BUS 600 Management Communications with Technology

Wavebreak Media/Thinkstock 9 Learning Objectives After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Communicate ef fectively in formal and informal groups.

2. Manage communication thr ough the stages of group development.

3. Successfully lead team and gr oup meetings.

4. Cr eate effective business and management communications when acting as part of a \ group or team. Leading Groups baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 287 4/25/12 11:40 AM Section 9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups 9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups Learning Objective # 1: How can individuals effectively communicate in formal and informal groups?

T oday’s business world features a considerable number of tasks that cannot be per - formed by a single employee. Complex assignments demand the attention of\ a series of individuals. Managers designate teams and groups to complete such projects.

Business management requires effective communication in groups. A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal (Schein, 1980). Formal and informal groups function in companies on a daily basis. It may be tempting to think\ of a group and a team as the same thing. Recent literature suggests otherwise. Both consist of a small set of people and seek to achieve goals, but differences exist. Teams become dis- tinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort (Katzenbach & Smith, 1999; Rico et al. 2008). This chapter focuses on groups and the com - munication processes involved in managing them, although team-building represents an important aspect of group management and leadership. For Review Define group and team.

Harley-Davidson: Building Strong Groups Harley-Davidson should be considered one of the more iconic U.S. companies. Many things stand out, including the product itself (motorcycles), the customers who buy the products (individualist riders), and the organization’s marketing program. The Harley-Davidson brand remains strong with intense customer loyalty. The HOG (Harley Owners Group) program serves those who purchase products.

The company’s management program may be lesser known. Harley-Davidson’s management team focuses on a strong company culture, built on open communications among all levels of employees and a commitment to teaching all workers about the organization’s operations, and utilizing teams and groups to complete numerous company activities. Top management developed a shared vision of the company’s values that perme - ates all group activities. Among these values are: • Tell the truth. • Be fair. • Keep your promises. • Respect the individual. • Encourage intellectual curiosity. Comstock/Thinkstock Even though Harley-Davidson produces highly individualistic products, the company operates using teams and groups, from the production floor to the executive suites.

(continued) baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 288 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups Communicating in Formal Groups When an organization’s leaders establish a formal group, the purpose is to achieve com - pany goals and objectives. Formal groups are established through a notation in an orga - nization chart or by a management directive. Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees and boards, and project teams.

Communication in a work group or department consists of the standard chain of com - mand, as a supervisor directs the activities of members who also interact with one another.

The same will be true for a committee or board directed by an elected or appointed leader, although many times such groups also keep formal minutes to record their activities and elements of discussions. A project team, which is led by a team leader, will interact in many of the same ways as work groups. Project teams often are asked to file progress reports as stages of the project or task are completed. Management sought to earn and keep the respect and trust of employees through these principles (Infotechdesign.net, 2008). Imperato (1997) describes the management program this way: “Beneath the image of a hard-riding, tough-as-nails Harley-Davidson bike is a company that thrives on the ‘soft’ side of management, emphasizing participation, inclusion, learning, and cooperation.” At the core of the management program, self-managed teams operate at both the manufacturing and executive levels. At the production level, semi-autonomous work groups include members who are cross-trained and set their own work schedules. To support the program, management created the Harley-Davidson Learning Center, a facility dedicated to lifelong learning with the primary role of help - ing employees to keep their skills current. In some cases, this means remedial training in basic skills, but the Learning Center deals mainly with requests for specific job-training courses.

At the executive level, the organization chart became three overlapping circles representing various groups: a Create Demand Circle, a Produce Products Circle, a Support Circle, and in the center where the three circles intersect, a Leadership and Strategy Council. The Create Demand Circle is responsible for sales and marketing issues; the Produce Products Circle handles engineering and manufacturing; and the Support Circle takes care of legal, financial, human-resources, and communications concerns.

The Leadership and Strategy Council coordinates the efforts of the three circles without the use of a standard chain of command, instead relying on interactive group communication. The idea is to apply the concept of self-directed, factory work teams to the executive level.

An important link was established between the union and management through the employee involvement program, which established the goal of overall company long-term success to be achieved through continuing cooperation among all members. Following the reorganization at both levels, Harley-Davidson’s sales and profitability began to soar. The company has been able to with - stand economic hard times and expand to an international base of satisfied hog owners.

Questions for Students 1. Do you think the internal culture of Harley-Davidson matches external perceptions of the company? 2. What types of communication skills would be needed to work in a self-managed production team? 3. What types of communication skills would be needed for an executive to work in a self- managed team? Harley-Davidson: Building Strong Groups (continued) baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 289 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups Communicating in Informal Groups An informal group, or a friendship group, emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship. Such groups form without the endorsement of organizational leaders and do not have a designated structure (Shirky, 2004). People make friends on the job for various reasons. Three items tend to bring informal groups together: activities, shared values or sentiments, and interactions. Communication patterns in informal groups involve net - works such as gossip and rumors via various media, and in-person conversations. Many employees depend on informal groups for social support and a sense of belonging, as well as an outlet to discuss company actions, decisions, and policies.

The distinction between formal and informal groups has become blurred. New forms of office design, coupled with the emergence of social media, lead to sets of individuals simultaneously engaging in formal and informal interactions and activities. Employees increasingly rely on social media to stay in contact with the home office but also with friends and peers inside and outside the organization. The use of Twitter and instant mes - sages or texts to contact a manager to notify her that an employee is sick results in a fol - low-up to check on the person and offer assistance, but also results in another immediate message to other employees to cover for the employee who is ill. The same media allow employees to make social contacts with each other on and off the job.

Group Members Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion lead - ers, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. The leader directs group activities. For - mal leaders are assigned by the organization. Informal leaders emerge based on the group’s choice over time. Members who are most closely aligned with the leader become opinion lead - ers. These individuals are most willing to express group values.

Members in good standing are those included in the group who do not share its leadership. The gatekeeper determines who will For Review Define formal group and name the three most common types. Fuse/Thinkstock The gatekeeper determines who will be included in or excluded from the group. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 290 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development be in the group and who will be excluded. The gatekeeper will be one of the first th\ ree, a member, opinion leader, or leader. At times, the entire group serves in the role, which is then known as the gate-keeping function. An employee who agrees to chair a commit- tee, on the condition that a certain co-worker not be included in the gr\ oup, is acting as a gatekeeper; when several employees form a bowling team and deliberately \ exclude one person, the group has performed the gate-keeping function.

Styles of Group Behavior Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behav- ior in groups—conflict, conformity, or consensus (Phipps, 2007; Tubbs, 1995). Conflict can occur as a natural consequence of social interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of the majority or leader in order to move on. Pressures for conformity or premature consensus can lead to less-than-ideal decisions or decisions without t\ rue agreement, as the side with the greatest authority or willingness to defend a point of view wins as the other side concedes. Consensus occurs when genuine agreement among members emerges.

