Week 2 Written Assignment - Organizational Behavior

This page intentionally left blank 4 Wo r k pl a c e E m o t io n s , Attitudes, and Stress learning objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

4-1 Explain how emotions and cognition (logical thinking) influence attitudes and behavior. 4-2 Discuss the dynamics of emotional labor and the role of emotional intelligence in the workplace. 4-3 Summarize the consequences of job dissatisfaction, as well as strategies to increase organizational (affective) commitment. 4-4 Describe the stress experience and review three major stressors. 4-5 Identify five ways to manage workplace stress. 92 chapter mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 92 11/12/13 11:24 AM f-496 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles etBlue flight attendant Steven Slater has had his share of rough days, but one particular flight from Pittsburgh to New York City was more than he could handle. Even before the flight departed, Slater apparently received a bloody gash on his forehead from an overhead compartment while resolving a luggage space scuffle between two passengers. One of those passengers then cursed Slater when he sent her oversized luggage to be checked. As the plane taxied after landing in New York, the same passenger stood up and demanded that Slater bring her the checked luggage. She then swore at him, after Slater ordered her to sit down until the plane had stopped.

That’s when Slater snapped. Grabbing the intercom, he announced a few colorful words to the misbehaved passenger, then said to the rest: “Those of you who have shown dignity and respect these last 20 years, thanks for a great ride. That’s it. I’ve had it.” Slater then grabbed some beer from the trolley, activated the emergency escape chute, slid down to the tarmac, and calmly walked to his car.

Slater’s actions were glorified, vilified, and dissected by the media and public over the next few weeks. Two passengers on that flight said Slater lacked the ability to work effectively with people, whereas others who know Slater say he is usually sociable and engaging. One passenger noted that Slater was very pleasant on previous flights but was disturbed and agitated on that day. Slater claimed his rash behavior was due to events on that flight, as well as stress about his mother’s illness.

“You can only push people so far,” Slater said recently. “You know, who hasn’t been overworked and underpaid? Who isn’t stressed?” Whatever the cause of his behavior, Slater was charged with criminal mischief, trespassing, and reckless endangerment (deploying the emergency slide could have injured the ground crew). He was fired from his job and agreed to pay $10,000 to replace the emergency chute. The incident also produced a new phrase: To “hit the slide” means to quit your job in a stunning or spectacular way. 1 e r N thth a J 93 JetBlue flight attendant Steven Slater had more emotional upset than he could handle on a flight from Pittsburgh to New York City, so he bailed out of the plane, and his job, through the emergency slide. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 93 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 94 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes Steven Slater’s outburst and final exit from a JetBlue flight illustrate several of the topics covered in this chapter. They dramatically show the effects of strong emotions and job dis- satisfaction on employee behavior and customer service. They show how employees are ex- pected to manage their emotions and display specific types of emotions, even in difficult situations. This vignette also highlights the effects of work-related stress, which Steven Slater was experiencing due to both work and nonwork challenges.

This chapter begins by defining and describing emotions and explaining why researchers are so eager to discover how emotions influence attitudes and behavior. Next, we consider the dynamics of emotional labor, followed by the popular topic of emotional intelligence.

The specific work attitudes of job satisfaction and organizational commitment are then discussed, including their association with various employee behaviors and work perfor- mance. The final section looks at work-related stress, including the stress experience, three prominent stressors, individual differences in stress, and ways to combat excessive stress. Emotions in the Workplace Emotions influence almost everything we do in the workplace. This is a strong statement, and one that you would rarely find a dozen years ago among organizational behavior (OB) experts. Most OB theories still assume that a person’s thoughts and actions are governed primarily or exclusively by logical thinking (called cognition). 2 Yet groundbreaking neurosci- ence discoveries have revealed that our perceptions, attitudes, decisions, and behavior are influenced by emotions as well as cognitions. 3 In fact, emotions may have a greater influence because they often occur before cognitive processes and, consequently, influence the latter.

By ignoring emotionality, many theories have overlooked a large piece of the puzzle about human behavior in the workplace.

