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1 American Politics and Founding Principles Rypson/iStock Editorial/Thinkstock Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should be able to • Define and compare the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism.

• Outline the core American values of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

• Analyze the role political philosophy and competing ideologies played in developing founda- tional documents such as the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

• Define politics, and analyze what constitutes American politics.

• Explain why the term “American values” means different things to different people.

• Analyze the relationship between competing interpretations of core values and competing polit - ical ideologies, and describe how they shape American politics. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 1 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. In March 2010, Congress passed, and the president signed, the Patient Protection and Afford- able Care Act (PPACA, or ACA), a sweeping reform of the nation’s health care system. Accord - ing to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “The Affordable Care Act increases access to care, makes health insurance more affordable, strengthens Medicare, and ensures that Americans have more rights and protections—and more security that health insurance coverage will be available when it is needed” (2015).

The plan requires employers to pro- vide insurance to their employees or face a fine. It also requires individu - als to purchase health insurance, with those unable to pay for it receiving government assistance to do so. Indi - viduals with plans valued at more than $18,000 for family coverage pay a fee to help pay the cost of assistance. Individ - uals whose incomes exceed $200,000 and families whose incomes exceed $250,000 pay additional fees, which many criticize as being akin to a tax.

Debates over the proposed law were intense and divided along ideological lines. Liberal (left-leaning) supporters maintain that a wealthy industrialized nation such as the United States owes its citizens some measure of universal health care. They argue that individuals lacking insur- ance, either because their employers do not provide it or because they cannot afford it, should not be denied basic health care. Other industrialized nations, including Canada and Mexico, provide universal health care to citizens and non-citizens alike. Universal health care sup - porters generally believe that a just society does not allow its citizens to starve, nor does it allow its citizens to go bankrupt because they get sick. The liberal view thus holds that health care reform furthers the core American values of liberty and individual independence by pro- viding greater security.

Conservative (right-leaning) opponents, however, view the legislation as a government take- over of the nation’s health care industry and an example of encroachment upon the liberties of its citizens. Opponents are concerned that tax increases and greater regulation of health care limits opportunities for individuals and businesses to choose from among health care options such as the benefits that employers choose to extend to employees. Moreover, con - servative opponents argue that the law is unconstitutional because it effectively requires indi - viduals to purchase something in the private marketplace.

Both sides have taken opposite positions even though their arguments are grounded in the same American values of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This case thus illustrates how American politics is based in competing interpretations of the same core principles. © JIM LO SCALZO/epa/Corbis Is the government’s role in the health care debate a government intrusion, or does it promote the gen- eral welfare of the population? fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 2 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1 The Classical Roots of American Government: Liberalism and Republicanism 1.1 The Classical Roots of American Government: Liberalism and Republicanism The United States of America’s core principles—life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness— are explored in depth in the next section. To understand where those ideas came from, we first need to explore certain political philosophies that originated in the ancient world and then saw renewed appreciation in 17 th- and 18 th-century Europe. The two most notable phi- losophies that influenced the Framers of the United States’ key founding documents were liberalism and republicanism (which differ from today’s liberals and Republicans, as we shall soon see). Contemporary American politics in many respects represents a combination of these two philosophical traditions. Liberalism and the Basis for Limited Government The political philosophy of liberalism emphasizes individual liberty, or free will, and equal rights. Classical liberal- ism focuses on both political and eco- nomic freedom and is derived from the 17 th-century English philosopher John Locke (1632–1700). Classical liberalism was a response to the idea, common in continental Europe during the Middle Ages (500–1500), that the authority of both kings and the Church was absolute, based on divine right. In other words, absolute authority came from God. Simi - larly, the average person’s place in society was also determined by God. Therefore, individuals did not get to decide for them - selves what constituted a good life, and the notion that they were entitled to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness was unthinkable. Moreover, political author- ity could not be challenged because doing so would be like defying God’s will.

John Locke rejected this argument and argued that individuals are the true basis of legitimate government, a concept known as popular sovereignty. Popular sovereignty is the idea that the authority of the government comes from the people. Locke’s view that all people are entitled to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness relates to popular sovereignty in that the people elect leaders to support and enhance natural rights. Locke’s ideas about natural rights are found in the U.S. Declaration of Independence. World History Archive/SuperStock English philosopher John Locke outlined the position that became known as “classical liberal- ism.” Classical liberalism emphasized the value of individuals in the political system and rejected divine authority in favor of popular sovereignty. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 3 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1 The Classical Roots of American Government: Liberalism and Republicanism Under a system of popular sovereignty, “the people” held political authority and leaders could not govern without their consent. Furthermore, many have concluded that Locke advocated limited government. This meant that the function of government was only to protect indi- vidual rights. This also meant that the role of public policy would be limited, because too much state power would threaten individual liberty.

Republicanism and the Basis for Representative Democracy Although Americans often claim that their government is a democracy, this is not technically the case. Democracy refers to rule by the people. Rather, the American system is more accu- rately described as an indirect or representative democracy, which means that individual citizens elect representatives to speak and make decisions for them. Elected legislatures make policy; in a representative democracy, those policies will reflect the public will. The Framers set the government up this way because they were concerned that direct democracy, which would involve all citizens debating and voting on issues, would lead to mob rule.

