Module 5 Assignment 1
Module 5 Overview
Most of us recognize that our memories are subject to error. But do we really believe that we can be induced to believe something that never happened? Elizabeth Loftus, an expert on memory malleability, and others have demonstrated that any of us can be effectively tricked into believing that something happened that, in fact, never happened. The scary part is not that it happens but that it happens so easily. Hopefully, you can see the implications of this for the interrogation process. These issues are so important that some mental health professionals risk having their entire interviews excluded from evidence in cases of childhood sexual abuse if they cannot demonstrate that they are thoroughly familiar with how certain questioning techniques can easily influence the memories of alleged victims. It's important to emphasize that there is a process and method for developing information.
In this module, you will also consider issues related to risk assessment. Specifically, you will take a look at the use of risk assessment to help prevent mass shootings like those that have occurred in various schools over the years. Additionally, you will look at the key components of forensic reports. Finally, you will have the opportunity to practice the skills you have learned throughout this course as you put together your final paper.
Analyze and apply models of and approaches to interrogation and interviewing across the diversity of forensic professional settings, legal situations, and different types of interviewee.
Apply and integrate ethical and legal standards within the practice of interrogation and interviewing with all populations, including special populations such as youth and the aged, vulnerable individuals, victims and family members, and cultural groups.
Critically evaluate practice strategies used and information obtained using current research and best practices related to interviewing and interrogation.
A Forensic Psychological Professional
“The role I play in interviews and in developing information as a forensic psychology professional is powerful because I have developed an expertise that is often beyond the scope of criminal investigators, attorneys and judges. When I present information to these professionals, they depend on me to explain what reliable and valid methods are and to confront methods and techniques that cannot be supported by research.”
-Richard I. Frederick
Applying Research to Practice
Recent headlines seem to be full of mass shootings, many of which seem to occur in schools. The 1999 shooting at Columbine turned the nation's attention to these tragic incidents. At Columbine High School, fourteen students, including the two shooters, and one teacher were killed and twenty-three students were injured.
There have been numerous shootings since the Columbine incident. Perhaps one of the worst tragedies was the Virginia Polytechnic Institute campus shooting, in which thirty-three students were killed, including the shooter, who took his own life.
Most recently was the 2012 shooting in Newtown, Connecticut, in which twenty first graders and six teachers were killed by a twenty-year-old shooter, who subsequently took his own life. Earlier in the day, he had killed his mother.
These types of events have law enforcement and forensic psychology professionals working to identify high-risk situations and ways to predict and possibly prevent future school shootings. However, there are a number of factors that make this task difficult.
First, we need to consider the base rates for such behavior. Despite the alarming frequency at which these events occur, school shootings are still, thankfully, a relatively rare phenomenon. Indeed, schools are still one of the safest places for our children to be. With an extremely low base rate of such shootings, we are more accurate in predicting that it will not happen and most likely to be correct the vast majority of the time.
Another factor is the success of forensic psychology professionals in predicting future behavior. Although forensic psychology professionals have developed some assessment instruments for predicting risk, many researchers feel that these instruments do not have adequate psychometric properties for reliable and valid predictions.
Related to this issue is the question, who do we assess? Do they fit the target group for the tests that we administer to accurately assess risk? Have we had the opportunity to intervene with those who exhibit violence? Although hindsight has suggested that some of the shooters in school shootings may have been contemplating the attacks, others provided no indication of their plans.
Despite these caveats, the US Secret Service and the Department of Education collaborated on a guide titled "Threat Assessment in Schools." This guide offers practical advice for managing threat in schools and tips on how to make schools a safer place. This guide is listed in your course Webliography.
Risk Assessment
The risk assessment of offenders is an area of increasing importance for forensic psychology professionals. They have developed a variety of assessment instruments to help identify who will reoffend. Forensic psychology professionals also need to examine risk management approaches. Risk management is identifying potential areas that pose a risk and then taking action to help reduce or mitigate the risk.
Risk assessment and risk management can also apply to offenders. The approach is to identify specific factors that will increase the chance of an offender reoffending and then to take appropriate actions that can help reduce the risk.
One approach that is used with an offender population is the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model. This model is used to reduce or manage the risk of offenders reoffending. Use of the model has been shown to be successful in reducing recidivism rates. This model is a theoretical framework that identifies the cause of habitual criminal behavior and principles for mitigating criminal activity. The RNR, first introduced in 1990, identifies the following three core principles:
Risk
Need
Responsivity
Theoretical Assumptions of RNR Model
The following are the theoretical assumptions of RNR model:
--Interventions that help offenders reduce their criminal behavior benefit both the offenders and the communities in which they live.
