300 words soc religion disscussion bored
S cie nce a nd R elig io n Pag e 1 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).
Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 Prin t P u b lic atio n D ate :
Fe b 2011 Sub je ct:
Re lig io n, S ocia l S cie nce S tu d ie s o f R e lig io n Onlin e P u b lic atio n D ate :
Sep 2009 DO I:
10 .1 0 93/o xfo rd hb /9 78019 958 8961.0 13 .0 017 Scie n ce a n d R elig io n Willia m S im s B ain b rid ge The O xfo rd H an db ook o f th e S ocio lo gy o f R elig io n Edit e d b y P ete r B . C la rk e O xfo rd H an dbooks O nlin e Abstr a ct a nd K eyw ord s T he r e la tio nsh ip b etw een r e lig io n a nd s c ie nce w as a p ro m in ent th em e in th e fo rm ativ e p erio d o f s o cio lo gy a s a d is c ip lin e. T his a rtic le e xam in es r e cent a tte m pts b y s c ie ntis ts a nd r e lig io us s c hola rs to d elin eate th e p ote ntia l fo r a r e la tio nsh ip b etw een th e tw o in th e v astly d if fe re nt c onte xt o f m odern s o cie ty , a nd w hat k in d o f r e la tio nsh ip m ig ht b e a fit tin g o ne. W hile m ain ta in in g th at th ere a re s tr o ng g ro unds fo r th in kin g th at th e r e la tio nsh ip w ill in evit a bly b e h ostile – r e gard le ss o f w heth er th e ty pe o f r e lig io n in q uestio n is fu ndam enta lis t, c onse rv ativ e, o r lib era l – th e d is c ussio n n ote s th at r e cent r e se arc h h as id entif ie d a te ndency a m ong th e y oung to b elie ve th at a n a ccom modatio n b etw een th e tw o is a p ossib ilit y .
K eyw ord s: so cio lo gy , modern s o cie ty , sc ie n ce–re lig io n r e la tio n , mutu al h ostilit y , fu ndam en ta lis m I N r e cent y ears , m any s c ie ntis ts a nd r e lig io us s c hola rs h ave s o ught to d elin eate th e p ossib le a nd p ro per r e la tio ns b etw een s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n. T heir v ie w s h ave b een r o ote d in th e h is to ric al r e alit ie s o f th e la tte r p art o f th e t w entie th c entu ry , a nd th us m ay n ot a pply e qually w ell to e it h er e arlie r o r la te r p erio ds. T his e ra h as b een m ark e d b y in cre asin g s ig nif ic ance o f s c ie nce-b ase d te chnolo gie s, b ut in a h ig hly fr a gm enta ry m anner. B oth s c ie nce a nd e ngin eerin g h ave d iv id ed in to e ver n arro w er s p ecia lt ie s, a nd th us s c ie nce d oes n ot s p eak w it h a s in gle v oic e o n i s su es th at r e la te to r e lig io n. In p ara lle l fa sh io n, r e lig io n a ls o h as b een fr a gm ente d, a nd it s d if fe re nt fa ctio ns r e la te i n d if fe re nt w ays to m any o f th e d om ain s o f s c ie nce. H ig hly e ducate d, r e la tiv ely s e cula riz ed m ain str e am d enom in atio ns h ave le ss to q uarre l w it h s c ie nce a bout th an d o c onse rv ativ e d enom in atio ns, s e cts , o r th e E vangelic al M ovem ent. Y e t th ere a re g ood r e aso ns to e xpect th at th e fu ndam enta l r e la tio nsh ip b etw een s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n is o ne o f m utu al h ostilit y .
S ch o la rly P ers p ectiv e s H is to ric ally , s o m e r e lig io ns s e em to h ave e ncoura ged s c ie nce, a nd c erta in r e lig io ns a ppear to h ave a ffin it ie s w it h c erta in b ra nches o f s c ie nce e ven to day. R obert K . M erto n ( 1970 ) (p . 3 0 4) and R ic hard W estfa ll ( 1958 ) i n dependently a rg ued th at th e P ro te sta ntis m o f s e vente enth -c entu ry E ngla nd s tim ula te d s c ie ntif ic a nd t e chnolo gic al p ro gre ss. A s w it h M ax W eber's c ase th at th e P ro te sta nt e th ic h ad a n e le ctiv e a ffin it y w it h c apit a lis m , r e lig io n w as n ot b y a ny m eans th e o nly c ause , a nd it m ay h ave p la yed n o r o le a fte r s c ie nce h ad b ecom e w ell e sta blis h ed.
T here a re s e vera l th re ads to th e b ro ader a rg um ent. R elig io n m ay s o m etim es e ncoura ge v alu es, lik e a uste rit y a nd r a tio nalit y , th at a re c onduciv e to th e p ra ctic e o f s c ie nce. S pecif ic b elie fs m ay e ncoura ge s c ie ntif ic th in kin g. F o r e xam ple , m onoth eis m m ay im ply th at th e u niv ers e fo llo w s a s in gle s e t o f la w s r a th er th an b ein g c haotic ally u nkn ow able . S cie nce c an e ven b ecom e a r e lig io us a ctiv it y , if it is s e en a s a w ay o f g ain in g fu rth er r e vela tio ns a bout G od a nd th e w orld o f n atu re h e c re ate d. F in ally , th e in flu ence c an b e in dir e ct, a s w hen a s ta te -e sta blis h ed S cie nce a nd R elig io n Pag e 2 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).
Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 r e lig io n s u ppre sse s w it c hcra ft, th us d riv in g s ic k p eople to c onventio nal d octo rs fo r c ure s ( L a rn er 1984 ). B ecause t h e r e puta tio ns o f d octo rs w ho h old r e sp ecta ble p osit io ns in s o cie ty a re v alu able to th em , th ey w ill s e ek to fin d e m pir ic ally e ffe ctiv e c ure s, th ere by s u pportin g m edic al s c ie nce.
P o pula r w rit e rs F rit jo f C apra ( 1975 ) a nd G ary Z uka v ( 1979 ) a rg ued th at s o m e c oncepts o f m odern p hysic s h ave c lo se a ffin it ie s to A sia n r e lig io us o r m ystic al m ovem ents . C onvers e ly , th eir a rg um ents c ould b e r e ad a s th e c la im t h at m odern p hysic s is e sp ecia lly in com patib le w it h Ju deo-C hris tia n-Is la m ic m onoth eis m . T he lis t o f d is c ord ant c oncepts m ay in clu de g enera l r e la tiv it y , q uantu m th eory , in consis te ncy a nd in com ple te ness in m ath em atic s, m odels o f r e alit y b ase d o n c haos a nd c om ple xit y , a nd p erh aps a ls o c ybern etic m odels o f th e m in d, a nd th e e xpansio n o f th e u niv ers e a ccele ra te d b y d ark e nerg y. T he q uestio n th en m ig ht b ecom e w heth er s o m e n ew s c ie nce-o rie nte d r e lig io us tr a dit io n c ould a ris e , h elp in g p eople c om e to te rm s w it h th e n ew p erc eptio ns o f r e alit y p ro pose d b y s c ie ntis ts . S om e n ovel r e lig io us m ovem ents lik e S cie nto lo gy h ave e ven a sse rte d th at th ey th em se lv es a re s c ie nces p osse ssin g s p ir it u al te chnolo gie s.