The concept of representative democracy has its roots in republicanism, which is a political philosophy that stresses popular sovereignty. Republicanism held that the government was a commonwealth, which was defined as a civil society of men and literally meant “for the common good.” In fact, the concept of republican government comes from the Latin phrase res publica, which means “public matter.” Partnership of Citizens Republicanism rests on the belief that individuals are free and equal and have a public respon - sibility and a personal stake in promoting a better society. In a classical republican society, the public interest is known and understood by all because the community is small and made up of members who share a common culture and background. Further, individuals share the concept of citizenship, or the idea of belonging to a political community. Citizenship in the republican mindset required the pursuit of virtue. In fact, the attainment of virtue was the central goal of the political community.

The public good could not revolve around the desires of one ruler because that would be the basis for a despotic government, such as the USSR (commonly known as the Soviet Union) under Joseph Stalin between 1929 and 1953 and Haiti under Francois Duvalier between 1957 and 1971, in which the leaders seek to serve only their interests and potentially fall to corrup - tion. Rather, in republicanism, each individual values the common good more highly than his or her own individual good, and this forms the basis of virtue.

However, women, children, and minorities were not generally included in this partnership of citizens. Classical republics, dating back to ancient Rome, limited citizenship to free men.

The American republic in the beginning would recognize both free white men and women as citizens, although citizenship rights differed between men and women. The early Ameri - can republic restricted voting, running for office, and serving on juries to white men who owned property. Only property owners, the thinking went, had a stake in society and could be trusted to promote the public good. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 4 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1 The Classical Roots of American Government: Liberalism and Republicanism Separation of Powers The ancient political philosophers, particularly Aristotle, believed that a successful republic could best be achieved through a mixed constitution (also called a mixed government). A mixed constitution system divides power among a monarch, a legislature, and the aristocracy.

Politically, this approach entailed the separation of powers into distinct branches of govern- ment. This system also allowed the branches to influence decisions made in other branches so that one branch could prevent another from tyrannizing the majority. Separation of pow - ers creates the opportunity for checks and balances. The tendency toward abuse of power, such as with despotism and corruption, would be limited because of the checks placed on power across the branches of government.

But it was not enough to have checks and balances among different branches of government; there also had to be checks and balances within the legislative branch—the branch of gov- ernment that represents the people and passes laws. Republicanism specifically called for a bicameral legislature (“bi” means two, while “camera” means chamber), which was the divi - sion of the legislative body into two chambers.

Key Influences on the Framers’ Ideas About Government Many of the ideas put forth in the U.S. Declaration of Independence, including the references to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, were originally included in John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government , which was published in 1690. The expression that Locke used was “life, liberty, and the preservation of prop - erty.” “Happiness” was Thomas Jeffer - son’s (1743–1826) substitution for Locke’s “property,” in part because he wanted to downplay the emphasis on pri - vate property.

The Social Contract Also put forth in Locke’s Second Treatise was the idea that the individual existed in a state of nature. In the hypothetical state of nature, there is no human law or government, while individuals are born with unalienable or natural rights that are derived from nature or from God.

All individuals are equal, especially with their capacity to decide for themselves what type of life they would like to live (this is the concept of human agency , which is the notion that individuals have the capacity to make their own choices).

The state of nature can be dangerous because, without laws and government, violent behavior may continue. For exam- ple, persons thinking about stealing their SuperStock/SuperStock Signed on July 4, 1776, the U.S. Declaration of Independence stated the nation’s core values and declared its separation from Great Britain. Many of the ideas presented were originally included in John Locke’s Second Treatise . fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 5 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.1 The Classical Roots of American Government: Liberalism and Republicanism neighbor’s property might reconsider if they know that they might be arrested or jailed if they are caught and prosecuted. Locke observed that individuals come together in a social contract and form a government to protect themselves and their rights in order to offset con- cerns associated with a state of nature.

The idea of a state of nature as a dangerous place, and the remedy of a social contract, was expressed even earlier, in a 17 th-century work called Leviathan, by another English philoso- pher, Thomas Hobbes (1617–1700). Hobbes (1651/1962) argued that life in a state of nature, where predatory and survival instincts dominated human behavior, was “nasty, brutish, and short.” While individuals might enjoy liberty to do as they pleased, they were not free from the threat of harm from others, which included the possibility of an untimely death. The rem - edy for this was to surrender liberty to a monarch with absolute authority who would pro - vide protection in exchange for loyalty to the monarch. Locke ultimately sought to use this argument to justify the political structure known as a constitutional monarchy—a govern - ment where the monarch has to share power with a legislative body such as a parliament or congress.

Because government was created through a social contract, its legitimacy stemmed from pop - ular sovereignty. The central thrust of Locke’s Second Treatise can be briefly summed up as the idea that a community of equal individuals has the right to resist authority that has ceased to be legitimate. The Importance of Property For Locke, individuals surrender their liberties in exchange for political freedom, or the free- dom to do what they want within certain, defined limits set by government. Individuals sur - render only enough of their liberty so that the government can protect the most fundamental Stock Montage/SuperStock In Leviathan , English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (left) argued that life in the state of nature was “nasty, brutish, and short” and that people should surrender their liberty to a monarch who would protect them. The image on the right is an illustration that appeared in the first edition of Leviathan. Pantheon/SuperStock fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 6 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.2 Core American Values: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness rights to property, which includes land but also all physical possessions. In Locke’s time, prop- erty was viewed as an extension of the individual because the property’s value was derived from the labor that the individual put into it. Limiting property rights would be taken as lim - iting personal freedoms. If the government violated individuals’ property rights, the people would be within their rights to rise up and dissolve or overthrow the government because it had failed to protect their fundamental right to property. Locke’s use of the term “property” defended against the arbitrary exercise of power by any part of government.