Emotions are physiological, behavioral, and psychological episodes experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness. 4 These “episodes” are very brief events that typically subside or occur in waves lasting from milliseconds to a few minutes.

Emotions are directed toward someone or something. For example, we experience joy, fear, anger, and other emotional episodes toward tasks, customers, or a software program we are using. This differs from moods, which are not directed toward anything in particular and tend to be longer-term emotional states. 5 Emotions are experiences. They represent changes in our physiological state (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate), psychological state (e.g., thought process), and behavior (e.g., facial ex- pression). 6 Most of these emotional reactions are subtle and occur without our awareness. This is an important point because the topic of emotions often conjures up images of people “getting emotional.” In reality, most emotions are fleeting, low-intensity events that influence our behavior without conscious awareness. 7 Finally, emotions put us in a state of readiness. When we get worried, for example, our heart rate and blood pressure increase to make our body better prepared to en- gage in fight or flight. Strong emotions also trigger our conscious awareness of a threat or opportunity in the external environment. TYPES OF EMOTIONS People experience many emotions and various combinations of emo- tions, but all of them have two common features, illustrated in Ex- hibit 4.1. 8 One feature is that all emotions have an associated valence (called core affect), signaling that the perceived object or event should be approached or avoided. In other words, all emotions evaluate en- vironmental conditions as good or bad, helpful or harmful, positive or negative, and so forth. Furthermore, negative emotions tend to LO 4-1 Credit: © Ted Goff. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 94 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 95 generate stronger levels of activation than do positive emotions. 9 Fear and anger, for in- stance, are more intense experiences than are joy and delight, so they have a stronger effect on our actions. This valence asymmetry likely occurs because negative emotions protect us from harm and are therefore more critical for our survival.

The second feature is that emotions vary in their level of activation. By definition, emotions put us in a state of readiness and, as we discuss in the next chapter, are the primary source of individual motivation. Some emotional experiences, such as those experienced by JetBlue flight attendant Steve Slater (see the opening case study), are strong enough to consciously motivate us to act without careful thought. Most emotional experiences are more subtle, but even they activate enough to make us more aware of our environment. emotions Physiological, behavioral, and psychological episodes experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness. attitudes The cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event (called an attitude object). Aroused Astonished Stimulated Quiet Tranquil Still Negative Low High Positive High-activation negative emotionsHigh-activation positive emotions Low-activation negative emotions Evaluation Activation Low-activation positive emotions Unhappy Sad GloomyHappy Cheerful Delighted Bored Tired DrowsyRelaxed Content Calm Distressed Fearful JitteryEnthusiastic Elated Excited EXHIBIT 4.1 Circumplex Model of Emotions Source: Adapted from J. A. Russell, “Core Affect and the Psychological Construction of Emotion,” Psychologi- cal Review 110, no. 1 (2003): 145–72; M. Yik, J. A. Russell, and J. H. Steiger.

“A 12-Point Circumplex Structure of Core Affect,” Emotion 11, no. 4 (2011): 705–31. Visit connect.mcgrawhill.com for activities and test questions to help you learn about the model of emotions, attitudes, and behavior. EMOTIONS, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIOR To understand how emotions influence our thoughts and be- havior in the workplace, we first need to know about atti- tudes. Attitudes represent the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event (called an attitude object). 10 Attitudes are judgments, whereas emotions are experiences. In other words, attitudes mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 95 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 96 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes involve evaluations of an attitude object, whereas emotions operate as events, usually without our awareness. Attitudes might also operate nonconsciously, but we are usually aware of and consciously think about those evaluations. Another distinction is that we experience most emo- tions very briefly, whereas our attitude toward someone or something is more stable over time. 11 Until recently, experts believed that attitudes could be understood just by the three cog- nitive components illustrated on the left side of Exhibit 4.2: beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions. Now evidence suggests that a parallel emotional process is also at work, shown on the right side of the exhibit. 12 Using attitude toward mergers as an example, let’s look more closely at this model, beginning with the traditional cognitive perspective of attitudes.