P e rh aps th e m ost in flu entia l s c hola rly ty polo gy o f r e la tio ns b etw een s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n w as p ro pose d b y Ia n B arb our ( 1990 ), w ho s u ggeste d th at s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n c ould r e la te in a ny o f fo ur d if fe re nt w ays: in dependence, d ia lo gue, in te gra tio n, a nd c onflic t. S cie ntis t S te phen Ja y G ould w as th e m ost e lo quent p ro ponent o f th e i n dependence v ie w . A p opula riz er o f s c ie nce, a s w ell a s a s c ie ntis t, h e h ad b attle d a gain st r e lig io n w hen it a tta cke d th e e volu tio nary p rin cip le s o f h is o w n r e alm , p ale onto lo gy. It is p ossib le th at h is tw o-d ecade b attle w it h c ancer m ade h im ta ke r e lig io n m ore s e rio usly , b ut h e n ever h im se lf b ecam e r e lig io us. In o ne o f h is la st b ooks, R ocks o f A ges ( G ould 1999 ), h e e nuncia te d a p rin cip le h e c alle d N O MA, N on-O verla ppin g M agis te ria . T he m agis te riu m o f s c ie nce s a tis fie s th e h um an d riv e to u nders ta nd th e fa ctu al c hara cte r o f n atu re , a nd th e m agis te riu m o f r e lig io n s a tis fie s th e d riv e to fin d m eanin g in o ur liv es a nd a fir m b asis fo r m ora lit y .
D ia lo gue c an ta ke m any fo rm s, b ut o ne o f g re at s ig nif ic ance h as b een th e d is c ussio n in volv in g h undre ds o f s c ie ntis ts , r e lig io us s c hola rs , a nd r e lig io us (p . 3 0 5) sc ie ntis ts o n th e p re se rv atio n o f th e n atu ra l e nvir o nm ent. F o r e xam ple , a t th e N atio nal P re ss C lu b in W ash in gto n D C, 1 7 Ja nuary 2 007, s c ie ntis ts c onnecte d w it h H arv ard U niv ers it y 's C ente r fo r H ealt h a nd th e G lo bal E nvir o nm ent, in p artn ers h ip w it h e vangelic al le aders , is su ed “ A n U rg ent C all to A ctio n: S cie ntis ts a nd E vangelic als U nit e to P ro te ct C re atio n”. A p rim e s c hola rly e xam ple is th e w ork d one b y B ro n T aylo r ( 2005 ) a nd m any c olle agues in c re atin g The E ncy clo pedia o f R elig io n a nd N atu re . A m ong th e m ost in te re stin g q uestio ns in th is a re a a re th e p ossib le c onnectio ns b etw een s p ecif ic r e lig io us tr a dit io ns a nd e nvir o nm enta l p ro te ctio n. D oes th e e nvir o nm enta l m ovem ent h ave th e e ffe ct o f e ncoura gin g th e r e bir th o f p re - C hris tia n n atu re r e lig io ns, in clu din g n atu re -o rie nte d n eo-p agan g ro ups? D oes e vangelic al P ro te sta ntis m im plic it ly d is c oura ge e nvir o nm enta lis m b y p ro m otin g th e b elie fs th at G od g ave th e w orld to h um anit y fo r o ur u se , a nd th at G od w ill p re se rv e th e e nvir o nm ent s o lo ng a s w e k e ep fa it h ? W hate ver th e c orre ct a nsw er to s u ch q uestio ns m ig ht b e, th ey illu str a te th e fa ct th at d ia lo gue m ay b e m ost fr u it fu l w hen it b rin gs to geth er n ot s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n in g enera l, b ut a p artic ula r b ra nch o f s c ie nce th at h as s o m eth in g im porta nt to d is c uss w it h a p artic ula r r e lig io us t r a dit io n.
T he p ote ntia l fo r c onflic t v arie s a cro ss s p ace a nd tim e, in cre asin g w hen th ere is s o m eth in g s p ecif ic to fig ht a bout a nd u nder s o cio -c ult u ra l c ondit io ns w hen it is d if fic ult to d is e ngage fr o m c om bat. A n a rg um ent c an b e m ade th at t h e la tte r p art o f th e tw entie th c entu ry w as a tim e u nusu ally c onduciv e to p eace b etw een s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n, c om in g a fte r a p erio d in w hic h r e lig io n p ro gre ssiv ely d is e ngaged fr o m p ublic lif e , lo sin g it s e sta blis h ed r e la tio nsh ip w it h th e s ta te , a nd s c ie nce h ad e sta blis h ed fo rm al r e la tio ns w it h th e s ta te . It is in str u ctiv e to c onsid er th e h is to ry o f g overn m ent s u pport fo r s c ie nce in th e U nit e d S ta te s. W it h a fe w e xceptio ns, lik e th e U S G eolo gic al S urv ey, lit tle g overn m ent m oney w ent to s c ie nce in th e n in ete enth c entu ry . In s o m eth in g lik e th eir m odern fo rm , th e N atio nal I n stit u te s fo r H ealt h w ere o rg aniz ed in 1 930 o n th e b asis o f e arlie r p ublic h ygie ne w ork ; th e N atio nal S cie nce F o undatio n w as e sta blis h ed in 1 950 , a nd th e N atio nal A ero nautic s a nd S pace A dm in is tr a tio n in 1 958 . T hus th e i n stit u tio nal s e ttin g h as c hanged d ra m atic ally fr o m e arlie r c entu rie s, in w hic h o vert c onflic t b etw een s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n o ccurre d in p ublic s e ttin gs; b ut th is d oes n ot m ean th at c onflic t in a ll fo rm s h as e nded, o r th at fu rth er h is to ric al c hanges m ay n ot e sta blis h n ew p ote ntia l b attle fie ld s.
P h ilip H efn er ( 1997 ) h as o ffe re d a ty polo gy o f s ix o ptio ns in w hic h r e lig io n m ay d ia lo gue w it h , a nd b e in flu enced b y, s c ie nce. H e is th e lo ng-te rm e dit o r o f Zygon: Jo urn al o f R elig io n a nd S cie nce . A s o f Ja nuary 2 007, th e jo urn al's w ebsit e d esc rib ed it s p ers p ectiv e th us: “ Z ygon's h ypoth esis is th at, w hen lo ng-e volv ed r e lig io us w is d om is y oke d w it h s ig nif ic ant, r e cent s c ie ntif ic d is c overie s a bout th e w orld a nd h um an n atu re , th ere r e su lt s c re dib le e xpre ssio n S cie nce a nd R elig io n Pag e 3 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).
Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 o f b asic m eanin g, v alu es, a nd m ora l c onvic tio ns th at p ro vid es v alid a nd e ffe ctiv e g uid ance fo r e nhancin g h um an l if e .” H efn er c alls th e o ptio ns: m odern , p ostm odern N ew A ge, c rit ic al p ost- E nlig hte nm ent, p ostm odern c onstr u ctiv is t, c onstr u ctiv is t tr a dit io nal, a nd C hris tia n e vangelic al.
( p . 3 0 6) The m odern o ptio n s e eks to tr a nsla te th e a ccum ula te d w is d om o f th e g re at w orld r e lig io ns in to s c ie ntif ic t e rm s. S cie ntis ts s h ould r e cogniz e th at r e lig io n is th e r e su lt o f a p ro cess o f e volu tio n th at s h aped it to s e rv e h um an s u rv iv al a nd w ell- b ein g. T hey s h ould a ls o r e cogniz e th at s c ie nce h as b een p arty to th e s e cula riz in g p ro cess th at h as e ro ded th e tr a dit io nal in stit u tio ns, b elie fs , a nd m ora l c odes th at s e rv ed h um anit y w ell o ver th e c entu rie s. If w e a re to o verc om e a nom ie a nd m anage te chnolo gy w is e ly , th e tim e-te ste d w is d om e m bodie d in r e lig io us m eta phors n eeds to b e tr a nsla te d in to te rm s e ffe ctiv e in a s c ie ntif ic a ge, to p ro m ote a lt r u is m , r e str a in t, a nd d is c ip lin e. H efn er's p ostm odern N ew A ge o ptio n d oubts th e c ontin uin g a bilit y o f tr a dit io nal r e lig io n to p ro vid e g uid ance, a nd lo oks i n ste ad to n ew m yth olo gie s to s y nth esiz e a p lu ra lis tic c onse nsu s.