The Rule of Law Versus the Rule of Man The Framers of the Constitution believed that the arbitrary exercise of power—usually by the rule of man —could be checked through the rule of law . This was an important distinction:

Men will act in an arbitrary manner when pursuing their passions. Under the rule of law, the passions of men are checked because the law establishes what people may or may not do.

The distinction between the rule of man and the rule of law is important. Greek philosopher Aristotle (362 BC–322 BC) argued that the “law should govern.” This principle suggests that the law limits the behavior of individual citizens whether or not they are part of the govern - ment. The rule of law suggests that government officials are limited by the law as much as those whom they govern are. Putting lawmakers above the law invites the abuse of power.

1.2 Core American Values: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness The U.S. Declaration of Independence, written primarily by Thomas Jefferson and signed on July 4, 1776, is one of the nation’s foundational documents. A short statement intended to separate the American colonies from Great Britain, the Declaration establishes the nation’s core values. It is also a statement of classical liberal philosophy. American core values can be found in the following section:

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.

Jefferson echoes Locke when he says that individuals are created equal with rights that were granted to them by their Creator (“unalienable”). Rights given by the individuals’ Creator can be taken away only by their Creator and not by government. Among these unalienable rights are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The right to life means that people control their bodies and that they have the right to life by virtue of their existence. The right to liberty fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 7 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.2 Core American Values: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness refers to people’s freedom to make decisions about how they want to live their lives. In short, people are free to pursue their self-interests. People’s right to pursue happiness refers to their ability to make choices that will be satisfying to them, whether it be pursuing property or some other passion.

Hobbes and Locke shared the view that individuals and lawmakers should be guided by rea- son, an idea that greatly influenced the Framers. Governments based on reason are based in law and not arbitrary opinions.

The Influence of Locke on Jefferson As individuals born with unalienable rights, American colonists came together to create a government whose legitimacy was derived from their consent. By stating that a just govern- ment was based on the consent of the governed, Jefferson challenged the idea that the king’s authority was derived from God. In fact, Jefferson argued that because the king’s authority was not based on popular sovereignty, it lacked legitimacy. The colonists were therefore within their rights to reject the king’s authority. The American Revolution essentially dis - solved a government that, as Jefferson argued in the Declaration, had ceased to be legitimate.

Employing Lockean language of the right of the people to overthrow a gov - ernment that fails to fulfill its obliga- tions, Jefferson listed the British Crown’s abuses of power. These abuses included the king’s refusal to abide by laws, tax - ing the people without them having rep - resentation in government, quartering troops in people’s homes, maintaining standing armies without the consent of the colonial congress, making judges dependent on the king’s will, denying colonists trial by jury, taking colonists back to England for trial before hostile juries, and other abuses.

The Importance of Republicanism in Shaping the American System of Government Republicanism in the American colonies was a specific response to the corrupt British political system. It was so corrupt, Courtesy of the Diplomatic Reception Rooms, U.S. Department of State Thomas Jefferson was heavily influenced by John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government in writing the Declaration of Independence. Like Locke, he rejected the notion that divine authority was the basis of legitimate political authority. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 8 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.2 Core American Values: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness reports historian Gordon Wood, that 18 th-century Americans did not believe it would be pos- sible to reform or renew the British Constitution. Americans created their own common - wealths, which they believed would embody virtue because power was divided between the two houses of the legislature and an executive whose power would not be granted through heredity. By dividing power, it was assumed that virtue would balance the natural tendency toward corruption.

Power was further divided within the legislature by adopting the bicameral division of the two houses. The lower chamber, the House of Representatives, represents the people. It was seen as more susceptible to corruption because the people were assumed to be driven by their irrational passions rather than reason. The upper chamber, or Senate, represents the elite and was thought to be driven by reason. The legislative chamber most susceptible to corruption would be checked by the Senate.

Individuals who owned property were thought to be more skilled and talented than others because they were responsible for upholding the economy and the common good. Yet their representatives were regularly exposed to the temptations of power and corruption. Repre - sentatives, therefore, needed to stand for frequent elections, which would help hold them accountable to the people. The U.S. Constitution reflects this view in that members of the U.S.

House of Representatives serve for 2-year terms, while senators serve for 6-year terms.

In considering the construction of the U.S. Constitution, it is apparent that the Framers were very much influenced by both classical liberal and republican ideologies. The notion that a constitutional system—a system that follows a written set of rules that outline the core ideas about government and the structure of government institutions—would protect liberty was certainly a classical liberal value. That this value could best be protected through the separation of powers was a republican idea. The Constitution Preamble suggests that the United States is liberal (“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, . . . secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity ”), while the Constitution mandates that the new nation be republican. For example, Article IV, Section 4 states, “The United States shall guarantee to every State in the Union a Republican Form of Government.” In practical terms, this means that every state will have separation of powers and checks and balances. All states except Nebraska have a bicameral legislature. Nebraska has a unicameral legislature. The U.S. Constitution: Institutionalizing American Values The Declaration of Independence puts forth many core American values. However, these val - ues must be established, which is where the U.S. Constitution comes into play. Even though it does not mention “Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness,” the Constitution creates insti - tutions that reflect and uphold those values. The principal institutions outlined in the Consti - tution, which have also become values unto themselves, are the separate branches of govern - ment. The Constitution creates three branches: the bicameral legislature, which passes laws; the executive, which implements and administers laws; and the judiciary , which determines the constitutionality of those laws. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 9 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.3 What Is the Nature of U.S. Politics?