Several tactics help in avoiding conflicts, and achieving conformity and\ consensus. Vari - ous problem-solving techniques (as will be noted later in this chapter) are open commu - nication, goal clarification, and the creation of superordinate goals that all members agree can be used to facilitate group interactions.

9.2 Stages of Group Development Learning Objective # 2: How can a leader effectively manage the stages of group development?

T uckman and Jensen (1997) developed an often-cited explanation of how g\ roups evolve. The model suggests a sequence in which individuals gradually surrender a sense of independence in favor of greater interdependence. The sequence is not as precise as the one depicted in Figure 9.1, but it does provide a general sense of how groups tend to operate. Table 9.1 identifies the communication issues in each stage. For Review What are the four types of group members found in formal and informal groups?

For Review What are the three styles of behavior present in groups? baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 291 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development Table 9.1: Communication issues in group stages StageCommunication Challenge Forming Resolving feelings of uncertainty Acquainting members with one another Seeking to become a leader Testing behaviors to see if they are acceptable to the group (feedback) Storming Reduce and resolve conflicts Overcome resistance to group standards Norming Inform members about norms Provide feedback to someone who violates or ignores a norm Explain the consequences of not following norms Offer encouragement and assistance to new and ongoing members PerformingSupport team members Coordinate activities Quickly resolve disputes Adjourning Provide closure formally or informally Ceremonial skills Figure 9.1 The stages of group development Communication issues are present at each stage of group development. For Review What are the five stages of group development? baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 292 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 1. Forming 2. Storming 3. Norming4. Performing Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development Forming Initially, new members of a group are less likely to trust one another to some extent and to experience feelings of uncertainty. Two behaviors appear in the forming stage. The first is to try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable.

The second is tentative action by a designated leader, or by those who seek the role when a leader has not been appointed. The forming stage ends when sufficient compliance sug- gests that members see themselves as part of the larger group.

Communication skills can give you an advantage in the forming stage. The ability to make others feel comfortable, remembering names and individual idiosyncrasies, and building cooperation can help you attain a leadership role. Those wishing to be effective team play - ers also rely on communication skills to coordinate and work with others.

Storming Although members now view themselves as part of something, they sometimes disagree with the constraints imposed by the group or simply test to see what the limits are. In the storming stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to discover their place in the group’s structure (Tuckman, 1965). If the leader cannot manage the group successfully, the possibility of subgroups, member procrastination, conflicts between members, and open rebellion emerges. Group survival may be at risk.

Conflict resolution skills and the ability to reduce potential new conflicts, as Chapter 7 notes, are the key communication skills required in the storming stage. They include hav - ing the ability to listen and find common ground among disputing parties, and seeking or encouraging the willingness to make tradeoffs as part of the conflict resolution process.

A leader and group members who cannot effectively communicate run the risk of a dys - functional group. Leaders who are able to define limits and find common ground among members help navigate the group through the storming stage.

Norming The close of the storming stage occurs when a leader has been establishe\ d, often through the efforts of another member who challenges the group to come together. Closer rela - tionships build between members, and discussions of power become less em\ otional and more matter of fact. The norming stage is complete when members share a common set of expectations about behaviors and contributions to the group. The communication approach used by the leader and group members defines the way a group works, such as by integrating new members into the group, offering advice and encouragement to all members, and coordinating group activities.

Also in this stage, group norms develop. Norms are rules governing behaviors in the group. As shown in Table 9.2, norms apply to three main areas in both formal and infor - mal groups. Many times, norms overlap between the two. When a member violates a norm, group members will express disapproval, formally or informally. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 293 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development Table 9.2: Types of norms Effort/Productivity Units of production Time on the job and working overtime Department-specific activities (e.g., sales calls, sales totals, follow-ups with customers) Work Behaviors Clothes worn, jewelry, hairstyle, other features of appearance Use of language, cursing, formality Following or ignoring work rules and procedures Punctuality versus tardiness Social Behaviors Fraternization between management and labor Office romances Norms summarize group influence processes, including the rules for joining and main- taining membership (Hackman, 2003). Norms apply to workplace behaviors\ rather than off-work circumstances. They often develop slowly but then become difficult to change.

Norms also apply to behaviors rather than private feelings and thoughts. Some group members may “go along” with norms they think are foolish or insignificant. High-status members may choose to ignore some norms, because they do not fear losing member - ship. In the norming stage, these rules of behavior clarify the group or organization’s key values and convey a sense of identity. Enforcing norms assists an individual in meet - ing behavioral expectations and in avoiding making behavioral mistakes (Feldman, 1984).

Communication informs mem- bers of the presence of norms, violations of norms, and the potential consequences of ignor - ing or violating a norm. Formal and informal messages convey such information. For example, someone who is chronically late might receive a memo (formal) regarding the behavior or may be taken aside by group mem - bers who informally remind the individual that the norm is to be on time. For Review Name three types of norms present in formal and informal groups. iStockphoto/Thinkstock Norms apply to a variety of workplace behaviors, from the level of effort given on the job to starting office romances. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 294 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development Performing The performing stage has opened when the group reaches the point at which the primary activities revolve around solving problems. Clear lines of communication connect mem- bers, and members support one another and cooperate. Disputes in the per\ forming stage are handled quickly and constructively (Mason & Griffin, 2005). At this point, interde - pendence reaches its peak and independence has been surrendered as much as it will be.

Ongoing work groups and committees that reach the performing stage remain there unless drastic events interfere. The performing stage often involves moving from a formal group to a successful team. Then, project teams and informal groups with an end point (such as when a task is complete or the bowling season ends) move to the final s\ tage, adjourning.

Adjourning Groups that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration. These take the form of parties, official statements of appreciation by company leaders, and even graduations and mock funerals. Individuals resume a stronger sense of independence as the group disbands. In the adjourning stage, a leader can summarize group accom - plishments and express gratitude for good work, providing a role model for future group efforts. Adjourning can provide closure to group members and let every member know what the next assignment is.

The group development models proposed by Tubbs, Fisher, Tuckman, and Jensen com - bine the elements of conflict, conformity, and consensus with individual willingness to subsume personal agendas to larger group goals and activities. Positive outcomes occur only when communication skills are effectively utilized.

Leading Groups Two forms of leadership appear in groups as they develop. Formal group leadership occurs when an individual has been selected or designated by the organization to fulfill the role. A person who has been assigned to manage a task force or serve as a chair of a committee is a formal group leader. Informal leaders, or emergent leaders, evolve into the role and are selected by the group.