T he c rit ic al p ost- E nlig hte nm ent o ptio n r e je cts th e id ea th at r e lig io n s h ould b e a c entr a l a uth orit y fo r th e s o cie ty , b ut r a th er in habit s th e “ o bsc ure m arg in ” o f s c ie nce, tr a nsc endin g w hat w e c an k n ow r a tio nally a nd th us r e pre se ntin g h um an te ndencie s th at s c ie nce s e eks to s u bju gate . T he p ostm odern c onstr u ctiv is t o ptio n w ants to lib era te r e lig io n f r o m o rth odox a ssu m ptio ns, w hic h m ay r e fle ct p ow er d if fe re ntia ls in s o cie ty m ore th an u niv ers a l tr u th s, w it h out w antin g e it h er to b anis h r e lig io n fr o m th e p ublic s p here o r to e sta blis h a n ew o rth odoxy. T he c onstr u ctiv is t t r a dit io nal o ptio n is a th eolo gic al a tte m pt to r e in te rp re t s c ie ntif ic c oncepts in te rm s o f tr a dit io nal r e lig io n— fo r e xam ple , s a yin g th at th e B ig B ang p ostu la te d b y a str o physic is ts w as th e e vent in th e B ib le w hen G od s a id , “ Le t t h ere b e lig ht! ” F in ally , th e C hris tia n e vangelic al o ptio n r e affir m s th at tr a dit io nal b elie fs a re n ot m ere ly tr u e in s o m e m eta phoric s e nse , b ut a ls o fa ctu al a nd r a tio nal, in n o w ay in fe rio r to s c ie ntif ic th eorie s.
B oth B arb our a nd H efn er a re s y m path etic to r e lig io n, a nd H efn er's c ate gorie s s a y m uch m ore a bout h ow r e lig io ns s h ould r e sp ond to s c ie nce th an a bout h ow s c ie nce s h ould r e sp ond to r e lig io n. T hey r e cogniz e th at s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n m ay c om e in to c onflic t, b ut th ey h ope fo r a p eacefu l a nd m utu ally b enefic ia l a ccom modatio n.
C onsid era tio n o f s o m e s p ecif ic a re as o f d is p ute , p ast a nd p re se nt, c an p ut th ese h opes in p ers p ectiv e.
G eo ce ntris m H um ans a re b y n atu re a nth ro pocentr ic . T hey a re in te re ste d in th in gs th at a ffe ct th eir o w n liv es, a nd th e p urs u it o f k n ow le dge is id entic al to th e p urs u it o f p ers o nal b enefit . T hus, w hen th ey fir s t lo oke d to th e h eavens w it h in quir in g e yes, th ey a ssu m ed c onnectio ns to th eir o w n liv es. T he s u n p ro vid es w arm th a nd lig ht, s o w hat fu nctio n d o th e M oon, s ta rs , a nd p la nets s e rv e? A ncie nt p eople s d eriv ed s o m e (p . 3 0 7) min or b enefit s fr o m a str o nom y, c hie fly in n avig atio n a nd th e c ale ndar, b ut th ey s o ught m ore . T he B abylo nia ns c am e to b elie ve th at th eir g ods d w elle d in th e p la nets a nd d evelo ped th e tr a dit io n o f a str o lo gy th at is s till s o m ew hat p opula r in W este rn c iv iliz atio n, a s a w ay o f a ntic ip atin g th e fa te th at th ese d eit ie s w ould g iv e th em . T his w ork s tim ula te d th eir p ro gre ss in m ath em atic s, a nd m odern s c ie ntis ts s till u se th eir d iv is io n o f a c ir c le in to 3 60 d egre es ( T oulm in a nd G oodfie ld 1961 ).
G re ek a str o nom y a nd a str o lo gy b uilt u pon th e B abylo nia n. M it h ra is m , o ne o f th e m ost s u ccessfu l r e lig io us m ovem ents th at c om pete d w it h C hris tia nit y in th e e arly y ears o f th e R om an E m pir e , in corp ora te d a str o lo gic al s y m bolis m a t th e v ery h eart o f it s c re ed, a nd fo und r e volu tio nary s p ir it u al m eanin g in th e p re cessio n o f th e e quin oxes ( U la nse y 1989 ). T he d is c overy o f p re cessio n, a n a ppare nt s h if tin g o f th e s ta rs c ause d b y a g ra dual m ovem ent o f th e E arth 's a xis , w as o ne o f th e tr iu m phs o f a ncie nt a str o nom y. In th e fir s t c entu ry BCE , th e p osit io n o f t h e S un a t th e s p rin g e quin ox m oved fr o m th e c onste lla tio n A rie s to P is c es, in augura tin g th e “ A ge o f P is c es”, a nd in o ur o w n fu tu re it w ill p ass in to A quariu s a nd g iv e u s th e m uch-c ele bra te d “ A ge o f A quariu s”. It is in te re stin g to s p ecula te h ow th e h is to ry o f s c ie nce m ig ht h ave b een d if fe re nt, h ad M it h ra is m r a th er th an C hris tia nit y tr iu m phed.
U nlik e M it h ra is m , C hris tia nit y is n ot s a tu ra te d w it h a str o lo gic al s y m bolis m , a nd th e s ta rs p la y v ery m in or r o le s in th e B ib le . T he w ord “ p la net” a ppears o nly o nce in th e K in g Ja m es V ers io n, in 2 K in gs 2 3: 5 w hen Jo sia h s u ppre sse s i d ola tr o us p rie sts a nd th ose w ho “ b urn ed in cense u nto B aal, to th e s u n, a nd to th e m oon, a nd to th e p la nets , a nd to a ll th e h ost o f h eaven”. T he B ib le a ccepts th e p re -s c ie ntif ic n otio n th at h eavenly b odie s m ove a bove a s ta tio nary E arth . F o r e xam ple , E ccle sia ste s 1 : 5 s a ys: “ T he s u n a ls o a ris e th , a nd th e s u n g oeth d ow n, a nd h aste th to h is p la ce w here h e a ro se .” T w o p assa ges d esc rib e th e m ir a cle o f th e S un a nd th e M oon s ta ndin g s till ( Jo sh ua 1 0: 1 2– 1 3; H abakku k 3 : 1 1), w it h out a w are ness o f th e c ata str o phe th at w ould c om e fr o m a s u dden h alt to th e E arth 's r o ta tio n. P re cis e ly b ecause it r e je cte d th e a str o lo gy o f th e B abylo nia ns, th e Ju deo-C hris tia n tr a dit io n w as p ossib ly S cie nce a nd R elig io n Pag e 4 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).
Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 b ette r p re pare d th an M it h ra is m w ould h ave b een to a ccept th e r is e o f m odern a str o nom y, s im ply b ecause a str o nom y w as la rg ely ir re le vant to it s c entr a l r e lig io us b elie fs .
H ow ever, a s w e a ll k n ow , in th e e arly s e vente enth c entu ry G alile o s u ffe re d h ouse a rre st a nd w as th re ate ned w it h t o rtu re a nd d eath b ecause h e ta ught th at th e E arth m oved a ro und th e S un a fte r th e c hurc h h ad c ondem ned th is t h eory . T he h is to ry o f th e p erio d is c om ple x, a nd G alile o's m is a dventu re m ay h ave b een a m ere s id e e ffe ct o f th e p olit ic al m achin atio ns tr ig gere d b y th e c om petit io n b etw een C ath olic is m a nd P ro te sta ntis m . A str o nom y w as ju st b egin nin g to e m erg e a s a n in dependent s c ie nce, a nd m any le adin g a str o nom ers ( n ota bly T ycho B ra he a nd J o hannes K eple r) w ere p ro fe ssio nal a str o lo gers .