The Framers assumed that power was to be measured and contained, and they believed it needed to be divided among these separate institutions. This separation of powers ensures that no one branch of government has enough power to infringe upon citizens’ liberties.

The separation of powers is the key theme of American constitutional government, and it results in government by consensus, whereby there is general agreement among the actors involved in governing. Separation of powers also effectively reflects the principle of rule of law. Additionally, as will be seen in later chapters, government may struggle with achieving consensus that protects the rights and liberties of its citizens by protecting them from arbi - trary use of government power.

1.3 What Is the Nature of U.S. Politics? Politics functions within government, although they are not the same. There are some who argue that politics is “decisions made in an environment of conflict,” while others, including political scientist Harold Lasswell (1936), suggest that politics is “who gets what, when, and how.” These definitions are related in that they both involve conflict and share the notion that government decisions affect who is impacted, and how.

The notion that politics encompasses “who gets what, when, and how” captures the connec - tion between politics and power. Who gets what says something about who has power. When one gets what one wants says something about how important that individual or group is, and just how much power the person or group has. How the power is obtained speaks to the strength of the individual or groups involved. In a political system where scarce resources are to be distributed, various groups will compete to determine who gets what, how much they get, and under what circumstances they get it. This usually means that if one group derives benefits, others bear costs. Public policies are those laws that government makes within the context of a political process.

The casual observer need only look at the opposing views that routinely occur in policy - making arenas including city councils, state legislatures, and the U.S. Congress to see this in action. In the case of health care reform, those who were previously uninsured will be insured because higher-income persons will pay an additional tax. Patients, taxpayers, and insurance companies are each affected differently.

Some argue that those involved in the conflict are considered actors while those who sit on the sidelines and observe are spectators. Considering the roles of actors and spectators in the political process means that politics becomes a mobilization of bias where actors attempt to show spectators why they should care about and become actively involved with the conflict.

This way, the actors build a base of support for their cause and achieve victory if they are able to mobilize enough people to join them. Efforts to reform immigration policy are an example of the mobilization of bias. Groups seeking to open U.S. borders to more immigrants have brought non-immigrant groups to their side by showing how immigration divides families.

Some who advocate stricter border patrol suggest that less restrictive immigration controls increase unemployment in various economic sectors such as agriculture and blue-collar labor. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 10 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.3 What Is the Nature of U.S. Politics?

Another example may be found in the teaching of creationism such as was explored in Selman et al. v. Cobb County School District et al. (2005). A small-town school board may respond to the wishes of the majority seeking to have creationism taught in schools. Creationism is a literal reading of the Bible that states that the world was created in 6 days. Creationism opposes evolution, the idea that all organisms, including humans and animals, change over time as a result of natural selection and other factors. The minority that wanted evolution taught sought to shape the conflict by arguing that this school board decision was an example of government violating the constitutional concept of separation of church and state. Evolu- tion supporters hoped that those who live in large cities would become involved in an effort to preserve this fundamental value, while those seeking to teach creationism argued that this was a local matter with which outsiders should not be involved. The side that proved to be more persuasive would succeed in getting what it wants, when it wants it, and how it wants it.

A key factor in this understanding of politics is that resolution is achieved through peaceful means. It is when conflict becomes violent that politics can be said to have failed. How Is American Politics Characterized by Regulation, Distribution, and Redistribution?

American politics certainly involves the related notions of who gets what, when, and how in a decision-making environment. Political scientist Theodore Lowi (1964) identified three types of activities characteristic of American politics: regulation, distribution, and redistribution.

Regulation involves restricting the activities, or limiting the rights, of some for the benefit— usually the protection—of others. In other words, one group will bear a cost so that another group can enjoy a benefit. In this vein, regulation is considered to be zero sum, because for every winner, there is a loser. As an example, the government seeks to regulate air pollution by requiring power plants to include scrubbers in their emissions stacks. The power plants incur a cost because they have to spend money that they otherwise would not while those who live near the plants derive the benefit of cleaner air even though they did not pay any more for the cleaner air than did others who live further away.

By contrast, distribution involves the political system providing benefits to whatever group makes a request. The costs of distribution are not borne by any clearly identifiable group, but instead are passed on to everyone. Consider the following scenario: Congress passes a budget in which farmers receive millions of dollars from the federal government, banks receive mil - lions more, and a variety of other groups receive something. Because the payouts all ultimately come from tax dollars, all taxpaying citizens cover the cost. This is considered distributive.

Redistribution involves taking from one group in society—usually in the form of a tax—and giving to others—usually in the form of a program. An example of this might be a tax on indi - viduals with annual incomes above a certain level, such as $1 million, to pay for a health care program that benefits the poor. As with regulation, with redistribution it is clear who benefits and who bears the cost. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 11 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.3 What Is the Nature of U.S. Politics?

How Is American Politics Rooted in Core American Values?

We can look further into what lies beneath these ideas. Politics over who gets what, when, and how, or regulation, distribution, and redistribution, is really the public and practical expres- sion of disagreements about the meaning of core values. For instance, some argue that regu- lating pollution may deprive manufacturers of their liberties or property rights while others argue that regulating pollution preserves the public’s right to breathe clean air and maintain health. As we will see, each conception of liberty has some validity, and it is different con - structions of these and other concepts that shape the conflict around which American politics is made.

