um an s p ecie s.

S ym bo lic a nd R elig io us P o w er I n o rd er to g ain a b ette r u nders ta ndin g o f r e lig io us p ow er, it is im porta nt to in vestig ate it s r e la tio n to s y m bolic p ow er. W hoever is c apable o f s a tis fy in g th e d esir e fo r o nto lo gic al s e curit y p osse sse s s y m bolic p ow er.

( p . 1 99) Pe ople a re c ontin ually h elp in g e ach o th er to m ain ta in o r r e sto re th eir o nto -lo gic al s e curit y b y c onfir m in g c om monly u nders to od m eanin gs. In th is s e nse , e very body p osse sse s a c erta in a m ount o f s y m bolic p ow er o ver 3 4 5 6 R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 4 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 e very body e ls e . E very body c an to s o m e d egre e g iv e o r w it h hold w hat o th ers d esir e to h ave: c onfir m atio n o f m eanin g a nd, u lt im ate ly , o nto lo gic al s e curit y . T his b arte rin g p ro cess ta ke s p la ce o n m any d if fe re nt le vels , fr o m th e i n te rio r m onolo gue o f th e in div id ual to o rd in ary c onvers a tio n to th e m ass m edia . O f c ours e , in equalit y p la ys a r o le h ere , a s in a ny o th er s p here o f p ow er. S om e a re m ore in n eed o f c onfir m atio n, a nd o th ers a re b ette r e quip ped to g iv e it .

T his e xchange o f r e assu ra nces is h ig hly c om plic ate d, p artic ula rly in o ur e ver m ore c om plic ate d s o cie ty .

C onfir m atio n o f m eanin g h as a te m pora l d im ensio n: p eople c an a ppeal to a ncie nt te xts o r to fr a gm ents o f a f o rg otte n m ovie , b ut a ls o to e xpecta tio ns fo r th e fu tu re . A nyone w ho lo se s h is w ay a nd fa ils to m ain ta in h is s e nse o f o nto lo gic al s e curit y c an c all u pon e xperts : fr o m c le ric s to p ers o nal c oaches.

H ere th e r e lig io us d im ensio n e nte rs in . A nyone w ho is u nable to s o lv e th e p ro ble m b y n orm al m eans— th at is , b y m utu al c onfir m atio n o f m eanin g— may c ra ve a s tr o nger a ntid ote . T his d esir e fo r u lt im ate s e curit y c re ate s th e o pportu nit y a nd s c ope fo r r e lig io us p ow er. W hen o rd in ary , h um an p artic ip ants in th e in te ra ctio n fa il to u phold o nto lo gic al s e curit y , s u perh um an ‘r e alit ie s’ w hic h s u rp ass h um an s h ortc om in gs s till c an. T his is th e d om ain o f r e lig io n. W hoever h as th e c apacit ie s to a ffir m , s tr e ngth en, o r r e sto re o nto lo gic al s e curit y b y m eans o f s u perh um an r e alit ie s a nd m eanin gs c an w ie ld r e lig io us p ow er.

H ere , a s in o th er s p here s o f p ow er, c apabilit y m eets d esir e .

T he n eed fo r r e lig io us c onfir m atio n o f a w orld v ie w , o f th e d efin it io n o f a s it u atio n, o f th e a sp ir a tio ns p eople m ig ht h ave, o f th e r o le th ey p erc eiv e fo r th em se lv es, a nd s o fo rth , o ccurs m ore fr e quently th an o ne m ig ht e xpect.

W henever a c ris is lo om s, a w orld v ie w c om es u nder p re ssu re , a nd r e lig io us r e in fo rc em ent b ecom es a w elc om e a nd e ven in dis p ensa ble s u pple m ent to o th er m eans o f s y m bolic p ow er. M ost p eople w ill, h ow ever, s e ek a nd fin d a s u perh um an o r r e lig io us c onfir m atio n o f th eir w orld v ie w w ell b efo re th e fir s t c ra cks a ppear.

R elig io us E m po w erm ent S o h ow d o s u perh um an r e alit ie s o r m eanin gs g uara nte e o nto lo gic al s e curit y ?

P e ople im agin e th at s o m eth in g o r s o m eone w ho s u rp asse s th e lim it a tio ns o f h um an b ein gs, h um an b odie s a nd m in ds, c an g uara nte e th e a dequacy o f th eir (p . 2 00) world v ie w . T he w ay in w hic h D esc arte s m anaged to a nchor h is w orld v ie w is a n e xam ple o f th is in it s m ost n ake d fo rm . G od, D esc arte s c la im ed, is p erfe ct, a nd a p erfe ct b ein g w ould n ot lie to h im ( D esc arte s 1996 [ 1 637] ). In th is w ay, G od g uara nte es o nto lo gic al s e curit y fo r D esc arte s, p ro vid in g h im w it h a fo undatio n fo r h is th oughts a nd a ctio ns. T hus, D esc arte s le ft d oubt b ehin d, b ooste d h is w orld v ie w , a nd fo und n ew e nerg y in h is n otio n o f d iv in it y .

O th er p eople h ave s im ila r e xperie nces, th ough th ey e xpre ss th em in a m ore e m otio nal w ay: ‘I h ad th e fe elin g th at G od a ppro ved o f w hat I th ought o r d id o r w ante d.’ O r, a m ore s u bje ctiv e, s e cula r v aria nt: ‘S om eth in g in sid e m e to ld m e it w as r ig ht.’ T his is o ne o f th e fu nctio ns o f p ra yer: to e voke o nto lo gic al s e curit y b y th e a ssu m ed c onta ct w it h a s u perh um an r e alit y , to e m pow er th e b elie ver to c ontin ue w it h h is o r h er lif e . P ra yer is e m pow erm ent, in s o fa r a s it g iv es p eople t h e r e assu ra nce th ey n eed to a ct. S uch e m pow erm ent is m ade p ossib le b y th e h um an im agin atio n. It c an b e c onsid ere d a s s e lf - e m pow erm ent, a s p ow er p eople e xerc is e o ver th em se lv es.