• Beliefs. These are your established perceptions about the attitude object—what you believe to be true. For example, you might believe that mergers reduce job security for employees in the merged firms or that mergers increase the company’s competitiveness in this era of globalization. These beliefs are perceived facts that you acquire from expe- rience and other forms of learning. Each of these beliefs also has a valence; that is, we have a positive or negative feeling about each belief (e.g., better job security is good).

• Feelings. Feelings represent your conscious positive or negative evaluations of the attitude object. Some people think mergers are good; others think they are bad.

Your like or dislike of mergers represents your assessed feelings. According to the traditional cognitive perspective of attitudes (left side of the model), feelings are calculated from your beliefs about mergers and the associated feelings about those beliefs. If you believe that mergers typically have negative consequences such as lay- offs and organizational politics, you will form negative feelings toward mergers in general or about a specific planned merger in your organization. However, recent evidence suggests the opposite can also occur: Your feelings about something can cause you to change your feelings about specific beliefs regarding that target. 13 For example, you might normally enjoy the challenge of hard work, but if you dislike your boss and he or she has high performance expectations, then you could develop negative feelings about hard work. Behavior Attitude Emotional episodes Perceived environment Emotional process Behavioral intentionsFeelingsBeliefs Cognitive process EXHIBIT 4.2 Model of Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 96 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 97 • Behavioral intentions. Intentions represent your motivation to engage in a particular behavior regarding the attitude object. 14 Upon hearing that the company will merge with another organization, you might become motivated to look for a job elsewhere or possibly to complain to management about the merger decision. Your feelings to- ward mergers motivate your behavioral intentions, and which actions you choose de- pends on your past experience, personality, and social norms of appropriate behavior.

Several contingencies weaken the beliefs–feelings–intentions–behavior relationship. First, people with the same beliefs might form quite different feelings toward the attitude object because they have different valences for those beliefs. Two employees might hold the com- mon belief that their boss pushes employee performance, yet they form different feelings toward their boss because one dislikes being pushed to perform better, whereas the other employee appreciates this style of leadership. Second, people with the same feelings toward the attitude object might develop different behavioral intentions. Suppose that two employ- ees equally dislike their boss. One employee complains to the union or upper management, while the other employee looks for a job elsewhere. They respond differently because of their unique experiences, personal values, self-concepts, and the like. Later in this chapter, we describe the four main responses to dissatisfaction and other negative attitudes. Third, people with the same behavioral intentions might nevertheless behave differently. For example, two people might intend to quit because they dislike their boss, but only one does so because the other employee could not find better job opportunities. How Emotions Influence Attitudes and Behavior The cognitive model has dominated attitude research for decades, yet we now know that emotions also have a central role in forming and changing employee attitudes. 15 The right side of Exhibit 4.2 illustrates this process, which (like the cognitive process) also begins with perceptions of the world around us. Our brain tags incoming sensory information with emotional markers based on a quick and imprecise evaluation of whether that information supports or threatens our in- nate drives. These markers are not calculated feelings; they are automatic and nonconscious emotional responses based on very thin slices of sensory information. 16 Consider your attitude toward mergers. You might experience worry, nervousness, or relief upon learning that your company intends to merge with a competitor. The fuzzy dots on the right side of Exhibit 4.2 illustrate the numerous emotional episodes you experience upon hear- ing the merger announcement, subsequently thinking about the merger, discussing the merger with coworkers, and so on. These emotions are transmitted to the reasoning process, where they are logically analyzed along with other information about the attitude object. 17 Thus, while you are consciously evaluating whether the merger is good or bad, your emotions are already send- ing valent (good–bad) signals, which then sway your conscious evaluation. In fact, we often deliberately “listen in” on our emotions to help us consciously decide whether to support or oppose something. 18 Putting more fun into the workplace has helped Admiral Group become the best company to work for in the United Kingdom.