If you were to stop average Ameri- cans on the street and ask what Amer - ica stands for, most would probably answer with some combination of lib - erty; democracy; the right to pursue individual economic interest; the right to free speech, peaceable assembly, and religious practice; and a constitu - tional government. Americans do not all agree on exactly what those con - cepts mean, but each likely believes strongly in his or her own interpreta- tions. As a result, the way these con - cepts are interpreted in society is a matter of politics.

The concepts surrounding what America stands for are all rooted in the values of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness expressed in the Declaration of Independence. Consider that an American’s right to “life” often means that he or she has a right to physical protection.

More than that, it means that the state may not take a citizen’s life without due process of law. This type of liberty is known as negative liberty . Negative liberty means that limita- tions are placed on state action, as the government is required to protect liberty by ensuring that it cannot be infringed upon. Freedom to travel is a negative liberty. But, as passage of the health care law illustrates, the right to “life” could also mean that the state has an obligation to ensure that people live long and healthy lives. Therefore, it is not enough to limit the actions of the government so that a person can live; the state must actually provide people with health care services. This type of liberty is known as positive liberty . Positive liberty means that the state takes active steps to guarantee that citizens’ liberties will have meaning. An example of positive liberty is the right to counsel, as found in the Sixth Amendment and reinforced in Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). Many claim that conservatives favor negative liberty while liber - als favor positive liberty.

As a further example, imagine that you are looking for a job. Negative liberty, in this scenario, means that the state cannot stop you from taking a job that is offered in the marketplace. But positive liberty means that the government must provide you with a job if you are unable to find one on your own. Both views are captured in the Declaration of Independence and in the promotion of the general welfare that appears in the Constitution’s preamble and elsewhere Yugofuchiwaki/iStock/Thinkstock Though the concept of liberty is foundational to the American government, it means different things to different people. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 12 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.4 Contemporary American Politics in the U.S. Constitution. Although American politics is characterized by various definitions of politics, it also revolves around competing interpretations of core values that ask what “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” really mean.

1.4 Contemporary American Politics Listening to talk radio these days, one could easily get the impression that American poli- tics is driven by two ideological extremes: the liberal left, which wants an all-encompassing government controlling people’s lives, and the conservative right, which wants to limit gov- ernment in favor of individual liberty and free markets. Liberals and progressives generally respond to these claims by arguing that government can be a force for bringing about a fair and equitable society. They do not seek to infringe upon individual liberty; rather, they seek to ensure a level playing field so that those with limited incomes also enjoy the full fruits of liberty. Whereas the right sees only government as a threat to individual liberty, the left sees private interests, including big corporations, as posing a similar threat. On both sides of the political spectrum, the loudest voices fail to accurately capture the range of issues and opin - ions that their opponents care about.

While the preamble to the U.S. Constitution states that the government’s purpose is to pro - mote the “general welfare,” the meaning of that phrase is not clear. It was perhaps inevitable, then, that rooted in today’s American politics is a contest among different groups, driven by different ideologies, to define the concept of “general welfare” for all people. The fight over the 2010 health care law outlined at the beginning of this chapter illustrates the politics that can surround the interpretation and application of core American values.

How Does Contemporary Liberalism Compare With Classical Liberalism?

Classical liberalism stressed limited government in an era when society was largely agricul - tural and people mostly worked on farms and in small towns rather than in offices and facto- ries in big cities. This meant that one person’s private activity likely did not affect another’s.

Modern liberalism , however, is usually associated with big government and large social programs; it stresses a more expansive role for government precisely because society is no longer as simple as it once was. In particular, the modern, complex economy produces market failures that have as much capacity to deprive individuals of their life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness as does government itself.

Further, modern liberalism understands corporate power to be as threatening to individual liberty as state power. Therefore, the state needs to regulate private affairs to (1) protect individuals from harm caused by others and (2) maintain a framework in which individuals can freely choose for themselves the lives they would like to live. This may involve both distri - bution and redistribution of resources. Again, this is all a matter of interpretation. Different groups seeking to obtain power will interpret these matters in a way that best furthers their objectives. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 13 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.4 Contemporary American Politics One might ask how liberal political philosophy changed over time. Understanding the dis- tinction between classical and modern liberalism is critical to understanding the nature of contemporary American politics (see Table 1.1 for a comparison). Both versions of liberalism stress the ability of individuals to decide how they want to live their lives. American liberal - ism promotes citizens’ freedom to pursue their self-interest in the marketplace, and to a large extent the American public interest is based on every individual following her or his private interests.

Table 1.1: Classical liberalism versus modern liberalism Classical Modern Common thread Human agency Human agency People all have the individual capacity to make choices.

Individual liberty Restraints on some individual liberty for protection of community Liberty remains important within the context of the public interest.

Limited government Active government because complex society requires it The notion of limited government depends on the context of changing individual needs.

Pursuit of self-interest Pursuit of self-interest so long as it does not cause harm to others The definition of harm is a question of the complexity of society.

Private property as a natural right Property as defined by positive law Property is important for creating zones of protection around national interests.

Individual responsibility Individual behavior affected by larger forces beyond one’s control Individual behavior is a function of social environment. Therefore, there is a presumption in favor of individual responsibility so long as there are no other forces affecting it.