I t b ecom es s o cia l p ow er o nce o th er p eople b ecom e in volv ed: w it n esse s, w ho c onfir m th e e xis te nce o f a s u perh um an e ntit y o r p rin cip le . B ecause p eople a re s o cia l b ein gs, w ho d epend o n o th ers fo r th eir o nto lo gic al s e curit y , s o cie ty a lw ays p la ys a r o le . T his is e ven th e c ase fo r s e lf - e m pow erm ent, b ase d o n im agin atio n.

I m agin atio n w ork s w it h in th e b ounds o f tr a dit io n, o r a t le ast u se s tr a dit io n a s a s p rin gboard . T he g od w ho c onfir m ed t h e w orld v ie w fo r D esc arte s w as th e tr a dit io nal, C hris tia n G od. T he s tr e ngth o f th at tr a dit io n m ade it v ery e asy fo r t h is g od to e sc ape fr o m th e p hilo so pher's r a dic al d oubt.

S o w hat a ppears to b e a s o lit a ry e xperie nce is in fa ct a s o cia l a ct. R elig io us s e lf - e m pow erm ent d epends o n i n te ra ctio ns th at h ave ta ke n p la ce in th e p ast, o f c om mon m eanin gs th at th e b elie ver h as in te rn aliz ed. P e ople p ra yin g o fte n s im ply d o w hat th ey h ave b een ta ught. T hey a re u sin g th eir ‘r e lig io us c apit a l’ a cquir e d th ro ugh y ears o f tr a in in g, to b oost th eir w orld v ie w a nd o nto lo gic al s e curit y . T he s a m e h old s fo r D esc arte s. In r e gain in g o nto lo gic al s e curit y , p eople m ake g ood u se o f a w ell- te ste d w ay o f th in kin g, a r ip e s e t o f m eanin gs a nd r u le s, e ven w hen a ctin g in u tm ost p riv acy.

7 R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 5 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 W hat D esc arte s a nd p ra yin g b elie vers d o is u se th eir r e lig io us c apit a l to g iv e th eir w orld v ie w a n u nassa ila ble c erta in ty . T his c apit a l is in stit u tio naliz ed r e lig io us p ow er, in s o fa r a s it p ro vid es fo r th e in div id ual's d esir e o r n eed t o a nchor h is o nto lo gic al s e curit y . T hro ugh th e in div id ual, th e w orld v ie w c ould b e s a id to r e affir m it s e lf .

B eare rs o f R elig io us P o w er E ven th ough s e lf - e m pow erm ent is s o cia l, it s s o cia l n atu re c an r e m ain w ell h id den. P e ople e xperie nce it a s a p riv ate a ctiv it y , a nd o nly a fe w h erm it s fe el th at it fu lly (p . 2 01) sa tis fie s th eir n eeds. H um ans a re s o cia l c re atu re s, a nd t h is m eans th at th ey r e quir e c onfir m atio n w hic h is e xplic it ly s o cia l in n atu re . T his is w hat is e nacte d in r e lig io us, s o cia l r it u al. In th is s e ttin g p eople c an h elp e ach o th er a chie ve a s ta te w hic h D urk h eim c alls effe rv esce nce ( D urk h eim 1915 : 2 10f.) , in w hic h e m otio ns a nd in te lle ct jo in fo rc es to r a is e o ne's w orld v ie w b eyond d oubt. T his c om mon e xperie nce c an b e r e calle d la te r, in in te ra ctio ns o r in m em ory . T he v ery m em ory o f efe rv esce nce c an l e ad to s e lf - e m pow erm ent, b oth in div id ual a nd c olle ctiv e, in o th er s it u atio ns. B ut n ot o nly th at. B y c heris h in g th is c olle ctiv e m em ory , b y r e peatin g p arts o f it , o r b y a dju stin g o ne's b ehavio ur to it , p eople h ave tim e a nd tim e a gain b een a ble to r e affir m th e r e alit y o f th e d iv in e a nchor o f th eir w orld v ie w . B ecause p eople d epend u pon e ach o th er t o fu lf il th eir d esir e fo r a nchora ge a nd th eir n eed fo r c olle ctiv e r it u al, th ey c an b e s a id to w ie ld r e lig io us p ow er o ver e ach o th er. C olle ctiv e r e lig io us e m pow erm ent im plie s m utu al r e lig io us p ow er. T his c olle ctiv e s e lf - e m pow erm ent c an l e ad to p eace o f m in d a nd p ro vid e s e lf - c onfid ence, a nd s o m etim es m ore th an th at.

B ut c olle ctiv e e nhancem ent o f o nto lo gic al s e curit y h as it s d ra w backs. M em orie s a re n ot v ery p re cis e ; liv in g t o geth er is a lw ays a m big uous; a nd o th ers c an u nderm in e s e lf - c onfid ence o r p unis h a rro gance. C onflic t th re ate ns.

P e ople m ay s e ek to u se th e r e lig io us p ow er th ey h ave o ver o th ers to p urs u e c erta in a gendas o r to o rg aniz e c olle ctiv e r it u al o r r e affir m r e lig io us m em orie s in e xchange fo r o th er a dvanta ges a nd p riv ile ges. T hus r e lig io us p ow er b ecom es y et a noth er w eapon in th e p ow er s tr u ggle th at c onstit u te s h um an s o cie ty .