Poole (1983) suggests that groups move back and forth between three “tracks.” Effective leaders work to understand the natures of and interrelationships between the task track, topic track, and relation track. The task track represents the process by which a group seeks to accomplish goals. A group can complete tasks by individuals working separately and then coming together at a key moment or it can subdivide into sets o\ f individuals working on different parts of a project. The task track affects communication patterns within the group as it functions. The topic track is the specific topic a group discusses when it meets. The relation track focuses on the role and state of relationships in the group as they affect functioning. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 295 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development When a group meets, the leader will experience “breakpoints” at which the group switches from one track to another. Shifts in the conversation, postponing discussion of topics, and seeking to adjourn are examples of breakpoints. As groups operate over time, leaders coordinate activities while seeking to ensure that the group functions efficiently.

One key aspect of leading effective groups involves building cohesion and encouragement of effort by group members. At times, group members tend to give less effort to a group than they would if working individually or alone, a problem known as social loafing. At times, a member may decide to take a free ride and contribute nearly nothing. Effective group leadership includes finding ways to persuade a social loafer to at l\ east get involved and show an effort. One method is to assign the individual specific tasks and require prog - ress reports to be made in front of the group. The leader can encourage the social loafer to offer opinions during meetings, thereby increasing the person’s involvement with the group (Liden & Erdogan, 2003).

Building Cohesion Group cohesiveness reflects the degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members. The term “tight knit” applies to groups exhibiting higher levels of cohesion. A link exists between the level of cohesion in a group and sub - sequent performance, most notably when the group focuses more on the task (the task track) than on mere interpersonal relationships (the relation track) or group pride (Mul - len & Copper, 1994). Leaders have vested interests in developing and maintaining cohe - sive groups (Litterer, 1973; Sea- shore, 1954). A cohesive work group often experiences lower levels of member turnover and conflict. Cohesive committees use time more efficiently and engage in fewer counterpro - ductive arguments. Cohesive task force groups focus on final- izing the job and work together more efficiently.

A group with too little cohe- sion often suffers from the lack of productivity. The prob- lems associated with low cohe- sion begin with goal disagree - ment rather than agreement. For Review Define social loafing. iStockphoto/Thinkstock The term “tight knit” applies to groups exhibiting higher levels of cohesion. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 296 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development Members do not conform to any potential group norms. They fail to cooperate, and group sanctions do not affect them. A dysfunctional group can result, one that demonstrates (Lencioni, 2002): • lack of trust • fear of conflict • little or no commitment to the group • avoidance of accountability • inattention to results In contrast, groups with desirable levels of cohesion tend to enjoy the highest levels of success. Among the benefits of a cohesive, functional group are: • Members achieve high productivity. • Members help those experiencing problems. • Members extend extra effort during a crisis. • Members work without supervision. • Members share a positive social atmosphere. A leader can build cohesion among group members through the tactics in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3: How to build group cohesiveness Keep the group size from four to seven members Provide opportunities for members to interact frequently Create common goals for all members (superordinate goals) Communicate expectations for individual members and the overall group Source: G. C. Homans (1950). The human group. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Effective leaders help build cohesion; ineffective ones drive wedges between members (Homans, 1950).

Group leaders should also understand that cohesion might grow to a point at which prob - lems begin to emerge. Overly cohesive groups are more likely to set norms to reduce output or lower levels of effort. They may be inclined to view other groups as rivals and create unnecessary conflicts. At times, the formal leader in the group becomes unable to function because of the influence of the informal leader.

The most substantial problem with overly cohesive groups is labeled groupthink, which results when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views (Janis, 1991). At the extreme, groupthink becomes a process by which the group develops a sense of invulnerability, believing it can function without outside influence or sanction. The group self-censors information, and it fails to perform effectively within organizational confines (Von Bergen & Kirk, 1978). Some observers suggest that, under the leadership of Kenneth Lay, the executive team at Enron engaged in groupthink by failing to challenge instances of fraud and corruption. These baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 297 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.3 Leading Meetings instances involved the use of accounting loopholes, special purpose enti\ ties, and poor financial reporting, which were used to hide billions in debt from failed deals and proj- ects, along with coercion directed at the Arthur Andersen accounting firm that audited Enron’s books (Healy & Krishna, 2003).

To combat groupthink, leaders can introduce new members (at least two) who have divergent opinions. Members may be isolated from each other in order to reduce inter - actions that reinforce groupthink opinions. Also, members may be assigned to new groups to encourage involvement in other parts of the organization. A group leader combating groupthink (if not a part of the groupthink process) needs to find ways to introduce divergent opinions and attitudes into the group. During interactions, differ - ences in points of view should be encouraged. The leader or highest-ranking person should not be first to express an opinion. A second group can be established to examine the findings of the original group. The use of a devil’s advocate to challenge ideas can be helpful (Janis, 1982).

In summary, effective communication skills facilitate every stage of a group’s develop - ment. Further, an effective leader finds ways to establish the most productive level of group cohesion. This includes dealing with problem members, such as social loafers.

Communication skills assist in managing a team’s efforts and social relationships. These skills include decision-making, persuasion, and coordination.

9.3 Leading Meetings Learning Objective # 3: What steps and tactics are involved in successfully leading team and group meetings?

E ffective group leadership requires successful coordination of meetings. Unfortu - nately, attending meetings can be one of the more universally despised aspects of organizational life. People easily become bored, frustrated, and even gloomy. At the same time, tasks assigned to teams and groups often require going to meetings (Dvorak, 2006). Effective managerial communications programs use meeting time wisely and lead to productive results. Ineffective systems cause people to waste time and become annoyed (Armour, 1997).

Meetings take place for a variety of reasons. They can be called at the unit or departmen - tal level to discuss issues pertaining to that group. A task force or project team may meet frequently to coordinate activities. Meetings held at the companywide level often transmit\ For Review Define group cohesiveness and groupthink, and explain the relationship between the two concepts. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 298 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.3 Leading Meetings information that applies to every employee. To facilitate the success of any type of meet- ing, follow these steps: • stating the motivation for holding a meeting • preparing for the meeting • managing the meeting session • following up on the meeting The technologies that create virtual meetings present new challenges to leading meetings.

Leaders will still need to tend to these steps, but face additional challenges. Time differences must be accounted for when scheduling meetings with those in other locations. The manager will need to be able to overcome the problems associated with a less-rich information channel in which members cannot see all nonverbal and paraverbal cues.

Additional information about virtual teams is provided later in this chapter.

The Motivation for Holding a Meeting Meetings take time and cost the organization money in terms of the payroll devoted to attendees. For example, a meeting with six attendees, each averaging $25 per hour in wages, costs $150 per hour. Therefore, a manager should determine that the benefits of holding the meeting exceed those costs. Table 9.4 identifies legitimate reasons for conduct - ing meetings. For Review What four steps are involved in holding meetings? Digital Vision Effective group leadership requires successful coordination of meetings. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 299 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.3 Leading Meetings Table 9.4: Reasons for calling meetings ReasonActivity Initiate a new activity Planning and goal setting sessions Invigorate a stagnant activity Brainstorming or creativity technique; progress report Information session Present findings of a report or analysis Discussion session Evaluate pros and cons of a proposal, plan, or product Performance session Update on progress of an activity Motivate employees Pep talk, set goals and rewards Educate employees Updates on events or outcomes of events Networking Panel or breakout sessions with other professionals Reward high-performers Public recognition with prize, trophy, certificate Recreation Team-building exercises off-site Adapted from: J. S. O’Rourke, IV (2010). Management Communication: A case analysis approach. (4th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Prentice Hall.