The insurance company’s 6,000 employees enjoy a supportive and family-like work culture, receiving company stock every six months, and having plenty of fun. If those features aren’t enough, Admiral also has a “Ministry of Fun” committee that introduces plenty of positive emotions through Nintendo Wii competitions, inter-departmental Olympics, and other fun activities. “We have a simple philosophy at Admiral: if people like what they do, they’ll do it better,” says Admiral CEO Henry Engelhardt. “We know that our people spend a lot of time in work and we want to make sure that they enjoy this time.” 21 mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 97 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 98 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes The influence of both cognitive reasoning and emotions on attitudes is most apparent when they conflict. People occasionally experience this mental tug-of-war, sensing that something isn’t right even though they can’t think of any logical reason to be concerned. This conflicting expe- rience indicates that the person’s logical analysis of the situation (left side of Exhibit 4.2) can’t identify reasons to support the emotional reaction (right side of Exhibit 4.2). 19 Should we pay attention to our emotional response or our logical analysis? This question is not easy to answer, but some studies indicate that while executives tend to make quick decisions based on their gut feelings (emotional response), the best decisions tend to occur when executives spend time log- ically evaluating the situation. 20 Thus, we should pay attention to both the cognitive and emo- tional sides of the attitude model, and hope they agree most of the time! Generating Positive Emotions at Work Some companies seem to be well aware of the dual cognitive–emotional attitude process, because they try to inject more positive expe- riences in the workplace. 22 At Dixon Schwabl, employees enjoy outdoor barbecues, golf chip- ping contests, water balloon toss events, Halloween pumpkin-decorating contests, a padded primal scream room to release tension, and a spiral slide for those who want to descend more quickly to the main floor. “Fun is not just a word here, it is a way of life!” wrote one employee at the 75-person marketing and public relations firm in Rochester, New York. 23 Similarly, employees at Razer’s Singapore offices zoom around on scooters and pit their gaming skills against each other on the state-of-the-art online gaming console. “Sometimes I can’t believe that I have been here for seven months already,” admits one employee at the gaming periph- erals company. “I guess you don’t feel the time passing when you are having so much fun.” 24 Some critics might argue that the organization’s main focus should be to create positive emotions through the job itself as well as natural everyday occurrences such as polite customers and supportive coworkers. Still, most people perform work that produces some negative emo- tions, and research has found that humor and fun at work—whether natural or contrived— can potentially offset some of the negative experiences. 25 Overall, corporate leaders need to keep in mind that emotions shape employee attitudes, and as we will discuss later, attitudes influence various forms of work-related behavior.

One last comment about Exhibit 4.2: Notice the arrow from the emotional episodes to behavior. It indicates that emotions directly (without conscious thinking) influence a per- son’s behavior. This occurs when we jump suddenly if someone sneaks up on us. It also oc- curs in everyday situations because even low-intensity emotions automatically change our facial expressions. These actions are not carefully thought out. They are automatic emo- tional responses that are learned or hardwired by heredity for particular situations. 28 Cognitive Dissonance Imagine that you have just signed a contract for new elec- tronic white boards to be installed throughout the company’s meeting rooms. The deal was debating point IS HAVING FUN AT WORK REALLY A GOOD IDEA? “Fun at work” has become such a hot business fad that compa- nies without a “fun” committee are considered insensitive task masters. Having fun at work can improve employee attitudes in many situations, but are special fun events really necessary or beneficial?

Some critics vote “No!” They argue that contrived fun events at work can backfire. 26 Some types of fun aren’t fun at all to some people. In fact, most employees might be offended by the silliness of some activities contrived by management or a few staff. Others resent having fun forced on them. One expert recently warned: “Once the idea of fun is formally institutionalized from above, it can lead to employees becoming resentful. They feel patronized and condescended, and it breeds anger and frustration.” The meaning and value of fun at work might also vary across generations; what works for Millennials could backfire for Baby Boomers, and vice versa. Another concern is that fun-focused companies might take their eye off the bottom line. “At the end of the day, you have to make money to stay here,” says Mike Pitcher, CEO of LeasePlan USA (which does have a “fun” committee). “If work was [all] fun, they’d call it fun.” 27 mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 98 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 99 What is your emotional personality? Visit connect.mcgrawhill.com to assess your emotional trait tendencies. expensive but, after consulting several staff, you felt that the technology would be valuable in this electronic age. Yet you felt a twinge of regret soon after signing the contract. This emotional experience is cognitive dissonance, which occurs when people perceive that their beliefs, feelings, and behavior are incongruent. 29 This inconsistency generates emotions (such as feeling hypocritical) that motivate the person to create more consistency by chang- ing one or more of these elements.