S ocia l h is to ria n T hom as K uhn ( 1957 ) h as a rg ued th at th is p erio d s a w a m ajo r r e volu tio n fo r s c ie nce, q uit e a part f r o m it s r e lig io us im plic atio ns. B y m eans o f a te le sc ope, G alile o d is c overe d th e fo ur la rg est m oons o f Ju pit e r, th e f ir s t a str o nom ic al (p . 3 0 8) obje cts th at c ould b e s e en to o rb it a ro und s o m eth in g o th er th an th e E arth . N ic ola us C opern ic us a nd K eple r d evelo ped r ig oro us, m ath em atic al m odels o f th e m ovem ents o f p la nets a ro und th e S un, i n clu din g th e E arth , a nd Is a ac N ew to n p ro vid ed a m ath em atic al th eory o f g ra vit y to e xpla in th e fo rc es a t w ork , d evelo pin g c alc ulu s in th e p ro cess. T hre e p oin ts a re im porta nt fo r th e p re se nt d is c ussio n. F ir s t, th e n ew a str o nom y c orre ctly r e cogniz ed th at h eavenly b odie s w ere p hysic al o bje cts , r a th er th an s p ir it u al b ein gs. S econd, it d is c onnecte d th e s ta rs a nd p la nets fr o m th e fe ars a nd d esir e s o f e very day lif e . T hir d , it d is p la ced h um anit y fr o m t h e c ente r o f th e u niv ers e . A ll th re e o f th ese d evelo pm ents p ro m ote d s e cula riz atio n b y d enyin g th at th e u niv ers e is a s p ir it u al r e alm c ente re d o n h um an b ein gs.
S in ce th e d ays o f G alile o, th is p ro cess o f d em ystif ic atio n a nd e str a ngem ent h as c ontin ued. A n a lm ost im media te c oro lla ry o f th e h elio centr ic m odel o f th e s o la r s y ste m is th e d is c overy th at th e s ta rs a re v ery fa r a w ay, b ecause t h eir r e la tiv e p osit io n d oes n ot c hange a ppre cia bly o ver th e c ours e o f s ix m onth s a s th e E arth m oves m ore th an 1 80,0 00,0 00 m ile s fr o m o ne s id e o f it s o rb it to th e o pposit e s id e. In th e tw entie th c entu ry , c are fu l m easu re m ent s h ow ed th at th is p ara lla x d id a ctu ally e xis t, b ut w as v ery tin y e ven fo r th e c lo se st s ta rs . T he n eare st s ta rs o th er t h an th e S un a ppear to m ove a gain st th e b ackg ro und o f m ore d is ta nt s ta rs le ss th an o ne 4 ,0 00th o f a d egre e, i m ply in g a d is ta nce o f fu lly 2 5,0 00,0 00,0 00,0 00 m ile s. F u rth er d is c overie s r e veale d th at th e S un is a v ery o rd in ary s ta r fa r fr o m th e c ente r o f a g ala xy th at is o nly o ne o f a m yria d o f g ala xie s fillin g a s p ace v astly la rg er th an th at e ncom passin g o ur g ala xy.
T his m odern a str o nom ic al a w are ness is h um blin g a nd m ig ht s e em to r e in fo rc e P sa lm 8 , w hen it a sks, “ W hat is m an, t h at th ou a rt m in dfu l o f h im ?” H ow ever, it d oes n ot m ere ly e ro de th e fe elin g th at w e a re G od's s p ecia l c re atu re s. It a ls o u nderc uts s o m e tr a dit io nal a rg um ents fo r th e v ery e xis te nce o f G od, n ota bly th e a rg um ent fr o m d esig n. T his is t h e th eory th at th e w orld m ust h ave b een c re ate d b y a b enevole nt G od fo r o ur u se , b ecause it is s o w ell s u it e d to o ur e xis te nce. T he a rg um ent fr o m d esig n p re -d ate s C hris tia nit y , a nd it fe atu re s p ro m in ently in th e te nth b ook o f T he L a w s b y P la to .
S ocio lo gis t a nd b io chem is t L a w re nce Jo se ph H enders o n ( 1913 ; 1917 ) e xpre sse d a s o phis tic ate d v ers io n o f th is a rg um ent in tw o b ooks e arly in th e tw entie th c entu ry , o ffe rin g a d eta ile d c hem ic al a naly sis to s u pport th e v ie w th at t h e p ro pertie s o f h ydro gen, o xygen, c arb on, a nd o th er e le m ents a re s o im pro bably w ell s u it e d to th e e volu tio n o f l if e th at n o m ere “ m echanis m ” c an b e r e sp onsib le , a nd th e u niv ers e s h ow s th e h and o f “ te le olo gy” o r G od.
T he a rg um ent fr o m d esig n w eake ns o nce w e r e aliz e th at th e u niv ers e c onta in s a n u ncounta bly v ast n um ber o f p la nets , h avin g a w id e r a nge o f c ondit io ns, s u ch th at in te llig ent lif e c ould h ave e m erg ed o n s o m e o f th em p ure ly b y c hance. T his c ounte r a rg um ent is o fte n c alle d th e A nth ro pic P rin cip le : T he c ondit io ns w e o bse rv e in o ur e nvir o nm ent a re fa vora ble to o ur e xis te nce b ecause o nly in s u ch a n e nvir o nm ent c ould w e h ave c om e in to e xis te nce ( B arro w a nd T ip le r 1986 ; B ain brid ge 1997 ). Y o u (p . 3 0 9) are n ot r e adin g th is e ssa y o n th e p la net V enus, b ecause it s o ppre ssiv e, b urn in g h ot, a cid a tm osp here w ould k ill y ou in a n in sta nt. T hus, o ur e xis te nce in a p ro pit io us e nvir o nm ent is m ere ly a s e le ctio n e ffe ct. C re atin g s u ch a v ast u niv ers e w ould s e em to b e th e m ost i n effic ie nt w ay fo r G od to c re ate u s, w hic h r a is e s th e s u sp ic io n th at w e d o n ot m atte r m uch to G od a t a ll, if in deed h e e ven e xis ts .
S cie nce h as n ot y et to ld u s h ow th e e ntir e u niv ers e c am e in to b ein g; s o a ny fu rth er d is c ussio n m ust b e s o m ew hat s p ecula tiv e. O ne p ossib ilit y is th at th e e ntir e u niv ers e is a q uantu m e vent, a n u ncause d, r a ndom flu ctu atio n in s p ace. R ela te d is th e o bse rv atio n th at th e s u m to ta l o f a ll th e p osit iv e a nd n egativ e fo rc es in th e u niv ers e s e em s r e m ark a bly c lo se to z ero , a nd if th e s u m r e ally is z ero , th en n o c re ativ e e ffo rt a t a ll w as r e quir e d to b rin g th e S cie nce a nd R elig io n Pag e 5 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).
Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 u niv ers e in to e xis te nce. T he c urre ntly r e sp ecte d in fla tio nary th eory o f th e e arly h is to ry o f th e u niv ers e s a ys th at t h e u niv ers e w e o bse rv e is o nly a n im measu ra bly tin y p ortio n o f a m ult iv ers e d iv id ed in to a n in fin it e n um ber o f r e gio ns h avin g e very p ossib le c om bin atio n o f p hysic al c hara cte ris tic s, in clu din g d if fe re nt p ro pertie s o f c hem ic al e le m ents , th us p ro vid in g fu rth er s c ope fo r th e A nth ro pic P rin cip le to e xpla in th e fu ndam enta l c onsta nts o f p hysic s.
T he v ery n otio ns o f s p ace a nd tim e m ay m ere ly r e fle ct h ow w e h ave e volv ed to p erc eiv e th e r e la tio ns b etw een f o rc es a nd e ntit ie s w it h in o ur w orld , a nd th ey m ay h ave n o o bje ctiv e m eanin g fo r th e c osm os a s a w hole .
S ocio lo gic ally , th e a lie natio n o f c onte m pora ry p hysic s a nd c osm olo gy fr o m th e d om in ant h um an c ult u re s is a r e m ark a ble fa ct. S uffic e it to s a y fo r n ow th at fe w h um ans h ave a c lu e w hat c osm olo gis ts a re ta lk in g a bout, a nd m any id eas in p hysic s a nd a str o nom y a re h ig hly c ounte rin tu it iv e. P e ople g o a bout th eir e very day liv es a s if th e E arth w ere th e c ente r o f th e u niv ers e , a nd th ey s till s a y th at th e S un r is e s a nd s e ts , e ven if m ost k n ow o n s o m e l e vel th at th e E arth r e ally s p in s o n it s a xis . T hus, a fte r G alile o's r e volu tio n, th e e ffe ct o f a str o nom ic al p ro gre ss o n r e lig io n h as b een s lig ht. F o r th eir p art, a str o nom ers h ave b een w ork in g a w ay w it h out b enefit o f r e lig io us g uid ance.