Managers should not call meetings when a key person will not be availabl\ e. They should not hold meetings unless attendees have sufficient time to prepare. And, managers should avoid scheduling meetings that they know will lead to conflicts rather t\ han positive results. The next phase begins when the manager has become convinced that\ holding a meeting will be worthwhile.

Meeting Preparation The first assignment in meeting preparation is to decide who should attend. This includes the number of people, the organizational elements they will represent, what function(s) each might serve, and potential compatibility with others at the meeting\ . As discussed earlier, a more limited group of five to seven employees will be the most effective in many situations (Filley, House, & Kerr, 1976; Levine & Moreland, 1990).

When you are assigned to lead a meeting, the level of preparation put into the process will determine whether it will succeed. Following these steps helps to c\ reate a systematic, organized meeting: 1. Obtain clearance for the meeting place or location. 2. Make sure the meeting location has all needed equipment. 3. Send out advance notice to participants that a meeting will take place, \ and con - firm their attendance at the meeting. 4. Create a detailed agenda for the meeting, including any ground rules. 5. Distribute the agenda to all the confirmed attendees, allowing enough ti\ me for them to read it thoroughly (Stoneman & Dickinson, 1989; Hynes, 2008).

A detailed agenda, as shown in Figure 9.2, contains four elements: logistics, purpose, agenda items, and attachments. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 300 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.3 Leading Meetings Even the seating arrangement of the meeting deserves attention. A meeting held at a circu- lar table reduces the influence of the leader, because the person does not sit in a dominant position, but the arrangement increases communication among members. A rectangular table with a chair at one end establishes greater dominance but may limit interaction and communication. The leader should consider power dynamics and the intent \ of the meet - ing when setting up a seating arrangement (Hackman & Morris, 1975). After establishing the meeting time and place, and distributing the agenda, the next phase \ will be conduct - ing the actual event.

Figure 9.2 : A meeting agenda Agenda for Workplace Safety Committee Meeting Prepared on: June 27, 2011 By: Jennifer Jones, human resource department Attendees: Jennifer Jones, Fred White, Susan Ward, Roger Smith, Marvin Johnson, Yen-Wen Kuo Date and Meeting Time: July 2, 2:00 p.m.

Location: South Conference Room, 2nd floor Subject: Recent Fire in Storage Facility Agenda items:

1. Call to Order 2. Reports (time allotment: 20-30 minutes) a. Fire Department assessment of the cause -- Fred White b. Injuries to personnel -- Jennifer Jones c.

Insurance claim filing -- Yen-Wen Kuo d. Contacts and counseling of families of the injured -- Marvin Johnson e. Company liability and legal concerns -- Susan Ward 3. Resolution of current crisis (time allotment: 20-30 minutes) a. Recommendations b. Discussion 4. Avoidance of similar accidents in the future (time allotment: 20-30 minutes) a. Recommendations b. Discussion c. Set goals and deadlines 5. Adjournment Attachments: Fire Department official report Injury roster A meeting agenda for a workplace safety committee is shown. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 301 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.3 Leading Meetings Managing the Meeting Effective participation in meetings becomes the responsibility of every person involved.

The leader plays the pivotal role, but other individuals can contribute in ways that are helpful or detrimental. Part of career success involves the perception by others that you can participate in a team or group setting without being the source of problems. As a leader, conduct the meeting in four stages: introduce and restate the meeting’s purpose, provide a brief review of the agenda, tend to all matters stated in the agenda, and summa\ - rize and present conclusions to establish closure. The final stage often includes assigning various tasks to specific group members and following with an email or memo that lists these responsibilities. The leader can then ask for follow-up reports about completion of the assigned tasks.

As a meeting begins, four roles can be assigned to participants. First, the leader normally will be the person who called the meeting and formulated the agenda. Thi\ s person holds primary authority during the course of the meeting. Second, a recorder takes notes that will later be used as meeting minutes or a meeting summary. Third, a timekeeper makes sure the agenda stays on a reasonable schedule without running too long. Fourth, partici - pants are those who actively engage in the discussion and agenda.

Formal meetings that will include votes often employ mechanisms such as \ Robert’s Rules of Order, which spells out protocols for enumerating agenda items, entertaining motions, seconding of motions, discussion of motions, and how to conduct the actu\ al vote, includ - ing the vote to adjourn the meeting. These instruments help maintain order and make it easier to record decisions, votes, and outcomes, including passed motions, rejected motions, and tabled motions. Less-formal meetings still need order. Table 9.5 lists three other styles of meeting formats.

Table 9.5: Meeting formats Format Explanation Staff Conference Each team member reports to the leader, answers any questions, and makes recommendations with little input from other team members Congressional System Leader is in charge; members raise hands to participate or contribute House of Commons Style Leader delegates conduct of the meeting to another member; all members speak freely Source: New York Times. Chairing a meeting: To keep order, be true to form, September 22, 1999 p. C25.

The primary problems that meeting leaders encounter include topic drift, running over time, and conflicts rather than conversations. Unexpected topics can cau\ se the discussion to drift away from the intended agenda. For example, in the meeting agenda shown in Figure 9.2, the group convened specifically to discuss a fire in the facility. Drifting into dis - cussions about the union protecting the person who accidentally caused the fire quickly becomes counterproductive (Matson, 1996).

A meeting that runs over often results when people dominate discussions with per - sonal opinions and observations. Everyone has experienced a meeting in w\ hich one baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 302 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.3 Leading Meetings participant loves “the sound of his own voice.” Effective meeting management seeks to contain these individuals with comments such as, “Let’s move on to the next agenda item,” or, “We only have about five min- utes left, so let’s finish this up.” The most difficult issue involves communicating during meet- ing conflicts. Tempers can flare when emotions run high and people hold strongly different positions on an issue. Meeting leaders can use communication tactics such as “time out” peri - ods in which the group disbands to take a break, and other conflict management techniques, to hold emotions in check. Angry participants can be separated. All members can be reminded of the group’s purpose, and the leader can acknowledge that some might have in\ tense opin - ions or feeling about an issue. Humor often diffuses charged conflict situations, but the leader must be aware of the parties involved before making jests during a strong disagree - ment. Even a phrase such as, “Let’s all take a deep breath here,” might help. Summary statements are used to record conflicting positions (Mann, 2006). Group Decision-Making Processes One pitfall of trying to avoid confrontation is that a manager might seek to balance levels of conflict by arriving at a consensus too early, before the ideal course of action has been identified. To avoid this pitfall, one discussion technique, dialectical inquiry, involves inspiring genuine debate on an issue. The approach requires that all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is decided. Dialectic inquiry stands in contrast to the consensus method, in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than to conduct a genuine debate of the issue. Research suggests that dialectic inquiry achieves better results than the consensus method in the areas of final group consensus, individual member acceptance of the decision, and member satisfaction with the group (Priem, Harrison, & Muir, 1995; Schweiger, Sandberg, & Rechner, 1989).