T he n eed a ris e s e ventu ally fo r p ers o ns w it h r e lig io us a uth orit y , to im pose d ecis io ns w it h r e gard to r e lig io us c onflic ts o r d ile m mas. G enera lly , th e p re fe re nce is fo r s o m eone in a s p ecia l p osit io n, w hic h m eans s o m eone ( a ) d evoid o f p ers o nal in te re st a nd ( b ) c lo se r th an m ost to th e u nassa ila ble d iv in it y . In fa m ily c onflic ts , th is c ould b e th e h ead o f th e fa m ily , in tr ib es th e h ead o f th e tr ib e. In th e s e lf - e m pow erm ent o f a N ew A ge a dhere nt, it c ould b e a n I n dia n g uru . W hat p eople a re a ctu ally d oin g w hen th ey s u bm it th eir d ile m mas a nd d oubts to r e lig io us a uth orit y is to d ele gate th eir o w n r e lig io us p ow er to s o m ebody e ls e , h opin g fo r a h ig her r e tu rn . In th eir q uest fo r a s u perh um an g uara nte e fo r th eir w orld v ie w , th ey r e aliz e th at th e e ffic acy o f th eir o w n s e lf - e m pow erm ent o r m utu al e xchange is i n su ffic ie nt. T he ta sk o f r e lig io us e m pow erm ent is n ow tr a nsfe rre d to s o m ebody w ho is s e en to w ie ld s u ffic ie nt r e lig io us p ow er to b e a ble to fu lf il th e d esir e fo r a g uara nte e.

T his , in m y v ie w , is th e s o urc e o f p ow er o f r e lig io us s p ecia lis ts . I w ould c all s u ch a s p ecia lis t a prie st in s o fa r a s t h e r e lig io us p ow er d ele gate d to h im is in stit u tio naliz ed in s u ch a w ay a s to g ra nt h im a n ear m onopoly . T he f u nctio nary is in veste d w it h a s p ecia l d ig nit y , a nd h is p osit io n is m ark e d w it h s p ecia l a ttr ib ute s, w hic h p la ce h im s o m ew here in b etw een th e b elie vers a nd th e d iv in it y . H e w ill w ear s p ecia l c lo th in g, a nd d is p la y s p ecia l b ehavio ur, a nd e ven h is lif e sty le m ay b e d is tin ctiv e a nd s p ecia l, a nd m ay in clu de s u ch p ra ctic es a s c elib acy— all o f th is to u nderlin e h is s p ecia l s ta tu s.

( p . 2 02) Relig io us q uestio ns w ill b e s u bm it te d to s u ch a p ers o n, w hose a nsw ers w ill b e s e en a s b eyond d oubt, g iv en h is s p ecia l p osit io n a nd k n ow le dge. T here a re w ays in w hic h h e c an a chie ve a fu rth er e xpansio n o f h is p ow er— fo r in sta nce, b y m eans o f c anoniz atio n.

T hro ugh th is p ro cess, c erta in ‘h oly ’ te xts a re c hara cte riz ed a s b ein g a bso lu te ly r e lia ble , a nd th e w ord , o r th e r e cord ed tr a dit io n th at is c onta in ed in it , a s th e o nly o ptio n. T his s tr e ngth ens th e p osit io n o f th e p rie st w ho is lin ke d to th ese te xts , a t th e e xpense o f o th er w ould -b e s p ecia lis ts . B ut i t tu rn s o ut th at e ven s u ch c le ar-c ut h oly te xts n eed c onsta nt r e in te rp re ta tio n. T he e nsu in g u ncerta in ty o ffe rs n ew a venues fo r p ow er; w hoever g iv es th e m ost p la usib le a nd a ppealin g in te rp re ta tio ns g ain s in p ow er. Ju st a s th e e sta blis h m ent o f a c anon r e pre se nts a s e iz in g o f p ow er, s o c an m akin g a n e nd to fu rth er in te rp re ta tio n m ake fo r a c onso lid atio n o f p ow er.

P rie sts c om e in d if fe re nt s iz es a nd s h apes, fr o m v ic ars to g uru s, a nd fr o m m onks to s h am ans. B asic ally , th e s o urc e o f th eir p ow er is th e s a m e. T he in stit u tio n o f p rie sth ood u nderg oes a d evelo pm ent, a nd b ecom es a p art o f r e lig io us c apit a l. T he in te rp re ta tio n o f in stit u tio naliz ed r e lig io n is e ntr u ste d to th ese r e lig io us s p ecia lis ts . A p rie st is a r e lig io us d ig nit a ry w ho e xerc is e s h is r e lig io us a uth orit y o n b ehalf o f th e c om munit y , a nd h ence th e p ow er a p rie st 8 R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 6 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 p osse sse s u lt im ate ly is , a nd r e m ain s, d ele gate d p ow er. S uch p ow er c an, in tim e, b e r e m oved, if th e p rie st's p erfo rm ance in te rm s o f o nto lo gic al r e assu ra nce is n ot s a tis fa cto ry . H e c an b e o ppose d b y a c om petin g s p ecia lis t a nd, w it h th e s u pport o f th e b elie vers , b e c ast a sid e.

I n te rim S um mary T he m odel I h ave u se d s o fa r e xpla in s w hy p eople n eed r e lig io us r e assu ra nce a nd h ow th is n eed d ra w s th em s u bse quently to o bey r e lig io us c om mandm ents a nd d ig nit a rie s. R elig io n o ffe rs th e fu lf ilm ent o f a b asic n eed: fo r o nto lo gic al s e curit y . R elig io n c an c onfir m a nd g uara nte e th e w orld v ie w o n w hic h lif e d epends in a w ay th at n o o th er s y ste m o f b elie f a nd p ra ctic e c an. T his is b ecause it c onnects th e w orld v ie w to s o m eth in g o r s o m ebody w ho i s u nassa ila ble in th at it tr a nsc ends h um an fr a ilt y . P e ople m ay tr y to m ain ta in th eir o nto lo gic al s e curit y b y o th er m eans, b ut in th e e nd th ese p ro ve in su ffic ie nt in th em se lv es.

T he m odel o utlin ed a bove tr ie s to m ake c le ar w hy r e lig io us p ow er is s u ch a s tr o ng p ow er. It a tte m pts to e xpla in w hy p eople a re w illin g to s a crif ic e th em se lv es fo r r e lig io n. It is n ot s o m uch th e v ir g in s in p ara dis e th at in sp ir e s u ic id e te rro ris ts , (p . 2 03) it is th e c onvic tio n o f th e fin al a nd in dubit a ble tr iu m ph o f th eir w orld v ie w o ver a ll e ls e .

C om pare d to th at, in div id ual s u rv iv al b ecom es r e la tiv it y in sig nif ic ant.