B efo re r e cent c oncepts in c osm olo gy a nd a str o physic s c ould c onflic t w it h r e lig io n in a s o cio lo gic ally s ig nif ic ant m anner, o th er c hanges w ould n eed to a gain e sta blis h a c lo se c onnectio n b etw een th e d is ta nt s ta rs a nd o ur o rd in ary liv es.
E vo lu tio n E very m ajo r r e lig io n o r tr a dit io nal c ult u re p osse sse s a t le ast o ne m yth a bout th e o rig in s o f liv in g th in gs, b ut it is th e J u deo-C hris tia n tr a dit io n th at e sp ecia lly c am e in to c onflic t w it h th e th eory o f e volu tio n b y n atu ra l s e le ctio n in th e n in ete enth c entu ry , b ecause it w as in C hris tia n n atio ns th at th is p ers p ectiv e w as in vente d a nd (p . 3 1 0) fir s t s p re ad. B efo re th e w ork o f C harle s D arw in , r e lig io n in flu enced g eolo gy a nd p ale onto lo gy in a g ra nd d ebate b etw een c ata str o phis ts a nd g ra dualis ts ( G illis p ie 1951 ). C ata str o phis ts w ere in flu enced b y th e le gend o f N oah's f lo od, a nd b elie ved th at th e g eolo gic al r e cord o f s tr a ta a nd fo ssils w as la id d ow n in a s e rie s o f r e la tiv ely b rie f e pis o des o f c ata str o phic c hange. G ra dualis ts b elie ved th at th e E arth c hanged v ery s lo w ly o ver m any m illio ns o f y ears . T he g ra dualis t v ie w th at th e E arth is v ery a ncie nt is a n ecessa ry a ssu m ptio n fo r e volu tio n b y n atu ra l s e le ctio n, b ecause s e le ctio n c annot o ccur r a pid ly .
T oday, g ra dualis m is n ot o nly d om in ant w it h in g eolo gy, b ut w ell s u pporte d b y a m ple e m pir ic al e vid ence, in clu din g p ro of o f th e a ntiq uit y o f th e E arth fr o m r a dio activ e d atin g m eth ods. H ow ever, in r e cent y ears , a r o le h as a ls o b een f o und fo r a k in d o f n eo-c ata str o phis m , in w hic h a ste ro id im pacts o n o ur p la net a re th ought to h ave e nded th e e ra o f th e d in osa urs , a nd o th er d is c ontin uit ie s in th e fo ssil r e cord a re h ypoth esiz ed to b e th e r e su lt o f r e la tiv ely b rie f g eolo gic al, c lim atic , o r e ven e volu tio nary e pis o des. T he id ea th at e sse ntia lly r a ndom a ste ro id im pacts c ould k ill o ff t h e d in osa urs , p erh aps th ere by g iv in g m am mals m ore c hance to e volv e in to h um an b ein gs, d oes n ot h arm oniz e w it h tr a dit io nal r e lig io n, a s e arly n in ete enth -c entu ry c ata str o phis m d id .
F o r p hilo so pher D anie l C . D ennett, e volu tio n b y n atu ra l s e le ctio n is a fu ndam enta lly r e volu tio nary id ea, w hic h is i n com patib le n ot o nly w it h r e lig io n b ut w it h m any o th er tr a dit io nal h um an n otio ns. H e s u ggests th at th e th eory is c om pose d o f th re e fu ndam enta l id eas ( D ennett 1995 : 3 43):
1.
V aria tio n: th ere is a c ontin uin g a bundance o f d if fe re nt e le m ents .
2.
H ere dit y o r r e plic atio n: th e e le m ents h ave th e c apacit y to c re ate c opie s o r r e plic as o f th em se lv es.
3.
D if fe re ntia l “ fit n ess”: th e n um ber o f c opie s o f a n e le m ent th at a re c re ate d in a g iv en tim e v arie s, d ependin g on in te ra ctio ns b etw een th e fe atu re s o f th at e le m ent a nd fe atu re s o f th e e nvir o nm ent in w hic h it p ers is ts .
T he e le m ents c ould b e th e g enes o f m ic e, fo r a h ypoth etic al e xam ple . M uta tio ns in th eir g enetic c odes, c ause d b y a ccid enta l d am age b y v ir u se s o r r a dia tio n, e nsu re th at th ere w ill e xis t a r a nge o f g enetic v aria tio ns, a lle le s o f e very g ene. L e t u s im agin e th at s o m e g enes a ffe ct h ow a ttr a ctiv e th e s c ent o f c heese is fo r th e m ouse , a nd o th ers i n flu ence th e m ouse 's r e actio n to s m all r e cta ngula r o bje cts . M ic e th at lo ve c heese b ut a re n ot w orrie d b y s m all r e cta ngula r o bje cts w ill b e k ille d b y m ouse tr a ps, th ere by r e m ovin g th eir g enes fr o m th e g ene p ool. M ic e la ckin g t h ese c hara cte ris tic s w ill s u rv iv e, h ave m any c hild re n, a nd d om in ate th e p opula tio n. W hile h um ans w ill r e sp ond b y c onsc io usly in ventin g n ew m ouse tr a ps, n o c onsc io us a ctio n d esig ned th e m ic e to a void th e tr a ps. G od d id n ot m ake th em tr a p-a vers e ; n or d id th e tin y r o dents d ebate e m pir ic al s tu die s o f m yste rio us m ouse d eath s a nd d ecid e t o a void tr a ps. E volu tio n is a n e ntir e ly m echanic al p ro cess, la ckin g p urp ose o r a w are ness, b ase d o n b ia se d s a m plin g fr o m r a ndom v aria tio n. S cie nce a nd R elig io n Pag e 6 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).
Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 ( p . 3 1 1) Po rte r A bbott ( 2003 ) s u ggests th at h um an th ought o rg aniz es th in gs in te rm s o f n arra tiv es— sto rie s in w hic h p ro ta gonis ts fa ce o bsta cle s a nd ta ke a ctio ns in p urs u it o f g oals — and th us th e s c ie ntif ic th eory o f e volu tio n c annot c om pete w it h r e lig io us s to rie s, b ecause it is u nnarra ta ble . R elig io n o ffe rs “ th e g re ate st s to ry e ver to ld ”.
F u rth er, W este rn r e lig io ns o ffe r s to rie s th at r e la te d ir e ctly to th e lif e o f th e a vera ge p ers o n, o ffe rin g n arra tiv e e xpre ssio ns o f h ope a nd c om fo rt. W ho c ould b e s o h eartle ss a s to e xpla in to th e m oth er o f a d yin g c hild th at th e d eath w ill b e a g ood th in g, b ecause it r e m oves in fe rio r g enes fr o m th e g ene p ool?
H ow ever, in cre asin gly p ro m in ent fe atu re s o f m odern lif e h arm oniz e w it h e volu tio n b y n atu ra l s e le ctio n a nd e ven r e quir e it . In fe ctio us d is e ase is n ow c om monly d is c usse d in te rm s o f m uta tio n o f d is e ase s— lik e A ID S a nd b ir d flu — t h at b ecom e m ore c onta gio us, tr ig gerin g e pid em ic s. T he e conom ic s u ccess o f p artic ula r p ro ducts o r c orp ora tio ns c an b e m odele d in te rm s o f n atu ra l s e le ctio n. R elig io n it s e lf w as d esc rib ed in e volu tio nary te rm s b y s o cio lo gis t T alc ott P a rs o ns in 1 964. Im porta ntly , e ffe ctiv e c om pute r m eth ods fo r s o lv in g p ro ble m s a nd d esig nin g te chnolo gie s h ave e m plo yed e volu tio n e ver s in ce g enetic a lg orit h m s w ere fir s t in tr o duced in to c om pute r s c ie nce d ecades a go ( H olla nd 1975 ). T he s u ccess o f th e th eory o f e volu tio n b y n atu ra l s e le ctio n is b ecom in g in cre asin gly a ppare nt, in a w id enin g c ir c le o f p ra ctic al fie ld s, p ote ntia lly o utw eig hin g it s c ounte rin tu it iv eness a nd u nple asa nt im plic atio ns.