In certain situations, a devil’s advocacy approach to conflict resolution provides the needed discussion and debate. The “devil’s advocate” is the person in \ the group (leader or other - wise) who willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their positions. Devil’s advocacy appears to share the advantages of dialectic inquiry over the consensus approach (Murrell, Stewart, & Engel, 2011).

Group decision-making represents a key element in achieving goals. Successful analysis of alternatives and choosing the appropriate course of action involves the efforts of the John Howard/Corbis When emotions run high, meeting leaders can use communication tactics such as “time out” periods in which the group disbands to take a break. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 303 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.3 Leading Meetings members and the leader working cooperatively. Communication skills, including listen- ing, conflict resolution, and the ability move the group forward by summarizing posi - tions, can assist in reaching the desired decision.

Responsibilities of Attendees Those attending the meeting also have responsibilities. Punctuality means the meeting will not be disturbed by late arrivals. Other forms of considerate behav\ ior, coupled with effective listening skills, are in order. Participants may take notes to help remember key points or to raise questions at appropriate times. Disagreements that remain civil stand the best chance of resolution. Participants should remain aware of and sensitive to the verbal and nonverbal messages they transmit while in attendance.

Disruptive Members At times, communication and decision-making processes suffer from the disruptions of a single member. An individual may have strong objections to some aspect of the meeting or may have a hidden agenda to pursue. Tactics used by disrupters are: • attempting to change the subject • making accusations against other members or the leader • dominating and interrupting • clowning and joking to interrupt the flow of discussion A leader can seek out a potential disrupter prior to a meeting and ask for cooperation. The leader can attempt to settle the dis - rupter ’s agenda before going to the meeting. At times, the leader can assign the disruptor a role, such as taking notes or summa- rizing the viewpoints of others.

To confront the disrupter, the leader may pre-arrange allies to deal with the behavior. The disrupter can be told in advance that his or her actions may lead to negative consequences from other members of the group. For Review Explain dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and the devil’s advocacy approach to group decision- making processes. Nick White/ Thinkstock Disruptions of meetings take many forms. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 304 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.4 Formal Group Business Communication During a meeting, the leader should make sure that emotional issues do not get out of hand. Summarizing viewpoints allows time to prepare more reasoned responses. Asking questions may help prevent the disruptor from dominating the agenda (Jones, 1980).

Follow-up After a meeting, completing follow-up documents begins. Formal meetings \ normally require minutes, which are a summary record of what transpired during the meeting. Min - utes are recorded by one of the group members and will be filed at a key location. Meeting summaries or minutes may be sent to participants via email or a memo fol\ lowing less-for - mal meetings. One purpose is to make sure that events and decisions during the meeting are accurately recorded. A second purpose will be to remind participants of any activities they have volunteered to take care of as well as commitments made to future activities.

Meetings continue to offer the possibility of coordinating activities, making better deci - sions, gathering expertise for discussion and negotiation, and even serv\ ing as a place to train managers, who can conduct meetings in order to practice taking charge in a struc - tured setting. Meetings also offer the potential of wasting time and money, leading to con- flicts, and allowing members to disengage and take a free ride. The quality of the leader or manager determines the outcome.

9.4 Formal Group Business Communication Learning Objective # 4: Preparing effective management communications by groups and teams involves what processes?

T wo levels of communication take place when a group operates. The first involves communication among members as the group completes its assignment, as has been described in this chapter. The second occurs when the group seeks to send a message or messages to others, among them managers at higher ranks, othe\ r groups, sets of employees, and outside publics such as the government. Group communications such as these appear in written and oral forms. Group and Team Writing Projects Formal groups are often asked to prepare formal written documents. Three of the more common are official letters, reports, and proposals, although other variations may be pre - pared, such as a manifesto or mission statement, a revision to the mission statement, a statement of corporate vision (including those pertaining to ethics and\ sustainability), a planning document, and even smaller items such as memos.

Communicating in an authoritative voice that represents the viewpoints of all group members—including the voices of consensus and dissent—constitutes \ the primary chal - lenge for formal team writing projects. The final product should speak with one voice, baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 305 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.4 Formal Group Business Communication as if the document had been prepared by a single individual, even though more than one person has been involved. Three options for preparing a team’s writing project are single writer, co-authorship, and multiple authors. Each exhibits distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Single Writer Most of you have probably experienced a situation, at work or in class, in which one individual clearly has superior writing skills. Oftentimes the group, individually or col- lectively, will ask that person to write the report or proposal. This should not mean others in the group abdicate responsibility. Instead, single authorship allows the document to be prepared in a consistent voice, including the level of formality or informality as well as the preciseness of language with regard to both technical terminology and not-so-technical aspects of the message.

The other members of the group assist the process by collecting materials for the first draft and offering suggestions for revision. Group members might provide feedback that a point should be added, omitted, or expanded upon. The more concrete the suggestions, the better the odds that the document will communicate exactly as it should.

Two potential disadvantages of employing a single author are conflicts and social loafing.

Members may genuinely disagree about what the document should say and not say. Some may decide not to participate, either because they believe their opinion\ s will be ignored or because they wish to attend to other matters (Ede & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a single-author situation will be to make sure everyone contributes his or her fair share, that conflicts about content are resolved in a professional and efficient manner, and that the process stays on schedule. An effective leader expresses appreciation to both the single writer and to those in the group who continue to partici- pate in preparing the final document.

Co-authorship Several forms of co-authorship can be used when preparing formal documents. It may be that two individuals are assigned the responsibility. In other circumstances, nearly every member of the group writes a part of the document and then it is compiled and finalized \ by one or more members.

The advantages of co-authorship include the ability to break the document down into areas of interest or specialization, which can then be assigned to the individuals bes\ t suited to each one (Allen et al., 1987). Doing so may allow each part of the report to receive greater scrutiny by the person with the greatest level of expertise. Collecting materials moves more quickly, as For Review What three methods can be used when preparing group and team writing projects? baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 306 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.4 Formal Group Business Communication each part is prepared separately during the same time period.

Collaborative writing helps group members socialize with one another, including allowing more senior members to assist and counsel newer employees.

Co-authorships can also foster communication among mem- bers. In some instances, the pro- cess of collaboration improves the writing skills of team mem - bers (Gebhardt, 1980).

