Legal and Ethics Issues

0

Insert Page Number – Upper right corner in page ‘header’

Name: Sarah Smith

Essay Title: The Impact of Positive Predispositions on Quality of Life

Word Count: 1570 (excluding title page and reference list)

Student number in centre of the page footer

Student Name, Title of Essay, and Word Count on Title Page

Regardless of who we are or where we come from, few situations in life are as stressful as living with a chronic, physical illness (Fitzgerald Miller, 2000). Chronic illness (CI), defined as an altered health state not curable through surgical or medical or procedures, often involves “long-term, impaired functioning and multiple illness-related demands on an individual that are never completely eliminated” (Fitzgerald Miller, 2000, p. 4). In Australia, the prevalence of CI has increased over the last decade, with as much as 15% of the population currently living with illnesses such as circulatory conditions (e.g. heart attack, stroke, angina and hypertension), cancer, arthritis, osteoporosis, asthma, and diabetes (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], 2009). In addition to an increase in their prevalence, many of these chronic problems are now occurring at younger ages than ever before (Keyes, 2007). With increasing numbers of people getting sick at younger ages, the onus is on the health professions to investigate new ways to assist those living with chronic physical illness to live healthier and happier lives; to find ways to help them ‘flourish’ amid adversity.

Indent (by 1 tab space) the first line of each new paragraph

Page number included in citation for direct quote

Double quotation marks for direct quote

Double-spaced, Times New Roman 12 point font

Inclusion of abbreviation in the first citation

Research suggests that the ways in which individuals cope with illness have a direct effect on their future physical and psychological health and quality of life (Fitzgerald Miller, 2000). In the past, traditional treatment options available to people living with a CI (e.g. pharmacological therapy, physical rehabilitation, surgical treatment, psychological pain management programs, interventions to reduce fear, anger, depression and anxiety, and illness education programs) have focused on addressing the negative symptoms of the illness. Even the most comprehensive multidisciplinary treatment programs, aimed at both the physiological and psychological aspects of the illness, have mainly focused on treating the illness itself or helping individuals alter the way they think about or cope with the illness (Fitzgerald Miller, 2000; Newman, Steed, & Mulligan, 2004; Turk & Akiko, 2002). This past ‘illness ideology’ has dictated, therefore, that health professionals concentrate on disorder, dysfunction, and disease rather than on health, strength, and wellbeing, thereby neglecting the consideration of the potential benefits that may be gained (by illness sufferers) from emphasising positive aspects of daily life (Maddux, 2008). In healthcare settings therefore, the approach to treatment has tended to be one-dimensional, focused mainly on treating the symptoms and negative outcomes associated with physical illness. This approach, although necessary, has two limitations: (i) working towards reducing negative factors associated with illness does not ensure that positive ones will be enhanced; and (ii) working to increase positive characteristics and behaviours may simultaneously reduce at least some of the negative aspects of illness that are the targets of treatment (Harris & Thoresen, 2006). Wood and Tarrier (2010) suggest that, focusing on the positive can: (i) enhance the prediction and understanding of clinical conditions; (ii) buffer the impact of negative events (such as living with illness); and (iii) be used to develop treatment options to enhance health and wellbeing. Further examination of the impact of positivity, especially among clinical illness populations, is therefore indicated. The research reported in this thesis aimed to achieve this by investigating the efficacy of newly emerging, positive-focused approaches to patient care and treatment, with a specific emphasis on evaluating their impact on the relationship between illness and quality of life (QoL) among Australians living with chronic physical illness.

Alphabetical ordering of different citations in brackets

Do not justify the right side of your text

The following section provides a snapshot of chronic illness within an Australian context, with a focus on three specific illness types which are highly prevalent in society at present. This is followed by a more detailed discussion of how living with chronic illness is associated with not only physiological health, but daily mood and QoL.

Use “&” when citing more than one author in brackets

Use word ‘and’ when citing more than one author in text

First reference to abbreviation in the text

The management of chronic illness in Australia exerts a high financial burden on the national economy, with data showing that in 2004-2005, total expenditure on chronic disease management accounted for $25.5 billion (equivalent to approximately half of the funds allocated to health care for that year) (ABS, 2009). Of the many long-term medical conditions faced by Australians every day, three chronic conditions that are highly prevalent are Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), diabetes mellitus (Type 1 and 2), and arthritis-related conditions (rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis in particular), with both COPD and diabetes ranked among the 10 leading causes of death in Australia (ABS, 2009). Specific prevalence and national health expenditure data for the three illness types, sourced from the ABS data (2009), are detailed in Table 1. As the following discussion illustrates, each of these illness types has a unique profile in relation to physiological impact, symptom severity, risk factors, age of onset, treatability/reversibility, and mortality risk. Living with these different types of illness also has differential influences on affective state and QoL, as is also evidenced in the sections to come. Due to their high prevalence, economic impact, and diverse physical and psychosocial profiles, these three chronic illnesses were chosen for study in the current research.

Use of abbreviation in subsequent citations

Use of ‘serial’ comma

No additional spaces between paragraphs

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is a respiratory illness characterised by airway inflammation and limitation that results in increasing shortness of breath and oxygen desaturation. It involves an overlap of symptoms related to asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, and is a degenerative, disabling condition involving a

Use of et al. in repeat citation with 3 or more authors

Subsequent use of abbreviation in the text

First reference to abbreviation in the text

high level of distress, with sufferers often left ‘gasping for air’ (McKenzie, Frith, Burdon, & Town, 2003). Epidemiological studies (McKenzie et al., 2003; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003) show that COPD is an issue that has long-lasting impact on many populations around the world. Newman et al. (2004) also report that …….

Use of serial comma

References

Use the heading References here –centred on top line and NOT in bold

Reference list starts on a new page and is listed alphabetically by first author

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). Causes of death (Report No. 3303.0). Retrieved from http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/83A6580246688CEBCA2578840012A073/$File/33030_2009.pdf

Fitzgerald Miller, J. (2000). Coping with chronic illness: Overcoming powerlessness (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis Company.

Books: Italicise book title (but not edition number if provided)

Harris, A. H. S., & Thoresen, C. E. (2006). Extending the influence of positive psychology interventions into health care settings: Lessons from self-efficacy and forgiveness. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 27 - 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20264

Double spaced with hanging indent for each new reference

Keyes, C. L. M. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving national mental health. American Psychologist, 62, 95-108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.2.95

Sentence capitalisation for titles. Capitalise first word after colon (if used in title)

Maddux, J. E. (2008). Positive psychology and the illness ideology: Toward a positive clinical psychology. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57, 54-70. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00354.x

McKenzie, D. K., Frith, P. A., Burdon, J. G. W., & Town, G. I. (2003). The COPD-X Plan: Australian and New Zealand guidelines for the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 2003. Medical Journal of Australia, 178, S1-S40.

Newman, S., Steed, L., & Mulligan, K. (2004). Self-management interventions for chronic illness. Lancet, 364, 1523-1537. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-673617277-2

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

Use of capital letters for proper nouns (e.g. country names) and abbreviations in titles

Ensure correct spacing and punctuation after author initials.

Turk, D. C., & Akiko, O. (2002). Psychological factors in chronic pain: Evolution and revolution. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 678-690. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0022-006X.70.3.678

Wood, A. M., & Tarrier, N. (2010). Positive clinical psychology: A new vision and strategy for integrated research and practice. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 819-829. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.06.003

Journal articles: Italicise journal name and volume number

s1234567