E sp ecia lly in th e U nit e d S ta te s, r e lig io us o pposit io n to th e th eory o f e volu tio n h as s o m etim es ta ke n p se udo- s c ie ntif ic fo rm , u nder te rm s lik e “ c re atio n s c ie nce”, o r th e “ th eory o f in te llig ent d esig n”. G iv en th e d iv ers it y o f p eople w ho b ecom e s c ie ntis ts , a nd th e r e la tiv e o penness o f s c ie ntif ic d ebate s, o ne w ould th in k th at a fe w g re at g eolo gis ts a nd p ale onto lo gis ts w ould e ndors e th ese id eas, if o nly fo r p ers o nal r e aso ns. R ese arc h b y R onald N um bers ( 2006 ) r e veals , h ow ever, th at a lm ost w it h out e xceptio n th e c re atio nis t p ro pagandis ts a re in com pete nt s c ie ntis ts w it h fe w if a ny a ccom plis h m ents to th eir c re dit .
P sych o lo gy I t c ould b e s a id th at th e c ru cia l q uestio n a bout r e lig io n is n ot w heth er G od e xis ts , b ut w heth er th e s o ul e xis ts . Y a le c ognit iv e p sy cholo gis t P a ul B lo om ( 2004 ) h as p re dic te d th at s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n w ill b attle to d efin e th e h um an m in d in th e tw enty -fir s t c entu ry . A lr e ady, m any c ognit iv e s c ie ntis ts h ave s o ught to e xpla in r e lig io n a s th e n atu ra l r e su lt o f h um an b io lo gic al e volu tio n, a nd in s o d oin g to e xpla in it a w ay. B lo om h im se lf a rg ues th at w e fa ls e ly b elie ve th at w e p osse ss s o uls , b ecause w e a re n ot c onsc io us o f th e w ay o ur b ra in s o pera te .
( p . 3 1 2) His to ric ally s p eakin g, h ow ever, th e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een r e lig io n a nd th e s c ie nces o f th e m in d h as b een t e nse a t le ast s in ce th e m id dle o f th e n in ete enth c entu ry , w hen p sy chia tr y fir s t e sta blis h ed it s e lf o n a p ro fe ssio nal b asis . A s d octo rs d ocum ente d h ow in ju ry o r illn ess c ould r o b a p atie nt o f h is m enta l o r m ora l fa cult ie s, th ey s tr u ggle d to a ssu re th e c le rg y th at ( s o m ehow ) th eir d is c overie s d id n ot c ontr a dic t r e lig io us n otio ns o f th e im morta l s o ul ( R ay 1863 ; 1871 ). In th e m id dle o f th e n in ete enth c entu ry , p sy chia tr is ts in B rit a in , F ra nce, a nd th e U SA b elie ved th at r e lig io us in sa nit y c ould b e c ause d b y e xcessiv e e xcit e m ent, a s g enera te d b y r e viv al m eetin gs, b ut t h ey w ere c are fu l to a bso lv e th e m ain str e am d enom in atio ns to w hic h m ost o f th eir p ayin g c usto m ers b elo nged ( B ain brid ge 1984 ). T he is su es r a is e d b y p sy chia tr y w it h r e sp ect to m ora l r e sp onsib ilit y a nd th e n atu re o f th e s o ul s till b oth er n ot o nly th e c hurc hes b ut th e le gal s y ste m to day.
T he te nsio ns b ecam e a cute w it h th e r is e o f th e p sy choanaly tic m ovem ent, a s illu str a te d b y th e tit le o f o ne's o f F re ud's ( 1927 ) b ooks a bout r e lig io n, The F u tu re o f a n Illu sio n . F re ud's d is c ip le G eza R oheim ( 1955 ) w ent s o fa r a s t o b ra nd r e lig io n a s h are d p sy chosis . Ir o nic ally , s e vera l a uth ors h ave a rg ued th at p sy choanaly sis w as p re dic ate d u pon F re ud's Je w is h h erit a ge. Jo hn C uddih y ( 1974 ) d eriv ed it fr o m th e c ult u ra lly r ic h b ut s o cia lly m arg in al s ta tu s o f e ducate d Je w s in W este rn E uro pe. D avid B aka n ( 1958 ) a nd N andor F o dor ( 1971 ) a rg ued th at p sy choanaly sis w as t h e e xpre ssio n o f Je w is h m ystic is m . O th er a uth ors , lik e P e te r B re ggin ( 1971 ), s u ggeste d th at p sy choanaly tic ally o rie nte d p sy choth era py w as a fo rm o f a pplie d e th ic s, r a th er th an b ein g a s c ie nce-b ase d p sy cholo gic al t e chnolo gy. T ake n to th e lo gic al e xtr e m e, th is a naly sis w ould a rg ue th at p sy choanaly sis w as a t h eart r e lig io us, e it h er a m ystic al c ult o r s o m e h ard -to -c ate goriz e n ew fo rm o f s p ir it u al e th ic s. A s s u ch, it w ould n atu ra lly b e in d ir e ct c om petit io n w it h th e tr a dit io nal C hris tia n r e lig io n o f th e s u rro undin g s o cie ty , a nd th us b ia se d to w ard d ia gnosin g th at e sta blis h ed r e lig io n a s p ath olo gic al. In te re stin gly , w hen c onte m pora ry c ognit iv e s c ie ntis t S te ven P in ke r ( 1997 ) w rit e s fo r a n on-te chnic al a udie nce, h e fe els th e n eed to a tta ck b oth F re ud a nd c onventio nal r e lig io n.
I n p rin cip le , “ c ognit iv e s c ie nce” c overs a ll s y ste m atic s tu die s o f h um an, a nim al, o r m achin e in te llig ence, in clu din g p erc eptio n a nd e m otio n a s w ell a s c ognit io n. T he w ebsit e o f th e C ognit iv e S cie nce S ocie ty a nd th e fr o nt p age o f it s S cie nce a nd R elig io n Pag e 7 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).
Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 j o urn al, Cognit iv e S cie nce , lis t s e ven fie ld s: a rtif ic ia l in te llig ence, lin guis tic s, p sy cholo gy, p hilo so phy, n euro sc ie nce, a nth ro polo gy, a nd e ducatio n. It is p erh aps a tr a gic a ccid ent o f h is to ry th at s o cio lo gy a nd p olit ic al s c ie nce h ave n ot b een a ctiv ely in volv ed in th e d evelo pm ent o f “ c og-s c i” , o m is sio ns th at fu tu re g enera tio ns w ill n eed to c orre ct. In s u ch r e se arc h a re as a s a ttit u des, b elie fs , s o cia l in flu ence, a nd id eolo gy, th ese tw o s c ie nces a re c erta in ly a s c ognit iv e a s a ny o th er.