The Harm Principle Classical liberalism, even as Locke conceived it, allowed for government regulation if it was to protect the public interest. In the 19 th century, English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806– 1873) put forth the “harm principle” as the basis for governmental interference with individ- ual liberty: A person cannot pursue his or her own interests to the point where it causes harm to an individual or the general community. Mill believed that the sole role of government was the preservation of liberty. In his classic work On Liberty (1859/1956), he stated that the sole end for which mankind are warranted individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action or any of their number is self protection.

That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. Photos.com/ThinkStock English philosopher John Stuart Mill argued that persons have liberty to pursue their own inter- ests but not to the point that it causes harm to another individual or community. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 14 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.4 Contemporary American Politics This principle has been used to define the appropriate use of the state’s regula- tory power. The standard interpretation has been that government may regulate individual liberty to protect the health, welfare, and morals of the community. In 19 th-century America, harm meant only physical harm. Consider that in Locke’s time, when most of the economy was agrarian (based on farming), someone farming a plot of land was not likely to cause harm to his neighbor on the adja - cent plot of land. In Mill’s time, which occurred during a period of industrializa - tion when more of the economy was based on manufacturing, a group of people could be harmed in the town downstream from a polluting factory because the manufac - turing waste products might be disposed of in that stream and run through several towns. By the 1930s, when the country was in the throes of the Great Depression, harm could be caused by the market forc - ing the layoff of millions of workers. More recently, the United States experienced a recession between 2007 and 2009. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, some states experienced unemployment rates that exceeded 10% during that time while the national unemployment rate exceeded that of most industrialized countries. Job openings declined by 44%. As unemployment increases and job openings decline, individuals have less money to spend in the marketplace, which causes a ripple effect throughout other economic sectors.

The evolution of liberalism from its classical conception to its modern-day version involved a shift in how people interpreted the words “harm” and “public health and welfare.” Arguably, the core values that informed the creation of the American republic are very much the same, and sorting out what those values mean and how they apply to current circumstances is ulti - mately what makes American politics distinctive. Marriage of Liberalism and Republicanism An ongoing debate throughout American history has been whether the nation is liberal or republican. That is, are the country’s values more in line with classical liberalism or with clas- sical republicanism? In fact, the American constitutional system is a marriage of both. The influence of the two is evident in the nature of contemporary American political discourse.

Each contemporary political ideology on some level represents a belief system. Individuals express their passions in ideological debate. Consider that the American political system is composed of 50 states and one national government. Each state is a republic (representative government) unto itself. Each state has its own distinctive political culture—its own beliefs The Harm Principle Classical liberalism, even as Locke conceived it, allowed for government regulation if it was to protect the public interest. In the 19 th century, English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806– 1873) put forth the “harm principle” as the basis for governmental interference with individ- ual liberty: A person cannot pursue his or her own interests to the point where it causes harm to an individual or the general community. Mill believed that the sole role of government was the preservation of liberty. In his classic work On Liberty (1859/1956), he stated that the sole end for which mankind are warranted individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action or any of their number is self protection.

The key difference between liberalism and republicanism is that liberalism is more tolerant of diversity and is thus more heterogeneous (made up of dissimilar parts) while republican- ism prefers small governance units and assumes more homogeneity (a makeup of similar parts). Take, for instance, the difference between a large city like New York or Los Angeles and a small town somewhere in New England. In the city, there is great diversity of people and beliefs. One of the best ways to maintain unity is to have a tolerant, liberal framework.

But tolerance often comes about by rejecting moral absolutes. In the larger liberal framework with its great diversity, the public interest that emerges is generally based on consensus and represents a compromise position of multiple interests. In the small New England town, there is probably very little diversity, as there is a shared culture with shared beliefs. Because there is greater homogeneity in the small town, there is greater agreement regarding the public interest.

The Constitution encourages states to retain their respective cultural uniqueness as expres- sions of their own sovereignty. Each state may define the public interest differently. At the same time, each state is represented in the national government within the federal system where power is shared between the national and the state governments. Thus, the Constitu - tion is effectively a liberal framework open to diversity across states. Consequently, national decision making often reflects the public interest as an achieved consensus among the states.

It is in this vein that the American Constitution is a marriage between liberalism and repub - licanism. Still, conflict and tension do exist, and it is around that conflict and tension that American politics revolves.

What Does Liberalism Mean in Practice?

Returning to the Declaration of Independence, the premise that individuals are born with unalienable rights means that on a political level all individuals are equal before the law. This means that the state cannot show favoritism toward one citizen over another. In practical terms, liberalism as a political philosophy rests on this conception of equality. Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness correspond to the liberalism belief that each person can choose what a “good life” means and then choose a path that makes this conception a reality. The state is prohibited from choosing one person’s good over another, as this violates liberal equality. The liberal state, in essence, places limits on government action so that the individual will be free to pursue his or her own happiness.

The modern United States is very different from colonial America and consequently requires government action from time to time. Colonial Americans idealized economic independence.

In the modern United States, most people work for others and have little control over their own destinies. Had the farmer in an earlier period decided to plant a crop that perhaps was not profitable, the impact would most likely have been felt only by that farmer and his family.