Co-authorship also creates chal- lenges. Writing in one voice becomes considerably more dif- ficult. Making transitions from one part of the document to the next also requires attention. Those who complete indi- vidual sections may be more prone to be defensive if the segment is challenged or if other members of the group request revisions.

The role of the group leader in co-authorship begins with making sure the project does not break down into “turf wars,” with each section of writers and/or individual person defending their work. The leader assumes larger coordination responsibilities, making sure that each part arrives on schedule and that the whole document can be \ completed on time. The leader ensures communication between all members so that the whole report works toward a consistent voice in content and writing style. The leader may need t\ o adjudicate the decision to select a final person to polish and edit the \ completed document before submission. Multiple Authors, Single Editor Similar to co-authorship, the multiple-authors-single-editor approach involves individu- als and sets of employees that are assigned to segments of work. The difference is that one individual is placed in charge of each draft and the final document at the outset. Each seg - ment will be submitted to the editor for revision individually. Then, the editor prepares the final document for consideration by the overall group.

The multiple-authors-single-editor approach takes advantage of one person’s writing skills and ability to view the project from a micro and macro perspective. Many times, this talent can be hard to find. When a person is available, the final document stands a bet - ter chance of being written in a clear voice and with a consistent style. At the same time, multiple authorship often allows for greater specialization, making it possible for each part of the report to be detailed and clarified by someone with specific knowledge ab\ out that area.

The primary disadvantages of the multiple-authors-single-editor approach continue to be the potential for turf-building and conflict over content. Someone, or a\ few people who Creatas Images/Thinkstock Co-authorships can also foster communication among team or group members. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 307 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.4 Formal Group Business Communication have invested considerable effort into a section, may have such a sense of ownership that they do not take criticism or suggestions for revision well. Conflicts among these authors can arise as well as conflicts between the authors and the editor (Ede \ & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a multiple-authors-single-editor context remains basically the same. The leader continues to be responsible for deadlines, coordination, and conflict resolution (Bacon, 1990).

The role of a member in all three of these writing circumstances should be to contribute as a responsible team player. Doing so involves communicating concerns in a nonconfronta- tional manner, offering assistance when needed, meeting deadlines, and seeking to help successfully achieve the group’s objectives. Effective team players are also good listeners.

They respect differences, value diversity, and are willing to use the resources provided by others (Harper & Harper, 1993) Group Speaking Projects A group may be asked to make a verbal presentation of findings or group activities.

Many of the principles, as discussed in previous chapters, that apply to individual verbal communications also pertain to a group presentation. It is important to understand the target audience, including its size and composition, in order to construct an effective mes- sage. The group should seek to predict the audience’s probable reaction to the presentation— positive, neutral, or negative— in order to be able to respond.

The presentation should put forth a key idea or limited set of ideas, and the message should be tailored to those ideas. At that point, the group can collectively decide whether a single-speaker or multiple- presenter approach will be most effective.

Single Speaker A single speaker may be chosen for the same reason as a single author. One group member may possess superior public-speaking skills, and the group wishes to take advantage of For Review What two methods can be used when making group or team presentations? IT Stock/Thinkstock Group verbal presentations require preparation and practice. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 308 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.4 Formal Group Business Communication that talent. Members of the group may be seated in the audience together or separately to reinforce the speaker and provide additional support.

The primary advantage of a single speaker, especially one who is gifted, will be the ability to control the tone and pace of the presentation. Other members of the group can assist by running any audiovisual equipment or other features incorporated into the event. The net result can be a more seamless presentation that concentrates on the key points in the message.

A single speaker typically begins a presentation by acknowledging the other members of the group. The presenter often also thanks other members both for their contributions and for attending the presentation. Then the actual content can be delivered. Following the presentation, the other group members may be called on to respond to questions and objectives.

A potential disadvantage is that a single speaker may give a more mundane presentation, should the individual not be as talented as the group had hoped. Audience members may wonder why only one person is talking. If there is a cohesive team that worked to create the presentation, allowing several presenters can create a greater awareness of this and could allow for a better impact overall.

Multiple Presenters When more than one speaker will be presenting, several potential advantages emerge.

The switch from one person to the next can enliven the audience, and differing styles of speaking may prove interesting. The address can be framed in such a way that a person with expertise speaks about his or her part of the operation or analysis\ , adding credibility.

Multiple speakers may also reflect valuable professionalism, even gravitas, suggesting the topic is indeed important.

Ordinarily, one individual serves as moderator or coordinator when multiple presenters appear. This individual will have the most polished speaking skills. It will b\ e his or her role to open the session with a welcoming statement, introduce the speakers or panel members, and possibly outline what will be said. As the presentation unfolds, the coordi- nator directs the audience to the next speaker while providing a transition.

Multiple-presenter arrangements can become distracting. Differences in presentation style may cause the audience to need to adjust, and some may be focused on the previous speaker rather than the new one. When transitions are abrupt and not well coordinated, the presentation does not appear as professional. Movements by and facial expressions of those not speaking can attract the attention of the audience, moving \ it away from the person talking.

Effective multiple-presenter events are practiced and well coordinated. The moderator moves the flow of information as smoothly as is possible. Those not spea\ king remain focused on the message provided by the one in front. Transitions between speakers hap - pen quickly. The individuals with the most direct experience or expertise handle ques - tions. The moderator then provides closure as the presentation ends. The key goal of a presentation will be to provide the appearance of competent professionalism. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 309 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.4 Formal Group Business Communication Virtual Groups Today’s technologies allow for the use of virtual groups or sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non- virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and sched- uling activities. Virtual teams and groups are formed for short- and long-term projects, including group writing assignments, as well as deliberations on long-range, ongoing issues (Ante, 2003). Virtual groups allow individuals and companies to reduce travel costs and permit people from remote locations to participate. A meet- ing can be arranged as quickly as if members are simply down the hall, not across the country or ocean (Naughton, 2003).

The leader ’s role in a virtual group is to schedule meetings, keep the conversation and dia- log flowing, and to summarize at the end. A leader should follow up virtual meetings to ensure that agreement occurred, that individuals know their tasks and assignments, and that members are aware of upcom - ing deadlines and meetings.

Virtual groups do have limitations. If group meetings have no visual aspects, such as those in a videoconference, then paraverbal and nonverbal cues, such as voice tone, inflec - tion, eye contact, distance, gestures, and facial expression, cannot as easily be transmitted.

This limits the richness of communications between members. Socializatio\ n can become less likely, or paradoxically, more likely in virtual groups. The typical boundaries between colleagues working and living in the same place do not exist between colleagues of vir - tual groups. There is both more (for example, connecting with a colleague via Facebook or over email outside of work hours) and less freedom to communicate (for example, the lack of spontaneous office socialization that occurs with colleagues in a centralized work environment) about topics outside work. The boundaries of what is and what is not appropriate still apply, but the routines of virtual groups typically take on a life of their own and relate back to the business culture and leader of the company or industry, and the specific task at hand. Scheduling virtual meetings can also prove a challenge or be quite easy, depending on the colleagues’ locations.