T he e xchange th eory o f r e lig io n p ro pose d b y S ta rk a nd B ain brid ge ( 1987 ), s o m etim es to o-n arro w ly c alle d th e “ ra tio nal c hoic e a ppro ach”, is fir m ly s o cio lo gic al; y et it is a ls o c ognit iv e. T he th eory b egin s w it h a s e t o f a xio m s, n otin g th at h um an p erc eptio n a nd a ctio n ta ke p la ce th ro ugh tim e, fr o m th e p ast in to th e (p . 3 1 3) fu tu re . T he p ast c onsis ts o f th e u niv ers e o f c ondit io ns w hic h c an b e k n ow n b ut n ot in flu enced. T he fu tu re c onsis ts o f th e u niv ers e o f c ondit io ns w hic h c an b e in flu enced b ut n ot k n ow n. H um an a ctio n is d ir e cte d b y a c om ple x b ut fin it e in fo rm atio n- p ro cessin g s y ste m th at fu nctio ns to id entif y p ro ble m s a nd a tte m pt s o lu tio ns to th em . S om e d esir e d r e w ard s a re l im it e d in s u pply , in clu din g s o m e th at s im ply d o n ot e xis t. In th e a bse nce o f a s tr o ngly d esir e d r e w ard , h um ans w ill s e ek in fo rm atio n, o fte n th ro ugh s o cia l e xchanges, th at w ill te ll th em h ow to o bta in th e r e w ard . A s p eople e xchange r e w ard s o f m any k in ds, th ey e nte r in to o blig atio ns to w ard e ach o th er. W hen o ne p ers o n c annot p ro vid e th e r e w ard a n e xchange p artn er n eeds, th ere is a te ndency to p ro vid e in ste ad a “ c om pensa to r” , a b elie f th at th e r e w ard c an b e o bta in ed in th e fu tu re . T he m ore d if fic ult a nd d esir e d th e r e w ard , th e m ore d is ta nt th e fu tu re , u ntil it b ecom es th e s u pern atu ra l. S upern atu ra l b ein gs a re s o cia l- c onstr u cte d, im agin ary b ein gs th at o ffe r r e w ard s n o h um an c an g iv e.
O ver th e c ours e o f h is to ry , a s fo rm al o rg aniz atio ns b egan to e m erg e, th e e xchange o f s u pern atu ra lly b ase d c om pensa to rs g ave r is e to th e in stit u tio n o f r e lig io n.
N otic e tw o th in gs a bout th is s o lid ly s o cio lo gic al th eory o f r e lig io n. F ir s t, it is h ig hly c ognit iv e. H um ans p la n fo r th e f u tu re , e xchange in fo rm atio n, a nd a naly ze p ro ble m s u nder th e c ontr o l o f m in ds th at a re in fo rm atio n-p ro cessin g s y ste m s. S econd, it is h ig hly d am agin g to r e lig io n. U nlik e P a rs o ns a nd o th er fu nctio nalis ts , it d oes n ot a ssu m e th at r e lig io n s e rv es p osit iv e fu nctio ns. T he im plic atio n is th at c om pensa to rs a re fa ls e b elie fs , a lt h ough e xchange th eory p ublic atio ns o fte n n ote th at c om pensa to rs a re lik e IO Us th at m ig ht p ossib ly b e r e deem ed fo r th e a ctu al r e w ard s u nder c onceiv able fu tu re c ir c um sta nces. In th e a bse nce o f c onvin cin g e m pir ic al e vid ence th at r e lig io n is b enefic ia l i n s o m e in dir e ct w ay, th is th eory d ebunks r e lig io n a s a s tr u ctu re o f illu sio ns a nd d eceptio ns.
B ette r k n ow n w it h in th e c ognit iv e s c ie nce c om munit y is a n etw ork o f id eas p ro pose d b y m any w rit e rs th at m ig ht b e c alle d th e “ so cia l in fe re nce” th eory o f r e lig io n. P a sc al B oyer ( 2001 ), S cott A tr a n ( 2002 ), Ju stin L . B arre tt ( 2004 ), a nd s e vera l o th er p sy cholo gis ts o r a nth ro polo gis ts h ave a rg ued th at b elie f in th e e xis te nce o f s u pern atu ra l b ein gs c om es fr o m a s p ecif ic fu nctio n th at e volu tio n p ro gra m med in to o ur b ra in s, w heth er it is lo dged in p artic ula r b ra in s tr u ctu re s o r e ncoded in s o m e m ore s u btle w ay. O ver th e h undre ds o f th ousa nds o r e ven m illio ns o f y ears d urin g w hic h h um an in te llig ence e volv ed, w e liv ed u nder c ondit io ns in w hic h w e n eeded to d eal w it h th e a nim als a nd h um ans in o ur e nvir o nm ent. A s I lik e to p ut it , w e le arn ed to u nders ta nd o ur p re dato rs , p re y, a nd p artn ers . W e n eeded to p re dic t th e b ehavio r o f b oth d angero us a nim als th at w ante d to e at u s a nd th e a nim als th at w e o urs e lv es w ante d to e at. In e xchange w it h o th er h um ans, w e n eeded to k n ow h ow to m otiv ate th em to h elp u s, a nd to d is tin guis h tr u stw orth y fr o m u ntr u stw orth y e xchange p artn ers .
W it h a ll th ese e volu tio nary p re ssu re s, th e h um an b ra in d evelo ped a n “ in fe re nce s y ste m ” th at in te rp re ts th e p erc eptio ns a nd in te ntio ns o f o th er in te llig ent b ein gs. (p . 3 1 4) It w as s o im porta nt to o ur w ell- b ein g a nd s u rv iv al t h at it a uto m atic ally ta ke s c harg e u nder a g re at v arie ty o f c ir c um sta nces. T hus, w henever w e e ncounte r a s e t o f p henom ena e xhib it in g c om ple x b ehavio r, w e in voke o ur s o cia l in fe re nce s y ste m . W e c ould d o th is w it h th e w eath er, fo r e xam ple , o r a flo w in g s tr e am , o r th e e ntir e u niv ers e . R elig io n, a ccord in g to th is th eory , is th e r e su lt o f a h ypera ctiv e s o cia l in fe re nce s y ste m th at s e es in te llig ent b ein gs w here n one a ctu ally e xis t.
P re su m ably , it w ould n ot b e d if fic ult to in te gra te e xchange th eory w it h s o cia l in fe re nce th eory , a s a s te p to w ard c lo se r r e la tio ns b etw een s o cio lo gy a nd c ognit iv e s c ie nce. B oth th eorie s d esc rib e a n ir o nic s it u atio n. R elig io n is a n e xpre ssio n o f fu ndam enta l h um an n atu re , e sp ecia lly o f s o m e o f th e m ost v alu able fu nctio ns o f th e h um an m in d; y et r e lig io us b elie f is a c olle ctio n o f c ognit iv e e rro rs . N eedle ss to s a y, th ese th eorie s c ould tu rn o ut to b e w ro ng, o r to b e tr u e to a g re at e xte nt b ut in com ple te . In n eit h er c ase a re th e b asic th eore tic al a ssu m ptio ns h ostile to r e lig io n, b ut th e c onclu sio ns a re . T hus, if c ognit iv e s c ie nce g ro w s in s o cia l in flu ence, p erh aps o n th e b asis o f s o lid s c ie ntif ic s u ccesse s in a v arie ty o f a re as, th ere is a g ood c hance, a s B lo om s a ys, th at it w ill c om e in to d ir e ct c onflic t w it h f a it h . S cie nce a nd R elig io n Pag e 8 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).
Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 C onve rg ence S ocio bio lo gis t E dw ard O . W ils o n ( 1998 ) h as a rg ued th at th e m any s c ie nces a re r a pid ly u nif y in g in to o ne s c ie nce, a p ro cess h e c alls “ c onsilie nce”. E ngin eer M ih ail R oco a nd s o cio lo gis t W illia m B ain brid ge ( 2003 ) h ave e dit e d a s e rie s o f b ooks w hose a uth ors a rg ue th at th e v ario us b ra nches o f te chnolo gy a re lik e w is e c onverg in g, n ota bly n anote chnolo gy, b io te chnolo gy, in fo rm atio n te chnolo gy, a nd n ew te chnolo gie s b ase d o n c ognit iv e s c ie nce. W ils o n a nd B ain brid ge a re q uit e e xplic it in s u ggestin g th at r e lig io n p ro bably c annot p artic ip ate in th is u nif ic atio n, w it h th e r e su lt th at c onflic t b etw een th e r e alm s o f fa it h a nd r e se arc h is lik e ly to in cre ase .