T he m odel a ls o tr ie s to c la rif y th e m otiv es a nd r e aso ns fo r o bedie nce to r e lig io us s p ecia lis ts . T heir p ow er d eriv es f r o m a ( d ele gate d) c apacit y to a nchor o nto lo gic al s e curit y , a nd th us fu lf il th e d esir e fo r o nto lo gic al r e assu ra nce. In p rin cip le , p eople e m pow er th em se lv es a nd e ach o th er. T he e m pow erm ent b y th e s p ecia lis t is d ele gate d b y th em .

T he r u le s a nd r e gula tio ns, th e s a nctio ns, p osit iv e a nd n egativ e, w it h w hic h p rie sts e xerc is e th eir p ow er, a re u lt im ate ly a ccepte d o nly b ecause th ey c onfir m th e o m nip ote nce o f th e d iv in it y , w ho p ro vid es th e u lt im ate l e git im acy o f th e w orld v ie w , a nd is th us th e g uara nto r o f o nto lo gic al s e curit y .

R elig io us P o w er: I t s E ffe ct o n C ult u re T he im porta nce o f r e lig io us p ow er fo r th e d evelo pm ent o f a c ult u re c an h ard ly b e o vere stim ate d. B ecause r e lig io us p ow er is fu ndam enta l to th e d evelo pm ent a nd c onso lid atio n o f w orld v ie w s, it s s ig nif ic ance fo r c ult u re , it s K ult u rb edeutu ng , to u se W eber's te rm , is d ecis iv e ( W eber 1920 : 3 0, 2 05). T here is e xte nsiv e lit e ra tu re in w hic h th e s ig nif ic ance o f r e lig io us p ow er fo r c ult u re a nd s o cie ty is e la bora te d a nd d is c usse d. T he m ost w ell- k n ow n e xam ple i s th e d ebate o n W eber's Die p ro te sta ntis ch e E th ik u nd d ie G eis t d es K apit a lis m us ( T he P ro te sta nt E th ic a nd t h e S pir it o f C apit a lis m ) . W eber's p osit io n is , b rie fly , th at th ere is a W ahlv erw andts c haft, a n e le ctiv e a ffin it y b etw een t h e e th ic s flo w in g fr o m P ro te sta ntis m , o n th e o ne h and, a nd th e m in d-s e t o f W este rn c apit a lis m , o n th e o th er. T he t w o a re s u ppose d to h ave r e in fo rc ed e ach o th er.

I n te rm s o f th e m odel d evelo ped in th is a rtic le , m ore c an b e s a id a bout th is a ffin it y b etw een r e lig io n a nd m in d-s e t. It i s n ot m ere ly a c ase o f m utu al r e in fo rc em ent b etw een r e lig io n a nd e conom ic p ra ctic e. P ro te sta ntis m d id m ore th an r e in fo rc e th e c apit a lis t w orld v ie w . It s a nctio ned it b y g iv in g it s u perh um an c onnota tio ns. T he u lt im ate le git im acy o f m akin g a p ro fit w as a d iv in e o ne. W here as th e m edie val G od fo rb ade le ndin g o r in vestm ent fo r in te re st, th e P ro te sta nt G od p osit iv ely r e quir e d it . It w as to a tta in in ner p eace th at P ro te sta nt b elie vers a cte d a ccord in g to th e r e quir e m ent o f m axim iz in g p ro fit , a s C ath olic b elie vers h ad d one b efo re th em b y a bsta in in g fr o m m oney le ndin g fo r p ro fit . In b oth c ase s b elie vers w ie ld ed p ow er o ver th em se lv es v ia th eir r e lig io us in stit u tio ns.

( p . 2 04) A s e cond d is c ussio n w it h r e gard to th e c ult u ra l im porta nce o f r e lig io us p ow er is le ss fo cuse d: th at o n th e g enesis o f th e n ucle ar fa m ily .

T he p ow er o f th e c le rg y o ver th e fa m ily b egan w it h th eir c ontr o l o f th e in stit u tio n o f m arria ge. T he c hurc h m anaged to g ain ju ris d ic tio n o ver m arria ge, b y m onopoliz in g th e s a nctif y in g o f th e tie b etw een a m an a nd a w om an. O ne o f th e m ost u nsta ble a nd p re cario us r e la tio nsh ip s w as g iv en d iv in e s a nctio n. It i s a p artic ula rly g ood e xam ple o f w hat r e lig io us p ow er m eans: w hat th re ate ns to b e u nsta ble is p ut o n a fir m er f o undatio n b y m eans o f r e fe re nce to a h ig her p ow er. P e ople a re w illin g to d is c ip lin e th eir s e xual d esir e s in o rd er to h onour a nd o bey th is h ig her p ow er, a nd th e p rie sts r e pre se ntin g it o n e arth , b ecause th eir n eed fo r o nto lo gic al s e curit y is p ara m ount. A s o th er s o urc es o f o nto lo gic al s e curit y b ecom e a vaila ble , th e d iv in e s a nctio n o f m arria ge l o ose ns, a nd in sta bilit y r e tu rn s.

T o g ain a nd c onso lid ate th eir o nto lo gic al s e curit y , p eople b esto w p ow er o n p rie sts a nd th eir o rg aniz atio ns, a nd th is 9 10 11 R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 7 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 p ow er is u se d to g enera te e ven g re ate r p ow er. F o r in sta nce, th e p ow erfu l C ath olic p rie sth ood u se d it s p ow er to i n tr o duce c onfe ssio n a nd, s u bse quently , to m ake it o blig ato ry . T his g re atly in cre ase d th e g rip th e C hurc h h ad o n i n div id uals , w hic h it u se d to fu rth er e nfo rc e s e xual a nd c onju gal e th ic s.