--The RNR framework is a risk reduction model that focuses on targeting specific behaviors that predict criminal activity.
--These behaviors can be changed through collaborative, compassionate and dignified human service interventions.
Risk management is the identification of factors that can increase the chances of a behavior occurring. The professional then attempts to reduce the risk by changing the situation. For example, research supports that weapons on the worksite increase the chances of a shooting; so most worksites do not allow guns on the site. Or an employer of professional drivers may institute random drug and alcohol screens to prevent substance use on the job, thus reducing the risk of an accident due to substance use. Forensic psychology professionals need to identify factors that can increase the risk of an undesirable behavior and then take preventative actions to reduce the risk.
SEE: Components of the Risk Principle
Two risk principles::
The Need Principle
It denotes the targets for change. The originators of the model refer to these needs as "problematic circumstances," though other authors refer to these as criminogenic needs. Criminogenic needs are dynamic aspects of an individual, such as drug use, and their circumstances, such as family supervision, that when changed can help reduce recidivism rates.
The Responsivity Principle
This is the "how" of responding to individuals and weighs both individual and specific responsivity, characteristics specific to individual offenders like verbal intelligence, and "general" responsivity, such as techniques and processes. Research supports that offender treatment programs are most effective when based on a cognitive-behavioral or social-learning theoretical orientation.
Naturally, people differ in their proclivity to engage in criminal behavior, and the probability of engaging in criminal behavior can be predicted on the basis of a variety of factors. The level of risk helps to target the provision of services in that more crime can be prevented by targeting higher-risk individuals than lower-risk persons. This assumption proposes that an individual's risk should be determined prior to the delivery of services. Also, higher-risk individuals will require more intensive services than lower-risk individuals. Additionally, individuals who have more protective factors or currently resolved factors may demonstrate a lower level of risk.
Forensic Report Writing
Writing forensic reports for court can be highly useful if the psychological reports are clear and provide essential details that can be used by the court to make legal decisions. Ackerman (2006) described that there are variations in report lengths, which may relate to the court referral questions and availability of information. The audience for a report is also an important consideration that will help guide the level of jargon and phrasing of findings. Forensic psychology professionals, nonprofessionals, and legal professionals may all read a forensic report. Writing the report for the referral source without considering who else may review and utilize the report is not advised. Also, to reduce confusion and miscommunication of data, further definition and explanation of clinical terms and findings provided within a report is helpful, especially for audiences who are not mental health professionals. The most important aspect of each report is to provide an opinion that speaks directly to the psycholegal question (Resnick & Soliman, 2012). If this does not occur, the report may be rendered useless. Additionally, included data needs to meet criteria under the Daubert standard or it may be highly questioned in the court process (Ackerman, 2006).
Each psychological report has consistent aspects and sections. Ackerman recommended that every report have the following sections that should be detailed and specific to the referral question:
Report Heading, Including Private and Confidential Disclaimers
Referral Question(s)
Background Information
Interview Data and Gathered Collateral Information
Test Results
Diagnostic Impression
Discussion of the Ultimate Issue
Signature, Title, and Licensure
Depending on the referral question(s), other sections may be added or further defined to provide specific information requested.
References:
Ackerman, M. J. (2006). Forensic report writing. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
62(1), 59–72.
Resnick, P. J., & Soliman, S. (2012). Planning, writing, and editing forensic
psychiatric reports. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 35(5–6),
412–416.
Conclusion
In this module, we looked at the issues of risk assessment and forensic report writing. We also reviewed efforts underway to help make schools safer. The US Secret Service has issued a guide to identify risk factors in school settings. We also looked at the risk assessment approach with offenders, as well as risk management techniques.
We briefly reviewed the RNR model of risk assessment and risk management, which is used with offenders. It is likely that risk assessment and risk management will continue to play a large role in the treatment of offenders. Although low base rates make the prediction of infrequent behaviors difficult, forensic mental health professionals can still engage in risk management approaches. And, finally, recommendations for writing forensic psychology reports and the specific structure seen in these reports were described.
You may conduct a research on:
The Power of Suggestion: How to Implant False Memories
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=il0u2s_WGXA
Science Channel: False Memories
https://www.coursehero.com/file/p50sjsj/Anterograde-amnesia-Inability-to-form-new-memories-Two-case-studies-%C6%94-HM-%C6%94/
http://vidque.com/ScienceChannel/90908/false-memories--through-the-wormhole