But if the management of an automobile factory in a Midwestern city opts to move manufac - turing from that factory to a factory somewhere in Central America, thousands of people in the United States might lose their jobs. Because more Americans are likely to be hurt by forces outside of their direct control in the modern United States, government may have to act to protect their interests. This action is justified on the grounds that it is essential to the fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 16 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.4 Contemporary American Politics maintenance of the United States’ core values of liberty, equality, individualism, democracy, and rule of law. It should also be remembered that because the republican tradition stresses the public good as taking precedence over individual interests, the state has a right to take action to ensure the public good. In the instance described here, the automobiles manufac- tured in the Central American country may cost less because workers may be paid less than they would be paid to do the same work in the United States. Using the argument that it is protecting the United States’ core values, the government may tax, or impose a tariff on, the imported cars to make the price of the automobiles more competitive with those of U.S.-made cars.

Political battles often arise over compet - ing interpretations of how best to serve the public good. People do not all agree on what their core values mean even if they agree on the same values. The political process in the United States is essentially a liberal one because it is open to a multitude of inter- ests, each lobbying for a position based on competing ideological commitments. At the same time, the American political process is republican because it has established inter - mediaries in the form of interest groups and political parties that these competing ideolo - gies have to go through. The modern conser - vative seeks to conserve the traditions of the past. If liberalism traditionally meant lim - ited government, then conservatives seek to maintain that tradition.

The Importance of Constitutional Debates Many of the tensions in modern American politics—including the tensions between conservatives and liberals—are, at their core, disagreements about the meaning of liberalism. This tension is contained in the wording of the U.S. Constitution, which may be unclear on some points. For example, while Congress has the power to declare war, it is the president who is the commander in chief.

What is the president allowed to do to protect the nation if Congress fails to declare war?

Understanding constitutional ambiguities, as we will see later, is also essential to understand- ing the nature of American politics.

The Constitution establishes the parameters for who gets what, when, and how. But consti - tutionality is also important because when the U.S. Supreme Court determines a matter to be constitutional, it effectively validates the ideological position that fought for that issue.

On many issues of policy, the Constitution does not give specific guidance, and ultimately the answer gets hashed out in the Supreme Court. Associated Press/Tony Dejak Health care reform in the United States would allow people who were previously uninsured to derive benefit. That some will have to pay an additional tax to bear additional costs is a classic example of politics as “who gets what, when, and how” to connect politics and power. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 17 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 1.4 Contemporary American Politics The Role of Government Today Until the 1930s, the federal government’s primary duties were to deliver the mail, provide for the national defense, and maintain foreign policy. Public assistance, if there was any, was the province of the states, and so, too, was education. But as Table 1.2 suggests, the role of the federal government is now quite extensive. It regulates any number of activities and provides considerable services. Average Americans purchase stamps in a federal post office, send their children to public schools, and obtain local permits to expand their homes. Government— whether it be national, state, or local—is a larger presence in citizens’ lives than was sup- posed by the language of the Declaration of Independence.

Table 1.2: Selected functions of the federal government Department name Year created Website and notes State 1789www.state.gov Originally named Department of Foreign Affairs in July 1789 Renamed Department of State in September 1789 Treasury 1789www.treasury.gov Justice 1789www.justice.gov Originally named the Office of Attorney General Named the Department of Justice in 1870 Defense 1791www.defense.gov Originally named the Department of War Named the Department of the Army in 1947 Named the Department of Defense in 1949 Interior 1849w w w.doi.gov Agriculture 1862www.usda.gov Commerce 1903w w w.commerce.gov Originally named the Department of Labor and Commerce Renamed Department of Commerce when the Department of Labor was created in 1913 Labor 1913w w w.dol.gov Health and Human Services 1953 www.hhs.gov Originally named the Department of Health, Education and Welfare Renamed the Department of Health and Human Services when a separate Department of Education was created in 1979 Housing and Urban Development 1965 www.hud.gov Transportation 1966 w w w.transportation.gov Energy 1977www.energy.gov Education 1979www.ed.gov Veterans Affairs 1988 www.va.gov Homeland Security 2003 www.dhs.gov fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 18 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Summary and Resources Chapter Summary The key points established in this chapter will guide our understanding throughout the remainder of the book. Politics is defined as who gets what, when, and how in an environment of conflict. A political universe is typically composed of various groups or interests, with each seeking government attention. When a group is able to beat out others to get what it wants, it can say that it truly has power. The same applies to the competing definitions of a nation’s core values because how they are defined will affect a particular group’s interests.

American politics revolves around the core values of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness articulated in the Declaration of Independence. It also revolves around what it means to pro- mote the general welfare, as stated in the preamble to the U.S. Constitution. These core ideas, to which we may add equality, constitutionalism, rule of law, and the pursuit of self-interest in a free marketplace, are very much rooted in two distinct, but not mutually exclusive, politi- cal ideologies: liberalism and republicanism. Over time, both have shaped the way Americans interpret their core values and principles.

Think about the example that opened this chapter. Taxpayers earning more than $250,000 who will pay higher taxes to cover health care have expressed their opposition in terms of liberty. High-income taxpayers contend that the Health Care and Education Affordability Rec- onciliation Act infringes on that liberty. They want lower taxes and express their concerns with language that exhibits the core beliefs found in the Declaration of Independence. Their interpretation of those core beliefs shape who gets what, when, and how. Others will argue that if health care offers greater security to the larger public, it gives their liberty more mean - ing, especially if it frees low-income Americans from bankruptcy. They will further argue that those with more should pay for those with less because the system organized around liberty enabled the wealthy to acquire what they have. Their broader argument will be that health care is a matter of “the general welfare.” If politics is understood in terms of coalition building and the building of those coalitions through the concept of the mobilization of bias, it is the appeal to ideology that becomes the vehicle for that mobilization. American politics is distinctive because various groups in the American political arena mobilize bias through specific appeals to core American values con- tained in the nation’s founding documents.