C onse quently , s tr ic t fa m ily e th ic s w hic h w ere d iv in ely s a nctio ned, w ere im pose d a nd c ontr o lle d b y G od's r e pre se nta tiv es o n e arth . H ere a gain , p eople , b elie vers , w ere u lt im ate ly e xerc is in g p ow er o ver th em se lv es, v ia th e p rie sth ood. T he in cre asin g a vaila bilit y o f o th er o ptio ns fo r b oostin g o nto lo gic al s e curit y , c oin cid in g w it h th e a rriv al o f c ontr a ceptiv es, le d p eople to w it h dra w fr o m th e p rie sts th e p ow er o ver s e xual c onduct a nd k e ep it in th eir o w n h ands.

R elig io us P o w er: C onste lla tio n a nd C onve rtib ilit y T he fo re goin g p ro vid es a n o verv ie w o f w hat r e lig io us p ow er c onsis ts o f in th eory , a nd I n ow m ove o n to d is c uss w hat r o le it c an p la y in p ra ctic e, in th e e very day w orld . O ne th in g th at b ecom es a ppare nt fr o m th ese e xam ple s o f r e lig io us p ow er is th at it is fa ir ly d if fu se , a nd c onnecte d to o th er fo rm s o f p ow er. In d aily lif e , w e m ain ly s e e m ix ed f o rm s o f p ow er. R elig io us p ow er in it s p ure fo rm is r a re . It is a lw ays c onnecte d to o th er fo rm s o f p ow er.

I h ave a rg ued th at r e lig io us p ow er e xis ts th anks to th e a bilit y to s a nctio n a w orld v ie w a nd th us fu lf il th e n eed fo r o nto lo gic al s e curit y . T his im plie s th at it is n ot lim it e d to a s p ecia l s p here . R elig io us p ow er is r o ote d in , a nd is r e le vant to , e very day lif e . T hat m eans r e lig io us p ow er, lik e p ow er fr o m o th er s o urc es, a ppears in (p . 2 05) c om ple x c onste lla tio ns. R elig io us p ow er is in te rm in gle d w it h e conom ic , s e xual, a nd p olit ic al p ow er, a nd s o o n.

T his m erg in g o f d if fe re nt k in ds o f p ow er in p ow er c onste lla tio ns p re su ppose s p ow er c onvertib ilit y . A ll p ow er is c onvertib le . T his m eans th at r e lig io us p ow er, b ase d o n th e c apabilit y to g uara nte e a w orld v ie w b y m eans o f a n a ppeal to th e a uth orit y o f a s u perh um an r e alit y , c an g enera te o th er fo rm s o f p ow er. T he p rie st c an d em and fr o m h is fo llo w ers th at th ey in vest h im w it h p olit ic al a nd e conom ic p ow er. O n th e o th er h and, r e lig io us p ow er is o fte n d ele gate d to s o m ebody w ho a lr e ady p osse sse s m uch s o cia l p ow er. T his is w here th e d is tin ctio n b etw een r e lig io us p ow er a nd th e p ow er o f r e lig io n is to b e lo cate d.

R elig io us d ig nit a rie s c an w ie ld p ow er c om in g fr o m a ll k in ds o f s o urc es. B ut a ls o o th er p ers o ns, s u ch a s p op s ta rs , m ilit a ry h ero es, o r s ta te sm en, c an b e g iv en r e lig io us p ow er b y a m ult it u de c ra vin g fo r o nto lo gic al s e curit y . If w arrin g p opes a re a n e xam ple o f th e fir s t, Jo an o f A rc a nd H it le r s u re ly a re e xam ple s o f th e s e cond. In s h ort, r e lig io us p ow ers a lw ays a ppears m ix ed w it h o th er k in ds o f p ow er, a nd c onvers io n b etw een d if fe re nt s o urc es o f p ow er is c onsta nt a nd c ontin uous.

T he m ost c onsp ic uous fo rm o f p ow er w it h w hic h r e lig io us p ow er c onnecte d is p olit ic al p ow er. T he k e y r o le o f r e lig io n in s o cie ty m eans th at it is u su ally c onnecte d, in o ne w ay o r a noth er, w it h th e e xis tin g s o cie ta l e lit e s. O r a gain , th ose a w ard ed r e lig io us p ow er b ecom e m em bers p erh aps o f a n ew s o cie ta l e lit e . S uch c onste lla tio ns c an r e su lt in a th eocra cy ( in w hic h th e p rie sts h old p olit ic al p ow er) o r in c aesa ro papis m ( in w hic h p olit ic ia ns h old r e lig io us p ow er).

T he C hris tia n r e lig io n, a nd p artic ula rly th e W este rn v aria nt, s h ow s a w id e r a nge o f d if fe re nt p ow er c onste lla tio ns. It m ust b e a dded th at d ig nit a rie s o f th e v ario us s tr e am s in th e C hris tia n r e lig io n h ave b een e xceptio nally a dept a t th e g am e o f p ow er c onvertib ilit y .

R elig io us R egim es a nd M odern iz a tio n W hen r e lig io n p la ys a d om in ant r o le in p ow er c onste lla tio ns, w e c an s p eak o f r e lig io us r e gim es.

R elig io us r e gim es g iv e u s a noth er in sig ht in to th e fu nctio nin g (p . 2 06) of r e lig io us p ow er. P illa riz atio n in th e N eth erla nds in t h e n in ete enth a nd tw entie th c entu rie s c an s e rv e a s a n e xam ple .

I n th e N eth erla nds, r e lig io n h as tr a dit io nally b een c onnecte d to s o cie ty in a s p ecia l, c onflic t- rid den w ay. T he h is to ry o f w hat w ould la te r b e c alle d th e N eth erla nds w as d efin ed a s r e lig io us h is to ry , h ow ever c om ple x it m ig ht h ave b een in r e alit y . In th e s ix te enth c entu ry , th e P ro te sta nt D utc h r e belle d a gain st th e C ath olic o ppre sso rs fr o m S pain . T he P ro te sta nts e m erg ed v ic to rio us fr o m th is b attle , a nd, a s th ey b elie ved, G od r e w ard ed th em w it h a w ealt h t h at h ad n o p ara lle l a t th at tim e, tu rn in g H olla nd in to th e n ew P ro m is e d L a nd.