In spite of the obstacles, the use of virtual groups can be expected to increase. The ability to see the other party through various new technologies increases the usefulness of virtual groups, which can have great value for national and international companies. For Review Describe a virtual group. Christopher Robbins Virtual groups allow communication and collaboration over great distances. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 310 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.5 Chapter Review 9.5 Chapter Review M anagement communication plays a critical role in operating groups and teams effectively. A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal (Schein, 1980). Teams become distinct from groups when syner- gies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort. An organization’s leaders establish a formal group to achieve company goals and objectives. Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees, and project teams. An informal group, or a friendship group, emerges without the endorsement of organizational leaders and does not have a designated structure or work toward organizational goals other than socializa - tion and friendship. Three items tend to bring informal groups together: activities, shared values and sentiments, and interactions. The distinction between formal \ and informal groups has been blurred by new office designs and virtual communication technologies.

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior in groups—conflict, confor - mity, or consensus. Formal groups require consensus to operate effectively.

Five stages of group development are forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. During forming, new members of a group are likely to distrust one another and experience feelings of uncertainty. Some members try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable. There may be tentative actions of a leader, if one has been designated, or by those seeking to lead.

In the storming stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to push boundaries and discover their place in the group’s structure. Conflict resolution skills and the abil - ity to reduce potential new conflicts are vital. The norming stage will be complete when members share a common set of expectations about behaviors and contributions to the \ group. Norms or rules governing group behaviors begin to form. The performing stage occurs when the group reaches the point at which the primary activities revolve around solving task problems. Clear lines of communication connect members. In the adjourning stage, groups that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration.

In this stage, a leader can summarize group accomplishments and express gratitude for good work. Leadership of groups requires attention to social loafing and levels of group cohesiveness, especially when groupthink emerges.

Leading meetings involves stating the motivation for the meeting, preparation, manag - ing the actual event, and following up. Leaders obtain clearance for the\ meeting place, arrange equipment, send out notices, and then create and distribute the agenda, confirm - ing those who will attend. Group decision-making processes during meetings can include dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, or a devil’s advocacy approach. Attendees should be responsible and professional, and the leader should work to prevent disrupters from interrupting or sidetracking the meeting.

Formal group business communications include writing projects and presentations by groups and teams. Group writing projects, such as letters, formal reports, formal propos- als, and other documents can be prepared by a single writer, through co-authorship, or by multiple writers with a single editor. Group speaking projects may be handled by a single spokesperson or with a carefully rehearsed and choreographed multiple-presenter baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 311 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.5 Chapter Review format. Virtual groups employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non-virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Key Terms consensus method A group decision-making process in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than a genuine debate of the issue. devil’s advocacy A group decision-making pro- cess in which a person in the group (leader or otherwise) willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their positions. dialectical inquiry A group decision-making process that involves inspiring genuine debate that allows for all points of view to be pre - sented, discussed, and debated until a resolu - tion is reached. dysfunctional group A group with low cohe- sion and goal disagreement in which members ignore any potential norms. formal group A group established by an orga- nization’s leaders as part of the managerial process.

formal group leadership What occurs when an individual has been selected or designated by the organization to fulfill the leadership role. functional group A group exhibiting desirable levels of cohesion and the highest levels of success.

group Two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal.

group cohesiveness The degree of goal com - mitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members. groupthink What occurs when group pres - sures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopu - lar views. informal group Or a friendship group , a group that emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship without the endorsement of organizational leaders and that does not have a designated structure.

informal leaders Or emergent leaders, are individuals who evolve into the leadership role and are selected by the group. minutes A summary record of what transpired during a meeting as recorded by one of the group members.

norms Rules governing behaviors in a group. social loafing When group members give less effort to the group than they would working individually or alone.

teams Sets of individuals with synergies that emerge from greater interdependence and share effort. virtual groups Sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non- virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 312 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.5 Chapter Review For Review With Possible Responses 1. Define group and team.

A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal.

Teams become distinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort. 2. Define formal group and name the three most common types.

When an organization’s leaders establish a formal group through a notation in an orga- nizational chart or by a management directive, the purpose will be to achieve company goals and objective. Three of the most common types of formal groups are work groups, committees and boards, and project teams. 3. What are the four types of group members found in formal and informal groups?

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. The leader directs group activities.

Members who are most closely aligned with the leader become opinion leaders and are the most willing to express group values. Members in good standing are those in the group who do not share its leadership. The gatekeeper determines who will and who will not be\ included in the group. 4. What are the three styles of behavior present in groups?

Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behav- ior—conflict, conformity, or consensus. Conflict can occur as a natural consequence of social interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of th\ e majority or leader in order to move on. Consensus occurs when genuine agreement emerges among members. 5. What are the five stages of group development?

Forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. 6. Name three types of norms present in formal and informal groups.

Norms regarding effort or productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors. 7. Define social loafing.

The problem known as social loafing occurs at times when group members give less effort to a group than they would if working individually or alone. 8. Define group cohesiveness and groupthink, and explain the relationship between the two concepts.

Group cohesiveness reflects the degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members. Groupthink results when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Group- think emerges when groups experience levels of cohesion that are too high. 9. What four steps are involved in holding meetings?

When seeking to hold meetings the steps to be followed include stating t\ he motivation for holding a meeting, preparing for the meeting, managing the meeting session, and follow- ing up on the meeting. 10. Explain dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and the devil’s advocacy approach to group decision-making processes.

Dialectic inquiry involves inspiring genuine debate on an issue. The app\ roach requires that all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is decided.

Dialectic inquiry stands in contrast to the consensus method in which th\ e goal becomes to reach consensus rather than conduct a genuine debate of the issue. The de\ vil’s advo- cacy approach to conflict resolution provides the needed discussion and debate in which the “devil’s advocate” willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions desig\ ned to force individuals and subgroups to defend their positions. baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 313 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.5 Chapter Review 11. What three methods can be used when preparing group and team and writing projects?

Three options for preparing a team’s writing project include a single writer, co-authorship, and multiple authors. 12. What two methods can be used when making group or team presentations?

The group can collectively decide whether a single-speaker or multiple-presenter approach will be most effective. 13. Describe a virtual group.