I f th ere a re n o lo nger a ny m ajo r g aps in k n ow le dge, a ny G od o f th e g aps w ill o f n ecessit y b e s m all. W hen s c ie nce w as fr a gm ente d, m ost s c ie ntis ts d id n ot d ir e ctly e xperie nce a ny c ontr a dic tio n b etw een th e w ork th ey d id a nd th eir f a m ily 's tr a dit io nal r e lig io us b elie fs . B ut w hen e volu tio n b y n atu ra l s e le ctio n a nd a rtif ic ia l in te llig ence a re a pplie d a cro ss a ll fie ld s, it w ill b e h ard fo r s c ie ntis ts th em se lv es to s u sta in r e lig io us fa it h . U nif ie d s c ie nce h as th e p ote ntia l t o b ecom e th e u niv ers a l w orld c ult u re , b ecause th e te chnolo gic al m ig ht o f a ny n atio n m ust b e b ase d u pon it . T hus, o ne m ig ht th eoriz e th at th e h ostilit y b etw een s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n w ill s p ill o ver in to th e w orld a t la rg e.
T his s c enario is p re dic ate d o n th e a ssu m ptio n th at s c ie nce a ctu ally is in flu entia l in m odern s o cie ty , a nd th is m ay n ot b e th e c ase . T he te chnolo gic al p ro ducts o f (p . 3 1 5) sc ie nce a re fu ndam enta l to e conom ic w ell- b ein g, b ut s c ie ntis ts d o n ot c ontr o l th em . R ath er, e ntr e pre neurs , c orp ora te e xecutiv es, a nd g overn m ent p olic ym ake rs h old t h e p ow er, a nd m ake u se o f s c ie nce o nly w hen it s u it s th em . F o r m any y ears , th e U S N atio nal S cie nce F o undatio n c onducte d q uestio nnair e s tu die s o f th e a ttit u des a nd a w are ness o f th e A m eric an p ublic . B y a nd la rg e, o nly a bout 1 5 p erc ent e ven c la im ed to b e v ery a w are o f w hat w as h appenin g in s c ie nce ( D iv is io n o f S cie nce R eso urc es S ta tis tic s 2002 ).
T he g ulf o f u nders ta ndin g b etw een s c ie ntis ts a nd th e g enera l p ublic is w ell illu str a te d b y tw o o f th e it e m s in a s c ie nce te st th at w as in clu ded in th e G enera l S ocia l S urv ey, a s 2 ,4 34 A m eric an a dult s r e sp onded to th em .
R esp ondents w ere a ske d to s a y w heth er th ese tw o s ta te m ents w ere tr u e o r n ot tr u e: “ A str o lo gy— th e s tu dy o f s ta r s ig ns— has s o m e s c ie ntif ic tr u th ”; “ H um an b ein gs d evelo ped fr o m e arlie r s p ecie s o f a nim als .” S cie nce w ould s a y t h at th e a str o lo gy s ta te m ent is fa ls e , a nd th e s e cond ( a n e volu tio n s ta te m ent th at a void s u sin g th is w ord ) is tr u e.
A bout 2 5 p erc ent b elie ve b oth s ta te m ents a re tr u e, a nd a noth er 2 5 p erc ent b elie ve b oth a re fa ls e . T hus, h alf th e p opula tio n d is a gre es w it h s c ie ntis ts h alf th e tim e. A bout 2 6 p erc ent s a y a str o lo gy m ay h ave s o m e tr u th , b ut e volu tio n d oes n ot, c om ple te ly d is a gre ein g w it h s c ie ntis ts . T he p osit io n th at s c ie nce w ould e ndors e — astr o lo gy is f a ls e , b ut e volu tio n is tr u e— is h eld b y o nly 2 4 p erc ent o f A m eric an a dult s .
T he fa cts th at s c ie nce is n ot y et r e ally u nif ie d, a nd m ost p eople u nders ta nd v ery lit tle a bout s c ie nce, m eans th at r e lig io us c onse rv ativ es w ho r e je ct th e th eory o f e volu tio n a re n ot h ostile to w ard s c ie ntis ts in g enera l. In th e U nit e d S ta te s, h ow ever, s o m e c om menta to rs h ave id entif ie d a w orris o m e tr e nd in w hic h th e tw o m ain p olit ic al p artie s a re b ecom in g r e lig io usly p ola riz ed, w it h E vangelic als id entif ie d w it h th e R epublic ans.
C hris M ooney ( 2005 ) a rg ues th at th e R epublic an P a rty h as b ecom e a n e nem y o f s c ie nce, b ecause m any b ig c orp ora tio ns th at s u pport it w is h to s u ppre ss tr o uble so m e fin din gs a bout th e h ealt h a nd e nvir o nm enta l h arm c ause d b y th eir p ro ducts , a nd th e p arty h as g ro w n s tr o nger b y a ttr a ctin g r e lig io us c onse rv ativ es w ho r e je ct s c ie nce b ecause it th re ate ns th eir id eolo gic al a nd m ora l s y ste m . M uch e arlie r, O tto L a rs e n ( 1992 ) s h ow ed th at th e R eagan a dm in is tr a tio n h ad tr ie d to a bolis h s o cia l s c ie nce a t th e N atio nal S cie nce F o undatio n a ro und 1 982, p re su m ably b ecause th ey b elie ved it s u pporte d le ft- w in g id eolo gie s. S ocio lo gis ts R odney S ta rk a nd R oger F in ke ( 2 000 ) h ave c om pla in ed th at s e cula r s o cia l s c ie ntis ts h ave e xhib it e d a b ia s a gain st r e lig io n th at w as b ase d o n i d eolo gic al s e cula ris m r a th er th an o bje ctiv e a naly sis . If th ey a re c orre ct, th en s o m e fu tu re a ccom modatio n is p ossib le , if s o cio lo gy y ie ld s to r e lig io n; if n ot, p erh aps n ot.
S uch g ra nd q uestio ns a sid e, th ere is m uch to b e s a id fo r w ell- fo cuse d, d ow n-to -e arth e m pir ic al r e se arc h o n th e c om ple x r e la tio nsh ip b etw een s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n, s u ch a s th at c arrie d o ut b y R obert A . C am pbell ( 2005 ; C am pbell a nd C urtis 1996 ). H is r e se arc h te nds to fin d th at y oung p eople th in k r e lig io n a nd s c ie nce c an c oexis t, t h at th eir v ie w s a re h eavily s h aped b y fr ie nds a nd fa m ily , a nd th at th ere a re s u bsta ntia l n atio nal (p . 3 1 6) d if fe re nces. C hanges in p ublic a ttit u des a nd b elie fs te nd to b e s lo w , b ut n ot g la cia lly s o , a nd it is r e aso nable to e xpect th at th ey r e fle ct c oncre te c hanges in p eople 's o w n liv es, m ore th an a bstr a ct in te lle ctu al tr e nds a m ong th e i n te llig ents ia . S cie nce a nd R elig io n Pag e 9 o f 1 1 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 015. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).
Subsc rib er: A riz o n a S ta te U niv ersity ; d ate : 0 6 J an uary 2 016 C onclu sio n M any p io us in te lle ctu als , r e lig io us s o cia l s c ie ntis ts , a nd o th er o pin io n le aders h ave s o ught to s tr e ngth en h arm ony b etw een r e lig io n a nd s c ie nce. F o r e xam ple , th e Jo hn T em ple to n F o undatio n h as a v ig oro us S cie nce a nd R elig io n P ro gra m , d esc rib ed o n it s w ebsit e th us: “ In p urs u in g r e se arc h a t th e b oundary b etw een s c ie nce a nd r e lig io n, th e F o undatio n s e eks to u nit e c re dib le a nd r ig oro us s c ie nce w it h th e e xplo ra tio n o f h um anit y 's b asic s p ir it u al a nd r e lig io us q uests .” Zygon 's w ebsit e s a ys: “ T he jo urn al's c ontr ib uto rs s e ek to k e ep u nit e d w hat m ay o fte n b ecom e d is c onnecte d: v alu es w it h k n ow le dge, g oodness w it h tr u th , r e lig io n w it h s c ie nce.” T he h is to ric al a nd s o cio lo gic al l it e ra tu re im plie s th at a ccom plis h in g a ll th is w ill b e d if fic ult .
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