R elig io n w as th ere fo re p art a nd p arc el o f th e p olit ic al p ow er s tr u ggle s. E xerc is in g p ow er w as le git im iz ed in r e lig io us 12 13 R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 8 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 t e rm s; s o cia l m obiliz atio n w as in sp ir e d b y r e lig io n. T his s p ecia l p la ce o f r e lig io n in D utc h s o cie ty la ste d w ell in to th e t w entie th c entu ry . It s im porta nce w as r e fle cte d in th e s o cia l p re stig e a nd p olit ic al p ow er o f P ro te sta nt v ic ars . T he N eth erla nds w as a c ountr y o f v ic ars .

I t is n ot s u rp ris in g, th ere fo re , th at in th e N eth erla nds, th e s o cia l a nd c ult u ra l u nre st, w hic h a re n ow r e fe rre d to a s ‘ th e p ro cess o f m odern iz atio n’, w ould b e g iv en a r e lig io us in te rp re ta tio n. P e ople a tte m pte d to u se r e lig io us m eanin gs to fin d th eir w ay in th e in se curit ie s c ause d b y th is tu rb ule nce. If th ey o ppose d th e id eas o f th e F re nch R evolu tio n, it w as in th e n am e o f th e G osp el. In th e e arly n in ete enth c entu ry , P ro te sta nt le aders , a m ong w hom G ro en v an P rin ste re r ( 1 801–7 6) w as th e m ost im porta nt, c alle d u pon th eir fo llo w ers to r e sis t ‘th e s p ir it o f th is c entu ry ’. A ccord in g to th em , th e F re nch R evolu tio n h ad u nle ash ed a w ave o f a nti- re lig io us h ostilit y o ver E uro pe, a nd th is h ad to b e o ppose d. It w as e sse ntia l to r e act, n ot o nly a gain st th at p art o f th e E nlig hte nm ent th in kin g th at o penly r e je cte d G od, b ut a ls o a gain st s o -c alle d m odern th eolo gy, w hic h a tte m pte d to c om bin e E nlig hte nm ent v alu es w it h r e lig io n.

T his ‘a nti- R evolu tio nary ’ m ovem ent w as s u ccessfu l. It w as th e th eolo gia n A bra ham K uyper ( 1 837–1 920) w ho h ad t h e d eepest u nders ta ndin g o f th is s u ccess. H e g ra dually c am e to r e aliz e th at h is s u pporte rs w ere n ot o ppose d to m odern iz atio n a s s u ch, a nd w ere e ven w illin g to g ra sp th e o pportu nit ie s th at m odern s o cie ty o ffe re d. W hat th ey w ere a fr a id o f, a nd w hat th ey r e sis te d, w as th e m ora l d esp era tio n to w hic h m odern iz atio n c ould le ad. W hat th ey w ere a fr a id o f w ere th e e xis te ntia l in se curit ie s o f m odern lif e . T hey fe are d th e c olla pse o f a w orld v ie w w it h in w hic h t h ey fe lt o nto lo gic ally s e cure a nd a t p eace. K uyper's a nsw er w as: m odern iz atio n, b ut w it h in th e s e cure b oundarie s o f fa it h .

I t w as o n th e b asis o f th is u nders ta ndin g o f th e im porta nce o f a r e lig io usly g uara nte ed c onte xt fo r th e m odern iz atio n p ro cess th at A bra ham K uyper r o se to p ow er, b ecom in g o ne o f th e m ost in flu entia l p olit ic ia ns in th e n atio n's h is to ry e ver. M odern iz atio n w as, in h is v ie w , in h is p olic y, to b e fit te d w it h in th e fr a m ew ork o f a s tr o ng C alv in is t fa it h . It w as to b e s u pporte d b y a s h arp ly d efin ed c om munit y o f b elie vers . T o th is e nd a ll s o rts o f r e lig io usly d efin ed o rg aniz atio ns w ere c re ate d: s c hools , m ass m edia , h ousin g c orp ora tio ns, a n e m plo yers ' u nio n, a ( p . 2 07) work e rs ' u nio n, a u niv ers it y , a nd a p olit ic al p arty : a ll w ork in g w it h in th e fr a m ew ork o f th e o rth odox P ro te sta nt fa it h , le d b y P ro te sta nts o n e very le vel, a nd w it h a n a ll P ro te sta nt m em bers h ip .

T he e xam ple o f th e o rth odox P ro te sta nt g ro up w as fo llo w ed b y C ath olic s, a nd e ven o rg aniz atio ns w it h out a r e lig io us b ackg ro und h ad lit tle o ptio n b ut to d o lik e w is e , e xplic it ly la bellin g th em se lv es a s n eutr a l. T hus th e s y ste m k n ow n a s ‘p illa riz atio n’ w as d evelo ped. It s d iv id in g lin es w ere n ot h oriz onta l, a s in s o m any o th er c ountr ie s, b ut v ertic al. T he d om in ant s tr u ctu re w as n ot a c la ss s tr u ctu re , b ut a s tr u ctu re o f ‘p illa rs ’. A ‘p illa r’ w as a c onglo m era te o f o rg aniz atio ns, d efin ed in te rm s o f a p artic ula r w orld v ie w o r r e lig io n. T ypic ally it in clu ded p ers o ns o f th at w orld v ie w , fr o m lo w to h ig h. C ath olic w ork e rs w ere jo in ed in th e p illa r to C ath olic e ntr e pre neurs , a nd s e para te d fr o m th eir f e llo w w ork e rs o f P ro te sta nt c onvic tio n, w it h w hom th ey w ere s e vere ly e ncoura ged n ot to m ix . E very ty pe o f o rg aniz atio n, fr o m s c hool to b ro adcastin g c orp ora tio n, h ad a P ro te sta nt, C ath olic , a nd n on-d enom in atio nal v aria nt, a llo w in g th e D utc h to liv e th eir liv es fr o m c ra dle to g ra ve w it h out r e ally g ettin g to k n ow th eir n eig hbours fr o m a noth er d enom in atio n. B ut th ey d id fe el th at m uch c lo se r to p ers o ns o f th eir o w n b elie f s y ste m , fr o m w hate ver w alk o f lif e . T hus s o cia l o rg aniz atio n s u pporte d th e c onso lid atio n o f th e w orld v ie w . A s th e c ountr y m odern iz ed, s o o nto lo gic al s e curit y w as g uara nte ed.