Key Ideas to Remember • The Framers of the Constitution were influenced by many ideas in 16 th- and 17 th- century political thought. The most important of these were the political philoso - phies of liberalism and republicanism. • Politics is defined as who gets what, when, and how in an environment of conflict. • American politics specifically revolves around core values of liberty, equality, indi- vidualism, and democracy, which have different meanings to different people. • Core American values can be found in the Declaration of Independence in the phrase “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” These ideas are the basis of a liberal political philosophy that underlies American political culture and politics. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 19 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources • The Framers sought to create a republican form of government that would protect Americans’ basic liberties to pursue their own self-interests and believed that if gov- ernment left people alone, the overall public interest would be served. • To protect individual liberty, the Framers of the Constitution believed that power should be divided up through a separation of powers, which was very similar to the British mixed constitution. • The U.S. Constitution talks about promoting the general welfare but does not specify what those words mean; therefore, American politics ends up being a question of who gets to define what it means and how a particular definition furthers a particu - lar set of interests. Questions to Consider 1. What are the core values of Americans? 2. What is the basis for those beliefs? 3. What is the difference between classical liberalism and republicanism, and why is each important to American identity? 4. Is the Health Care and Education Affordability Reconciliation Act consistent with American values or contrary to them? Explain your answer. 5. In light of John Stuart Mill’s “harm principle”—a person cannot pu\ rsue his or her own interests to the point where it causes harm to others—what is the government’s role in regulating guns? Key Terms bicameral legislature A legislature divided into two chambers: an upper house and a lower house. checks and balances When one branch of government influences the actions of other branches. citizenship The idea that one belongs to a political community. classical liberalism Liberalism of the 17 th century, based on the writings of John Locke and focused on both political and economic freedom. commonwealth A civil society where the ultimate goal is to serve the common good. constitutional When an action or law is in agreement with the written constitution, a written set of rules that outline the core ideas about government and the structure of government institutions. democracy Rule by the people. distribution The granting of public goods to every individual. executive The person or branch of govern - ment that implements and administers laws passed by a legislative body. government by consensus When there is general agreement among the actors in government and decision making. human agency The idea that all people have the capacity to think for themselves and determine how best to live their lives. judiciary The branch of government that uses the courts to determine whether acts of the government are constitutional. legislative The branch of government that represents the people and passes laws. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 20 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources liberalism The political philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty and equal rights. limited government The concept of small government that is limited in its function and only protects individual rights. mixed constitution A constitution that combines democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. mobilization of bias Getting people who are not part of a cause to support it. modern liberalism A current version of liberalism that stresses more active govern - ment because society is more complex than it was during the 17 th century. natural rights Rights that people are born with. negative liberty A type of liberty, or free - dom, that is based on limiting what govern - ment can do. political freedom The idea that in a politi - cal community the individual can do what he or she wants within certain limits. popular sovereignty The idea that the people are the basis of legitimate authority and power. positive liberty A type of liberty, or free - dom, that is guaranteed by the government actively providing power and resources. redistribution When government takes from one group to give to another. regulation When government restricts the rights of one group for the benefit of others or all the people. representative democracy When the peo- ple pick representatives to govern on their behalf; also known as indirect democracy. republicanism A political philosophy that stresses personal independence for the sake of the community’s public interest. rule of law When government officials are restrained by reason and law. rule of man When government officials govern on the basis of irrational passion and do so arbitrarily. separation of powers The division of power into distinct branches of government. social contract The idea that individuals come together to form a government for the sake of protection. state of nature A term used in political philosophy to describe the hypothetical condition of humanity before the creation of governing states. unalienable rights See natural rights . Further Reading Hartz, L. (1955). The liberal tradition in America: An interpretation of American political thought since the revolu - tion. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Hobbes, T. (1962). Leviathan. M. Oakshott (Ed.). New York, NY and London: Collier Books.

Huntington, S. P. (1983). American politics: The promise of disharmony. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Huntington, S. P. (2005). Who are we: The challenges to America’s national identity. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

Lasswell, H. (1936). Politics—Who gets what, when, how. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 21 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Lipset, S. M. (1996). American exceptionalism: A double-edged sword. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.

Locke, J. (1988). Two treatises of government . P. Laslett (Ed.). Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge Uni - versity Press.

Lowi, T. J. (1964). American business, public policy, case-studies, and political theory. World Politics, 16 (4), 677–715.

Lowi, T. J. (1979). The end of liberalism: The second republic of the United States. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.

Mill, J. S. (1956). On liberty. C. V. Shields (Ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Co.

Pangle, T. L. (1988). The spirit of modern republicanism: The moral vision of the American founders and the phi - losophy of Locke. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Pocock, J. G. A. (2003). The Machiavellian moment: Florentine political thought and the Atlantic republican tradi- tion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Schattschneider, E. E. (1975). The semisovereign people: A realist’s view of democracy in America. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Wood, G. S. (1972). The creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 . New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.

Wood, G. S. (1993). The radicalism of the American Revolution. New York, NY: Vintage Books. fin82797_01_c01_001-022.indd 22 3/24/16 2:32 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.