Virtual groups are sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same com- mon goals as those groups functioning in the non-virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities. Analytical Exercises 1. Newer office designs and technologies have blurred the distinction between for - mal and informal groups. Explain how the use of Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn might be used by group members for formal group functioning, informal interac - tions, and linking the group to persons outside the organization. 2. A disruptor interrupts communication and disturbs group functioning by attempting to change the subject, making accusations against other membe\ rs or the leader, dominating and interrupting, or by clowning and joking to interrupt the flow of discussion. Describe how a disruptor would influence the following:

a. conflict b. conformity c. consensus d. gate-keeping activities 3. Explain which specific tools of formal and informal, and verbal and writ\ ten com - munications, along with nonverbal communications, a group leader can use in the stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. 4. How would group norms regarding effort/productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors be different or the same in the following circumstances? And, how could a leader communicate regarding the appropriateness or inappropri - ateness of each norm to group members, from the company’s perspective?

a. a set of bank tellers who are friends b. a road construction crew that also plays slow-pitch softball together on weekends c. information technology employees who enjoy playing video games together d. friends working together at McDonald’s 5. How would social loafing and groupthink affect the following?

a. the task track b. the topic track c. the relation track 6. Explain the value of dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and a devil’s advo - cacy approach in the following group decisions: a. medical staff considering a highly risky but more-effective medical treatment for a patient b. sales team trying to agree on the best method to approach a new, lucrative client c. management team deciding whether or not to close a plant and outsource a product’s manufacture baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 314 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.6 Case Studies 7. Choose a form of group writing (single authorship, co-authorship, multiple authors/single editor) for the following circumstances and select the type of written message to be used in the following circumstances.

a. human resources department conducting a fact-finding mission to identify prevailing benefit plans in a metropolitan area b. product development team describing how the item it created is superior to the competitor ’s product to the marketing department c. accounting department explaining how a new tax code will affect company operations 9.6 Case Studies Case Study 1: The Sale Before the Sale Henry Fong faced the biggest challenge of his career. He had been with his company for five years, selling fleets of American-made cars to other businesses. Currently, Henry had been given the charge to oversee a new major sales project by his employer. He was to head a sales group assigned to market a fleet of midsized trucks to a local delivery service. A normal order would be 20 trucks, plus a main- tenance agreement, which generated a sizable amount of revenue for his company.

Until this year, the task would have been given to a single member of the company’s sales force, Blake Mercer. Blake had been with the company for 10 years and earned a substantial amount of money in commissions during that time. Recently, however, he had failed to capture three major accounts that had been continuous customers. Each time, a Japanese company had obtained the contract by emphasizing fuel efficiency and reliability of its trucks.

Company executives at Henry and Blake’s U.S. firm had decided to try a sales team approach, rather than relying on interpersonal relationships, as Blake had done in the past. Blake was assigned to the team, based on his knowledge of the product and the market. This was to be the first sales call under the new system.

Henry called a meeting of his five-person team. As the group met in a conference room, Henry opened.

“Thank you all for coming. I think this is an exciting new project, and I’m certain we’ll do a great job.

Now first of all, I believe we need to find a way to counter this Japanese company’s claims about bet - ter gas mileage and reliability. What do you all think?” A member of the team replied, “Well, it seems to me our advantage is that our trucks are much easier to load and unload, which saves time and money during deliveries, plus I think we can challenge them on the idea of low maintenance.” “Great,” Henry responded, “do you all agree?” Everyone in the room except Blake nodded “yes.” “I also think,” Henry continued, “that we can point out all of the high tech we offer, the same as those guys—on-board computers and GPS. So, what I’m hoping is that we can break this down into a really professional sales pitch, with visuals and maybe a couple of different presenters.” At that point Blake interrupted sharply, “You know folks, this whole thing is designed to get rid of our commissions. They figure that, if this team thing works, they can cut back on how much each of us gets paid.” Henry answered, “Well, I’m sure we’ll end up dividing the commission, but I haven’t heard anything about a straight salary system.” (continued) baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 315 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.6 Case Studies “You’re a trusting little soul,” Blake replied. “Well, I really don’t think this is the time for that discussion,” Henry responded. He quickly moved on, “So, what I’m hoping is that Sally and Gene will think about maybe putting together some visuals. Don and Erin can work on the main message and coordinate with them. And I’m hoping Blake can give us all insights about the company and how we can tailor our pitch to them.” “I’ve got a lot on my plate right now,” Blake sneered. “We’ll see.” “How about the rest of you?” Henry asked, “Can we put something good together?” The rest of the group, while tense, nodded in agreement.

“Good. And think about how many presenters we want, and who they should be,” Henry continued.

“Well, listen, I don’t really believe in long meetings, so maybe we can just get some email going back and forth about this. All right? Okay, good. Thanks for coming.” While the rest of the group lingered to visit, Blake quickly left the room. Two of his colleagues were waiting outside. As he moved out of sight, Henry was certain that he heard Blake continuing to com- plain about the new system. Henry felt his fist clench. He resisted the urge to follow Blake and con - front him directly. “Be calm; be professional,” he thought. Henry knew he faced two issues; making the sale and dealing with Blake.

Review Questions 1. What type of sales presentation should Henry’s team put together? 2. Were the company executives at Henry’s firm wise in putting Blake on the sales team? 3. How should Henry deal with Blake in the future? Case Study 1: The Sale before the Sale (continued) Case Study 2: The Accident Murphy Manufacturing suffered a terrible tragedy. For the first time in the company’s history, a worker died while on the job. The employee, Luis Morales, apparently had ignored a warning whistle that signals when a forklift is moving in reverse. He was briefly pinned against a wall, causing internal injuries that led to his death.

Luis had worked for Murphy Manufacturing for over three years. He had gone through safety training and had never received a warning for violating safety protocols. In fact, his supervisor had called him a “model employee” on his last performance evaluation, partly based on Luis’ willingness to carefully follow directions.

Top management formed a task force to prepare a report and response. Specifically, four areas required investigation. First, the group was to investigate the cause of the accident to see if somehow it could have been prevented. Second, employee training was to be reviewed to make sure all employ - ees had been made aware of safety protocols. Third, the financial response was to be formulated. The company wanted to make sure Luis’ family received fair financial compensation from insurance and all other sources, including a company-sponsored fund-raiser. Fourth was the human response. Com - pany executives wanted to make sure emotional support was being provided to the family of Luis but also to the employee who was operating the forklift at the time of the accident.

The task force included an executive in the area of finance, two members of the human resource department, two entry-level production workers, and a quality-control employee. An attorney was retained to work with the task force regarding all legal issues. (continued) baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 316 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 Section 9.6 Case Studies Beyond the internal report to be prepared, the task force was also directed to respond to all media inquiries. The company’s CEO made it clear that he wanted the investigation and response to be “transparent and humane.” He asked for a direct, sincere apology to all concerned, if the company had failed in some way.

Review Questions 1. What written documents should the task force prepare? 2. Should the task force prepare written documents using a single author, co-authorship, or mul - tiple authors with a single editor? 3. What presentations will be necessary in this case? Who should give them? 4. Should a single speaker or multiple presenters make the presentations? Case Study 2: The Accident (continued) baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 317 4/25/12 11:40 AM CHAPTER 9 baa66869_09_c09_287-318.indd 318 4/25/12 11:40 AM