T his , b rie fly , is th e p ro cess o f p illa riz atio n. It c am e to p ass p eacefu lly , b ut n ot a m ic ably . G ro up s o lid arit y w as m ain ta in ed a nd r e in fo rc ed, b y s e rv ic e to G od a nd, if n ecessa ry , b y d em oniz in g o th er g ro ups. K uyper in p artic ula r i n voke d s tr o ng fe elin gs a gain st ‘e nem ie s’ fr o m o th er d enom in atio ns. B ut a t th e to p, th e p illa rs c o-o pera te d, r e achin g a c onse nsu s w hic h p re vente d v io le nce.

P illa riz atio n is a n e xam ple o f a r e lig io us r e gim e o ffe rin g a c onte xt fo r a p eacefu l p ro cess o f m odern iz atio n. T he r e lig io usly d efin ed p illa rs , w hic h o rg aniz ed p ra ctic ally a ll a sp ects o f d aily lif e in a r e lig io us w ay, h elp ed m any D utc h p eople to e nte r m odern it y w it h out lo sin g th eir s e nse o f o nto lo gic al s e curit y . T his e xam ple o ffe rs a p ers p ectiv e to p eople u nderg oin g a nd e xperie ncin g th e s e is m ic c hanges p ro duced b y p re se nt- d ay p ro cesse s o f m odern iz atio n a nd g lo baliz atio n.

G enera lly , th e s id e e ffe cts o f m odern iz atio n, in te rm s o f th e lo ss o f o nto lo gic al s e curit y , c annot b e o vere stim ate d.

T he e nsu in g a nxie ty c an s tim ula te p eople to d ele gate r e lig io us p ow er to ‘s p ecia lis ts ’ o r p ers o ns w it h a p ote ntia l fo r c haris m a w ho w ill r is e to th e o ccasio n, a nd in cre ase th e r e lig io us p ow er o ffe re d th em b y c onvers io n to o th er ty pes R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 9 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 o f p ow er. T he D utc h e xam ple s h ow s th at if th is p ro cess is u nders to od, it n eed n ot le ad to e xtr e m is m a nd v io le nce.

M odern iz atio n w it h in a r e lig io us c onte xt c an p ro vid e fo r th e o nto lo gic al s e curit y w hic h m odern iz atio n c ouple d w it h s e cula riz atio n m ay u nderm in e.

( p . 2 08) Conclu sio n I n th is e ssa y I h ave tr ie d to d evelo p a nd a pply a m odel o f r e lig io us p ow er th at is b ase d o n th e h um an n eed fo r o nto lo gic al s e curit y . W hoever is a ble to fu lf il th is n eed b y r e lig io us m eans th at tr a nsc end o rd in ary h um an s h ortc om in gs p osse sse s th is k in d o f p ow er.

R elig io us p ow er h as c hara cte ris tic s th at a re id entic al to th ose o f o th er k in ds o f p ow er. It is v ery u nsta ble a nd u npre dic ta ble , lik e a ny fo rm o f p ow er. It c an b e c onverte d in o th er k in ds o f p ow er— fo r in sta nce, fin ancia l p ow er. It c an b e p art o f p ow er c onste lla tio ns. W hen it d om in ate s th ese , w e m ig ht s p eak o f r e lig io us r e gim es. T he s ig nif ic ance o f r e lig io us p ow er fo r th e d evelo pm ent o f s o cie ty c annot b e o re re stim ate d, a nd is s tu die d in te nsiv ely .

R efe re n ce s B AX , M . ( 1 985). ‘R elig ie nze r e gim es e n s ta ats o ntw ik ke lin g: N otit ie s v oor e en fig ura tie s B enadenin g’ [ R elig io us R egim es a nd S ta te F o rm atio ns: N ote fo r a F ig ura tio nal A ppro ach]. Socio lo gis ch t ijd sch rift , 1 : 2 2–4 9.

— — ( 1 987). ‘R elig io us R egim es a nd S ta te F o rm atio n: T ow ard s a R ese arc h P e rs p ectiv e’. Anth ro polo gic a l Q uarte rly , 6 0/1 : 1 –1 1.

— — ( 1 995). Medju gorje : R elig io n, P olit ic s a nd V io le nce in R ura l B osn ia . A m ste rd am : V U-u it g everij.

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— — ( 1 980). Pow er/K now le dge: S ele cte d In te rv ie w s a nd O th er W rit in gs 1 972–1 977 , e d. C olin G ord on. N ew Y o rk :

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G OODY , J. ( 1 983). The D evelo pm ent o f t h e F a m ily a nd M arria ge in E uro pe . C am brid ge: C am brid ge U niv ers it y P re ss.

H AM IL T O N , M . B . ( 1 995). The S ocio lo gy o f R elig io n: T heore tic a l a nd C om para tiv e P ers p ectiv es . L o ndon: R outle dge.

J U ER GEN SM EYER , M . ( 2 001). Terro r in t h e M in d o f G od: T he G lo bal R is e o f R elig io us V io le nce . B erk e le y: U niv ers it y o f C alif o rn ia P re ss. R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 1 0 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 K OSSM ANN , E . H . ( 1 987). The L o w C ountrie s 1 780 – 1 940 . O xfo rd : C la re ndon P re ss.

L UCK M ANN , T . ( 1 967). The In vis ib le R elig io n . N ew Y o rk : M acm illa n.

P LATV OET , J. G ., a nd M OLEN DIJK , A . L . ( e ds.) ( 1 999). The P ra gm atic s o f D efin in g R elig io n: C onte xts , C once pts a nd C onte sts . L e id en: B rill.

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W EB ER , M . ( 1 920). ‘D ie p ro te sta ntis c he E th ik u nd d er G eis t d es K apit a lis m us’. In Gesa m melt e A ufs ä tz e z u r R elig io nsso zio lo gie , i, T üb in gen: J. C . B . M ohr, 3 0–2 05.

— — ( 1 963). The S ocio lo gy o f R elig io n . B osto n: B eacon P re ss.

— — ( 1 980). Wir ts ch aft u nd G ese lls ch aft : G ru ndris s d er V ers te henden S oczio lo gie . T üb in gen: J. C . B . M ohr.

W RONG , D . ( 1 979). Pow er: It s F o rm s, B ase s a nd U se s . O xfo rd : B la ckw ell.

S uggeste d R eadin g S till u se fu l o verv ie w s o f th e th eoriz in g a bout p ow er a re C le gg ( 1989 ) a nd W ro ng ( 1979 ). F o r th e d efin in g o f r e lig io n, s e e P la tv oet a nd M ole ndijk ( 1999 ) a nd H am ilt o n ( 1995 ). F o r th e a nth ro polo gic al r e le vance o f c oncept o f t r a nsc endence, s e e L u ckm ann ( 1967 ). F o r o nto lo gic al s e curit y , s e e G id dens ( 1984 ; 1991 ). F o r a noth er v ie w o n s y m bolic a nd r e lig io us p ow er, s e e B ourd ie u ( 1991 ) a nd F o ucault ( 1979 ; 1980 ). F o r a m odern , e m pir ic al s tu dy o f r e lig io us e m pow erm ent, s e e, e .g ., Ju erg ensm eyer ( 2001 ).

F o r th e r o le o f th e c olle ctiv it y in r e lig io n, s e e D urk h eim ( 1915 : 4 22). T he c la ssic o n th e p ow er o f p rie sts is W eber ( 1 963 ). O n th e Kult u rb edeutu ng o f r e lig io n a ccord in g to W eber, P o ggi ( 1983 ) is u se fu l. F o r th e in flu ence o f r e lig io n o n th e m akin g o f th e fa m ily , s e e G oody ( 1983 ) a nd F la ndrin ( 1984 ). O n r e lig io us r e gim es, s e e B ax ( 1987 ; 1995 ).

F o r th e h is to ry o f p illa riz atio n, s e e K ossm ann ( 1987 ).

N ote s:

( 1 ) Here I u se th e te rm ‘c hance’ r a th er th an ‘c apacit y ’, b ecause s o cia l p ow er d epends o n a s o cia l p ro cess o f w hic h th e o utc om e is d ependent n ot o nly o n th e c apacit y o f th e a cto rs , b ut a ls o o n th e d ynam ic s o f th e p ro cess i t s e lf ( c f. W eber 1980 : 2 8).

( 2 ) A g ood g enera l o verv ie w o f th e p ro ble m s r e la tin g to p ow er r e m ain s th at b y C le gg ( 1989 ).

( 3 ) This a nth ro polo gic al p ers p ectiv e o n tr a nsc endence is in sp ir e d b y L u ckm ann ( 1967 ), a lt h ough it is n ot id entic al t o it .

( 4 ) The te rm ‘o nto lo gic al in se curit y ’ is a c ounte rp art to G id dens's onto lo gic a l s e cu rit y ( G id dens 1984 : 5 0 ). T his t e rm r e fe rs to th e p hilo so phic al im pact th at w e a re ta lk in g a bout: w hat is a t s ta ke h ere is th e g rip o n r e alit y .

( 5 ) Com pare B erg er a nd L u ckm ann ( 1967 : 1 04, 1 47). T hey p ro vid e o nly a fe w s tr a te gie s, w hic h c an b e s u pple m ente d a nd v arie d o n.

( 6 ) The te rm ‘ sy m bolic p ow er ’, b ut n ot th e d efin it io n, d eriv es fr o m B ourd ie u ( 1991 ).

( 7 ) Relig io us p ow er, a s d efin ed h ere , is a s u bcate gory o f s y m bolic p ow er.

( 8 ) Fo r c anoniz atio n a s a m eans o f p ow er, s e e B org , te r ( 1998 ).

( 9 ) This is h ow Ju erg ensm eyer's e vid ence ( 2001 ) s h ould b e in te rp re te d.

( 1 0 ) Fo r a c oncis e o verv ie w o f th e n ever e ndin g d is c ussio n o f th e s o -c alle d W eber th esis , s e e H am ilt o n ( 1995 :

1 65f.) ; P o ggi ( 1983 ).

( 1 1 ) The n ext tw o p ara gra phs a re b ase d o n th e w ork o f F la ndrin ( 1984 ) a nd F o ucault ( 1979 ). R elig io n a nd P ow er Pag e 1 1 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 ( 1 2 ) They k e y is su e is th e d is tin ctio n th at R oberts o n S m it h m ake s b etw een ‘c om munit y c ult s ’ a nd ‘r e lig io us c om munit ie s’ ( C asa nova 1994 : 4 5). In th e fir s t in sta nce, s o cia l p ow er h as b een c onverte d in to r e lig io us p ow er, a nd i n th e s e cond, r e lig io us p ow er h as b een c onverte d in to s o cia l p ow er. T he d is tin ctio n is p ara lle l to th at b etw een c aesa ro papis m , o n th e o ne h and, a nd th eocra cy, o n th e o th er.

( 1 3 ) In D utc h s o cio lo gy, th e te rm w as fir s t u se d b y M . B ax, w ho d efin es it a s fo llo w s: ‘A r e lig io us r e gim e c an b e d esc rib ed a s a m ore o r le ss fo rm alis e d a nd in stit u tio nalis e d c onste lla tio n o f d ependency r e la tio nsh ip s, le git im is e d b y a th ought p ro cess p ro pagate d b y r e lig io us s p ecia lis ts ’ ( B ax 1985 : 2 5).

M eerte n B . t e r B o rg M eerte n te r B org is a s o cio lo gis t o f r e lig io n a nd P ro fe sso r o f N on-In stit u tio nal R e lig io n a t L e id en U niv e rs it y , th e N eth e rla nd s.