Why did you experience cognitive dissonance after purchasing the electronic white boards?

Perhaps you remembered that some staff wanted flexibility, whereas the white boards require special markers and computer software. Or maybe you had a fleeting realization that buying electronic white boards costing several times more than traditional white boards is inconsistent with your personal values (and company culture) of thrift and value. Whatever the reason, the dissonance occurs because your attitude (being cost conscious is good) is inconsistent with your behavior (buying expensive white boards). Like most other people, you like to think of yourself (and be viewed by others) as rational and logical. You experience dissonance because this purchase decision is contrary to your attitudes about being frugal and maximizing value.

How do we reduce cognitive dissonance? 30 Reversing the behavior might work, but few behaviors can be undone. In any event, dissonance still exists because others know about the behavior and that you performed it voluntarily. It would be too expensive to remove the electronic white boards after they have been installed, and in any event, coworkers already know that you made this purchase and did so willingly.

More often, people reduce cognitive dissonance by changing their beliefs and feelings. One dissonance-reducing strategy is to develop more favorable attitudes toward specific features of the decision, such as forming a more positive opinion about the white boards’ capacity to store whatever is written on them. People are also motivated to discover positive features of the de- cision they didn’t notice early (e.g., the boards can change handwriting into typed text) and to discover subsequent problems with the alternatives they didn’t choose (e.g., few traditional boards can be used as projection screens). A third strategy is more indirect; rather than play down the high price of the electronic white boards, you reduce dissonance by emphasizing how your other decisions have been frugal. This framing compensates for your expensive white board fling and thereby maintains your self-concept as a thrifty decision maker. Each of these mental acrobatics maintains some degree of consistency between the person’s behavior (buying expensive white boards) and attitudes (being thrifty, appreciating good value). Emotions and Personality Our coverage of the dynamics of workplace emotions wouldn’t be complete unless we mentioned that emotions are also partly determined by a person’s personality, not just workplace experiences. 31 Some people experience positive emo- tions as a natural trait. People with more positive emotions typically have higher emotional stability and are extroverted (see Chapter 2). Those who experience more negative emotions tend to have higher neuroticism (lower emotional stability) and are introverted. Positive and negative emotional traits affect a person’s attendance, turnover, and long-term work atti- tudes. 32 While positive and negative personality traits have some effect, other research con- cludes that the actual situation in which people work has a noticeably stronger influence on their attitudes and behavior. 33 cognitive dissonance An emotional experience caused by a perception that our beliefs, feelings, and behavior are incongruent. LO 4-2 Managing Emotions at Work Whether as a JetBlue flight attendant or chief executive officer, people are expected to manage their emotions in the workplace. They must conceal their frustration when serving an irritating customer, display compassion to an ill patient, and hide their boredom in a long meeting with mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 99 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 100 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes other executives. These are all forms of emotional labor—the effort, plan- ning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. 34 Almost everyone is expected to abide by display rules—norms or explicit rules requiring us within our roles to display specific emotions and to hide other emotions. Emotional labor demands are higher in jobs requiring a variety of emotions (e.g., anger as well as joy) and more in- tense emotions (e.g., showing delight rather than smiling weakly), as well as in jobs where interaction with clients is frequent and longer. Emotional labor also increases when employees must precisely rather than casually abide by the display rules. 35 This particularly occurs in the service industries, where em- ployees have frequent face-to-face interaction with clients. EMOTIONAL DISPLAY NORMS ACROSS CULTURES Norms about displaying or hiding your true emotions vary considerably across cultures. 37 One major study points to Ethiopia, Japan, and Austria (among others) as cultures that discourage emotional expression. Instead, people are expected to be subdued, have relatively monotonic voice intona- tion, and avoid physical movement and touching that display emotions. In contrast, cultures such as Kuwait, Egypt, Spain, and Russia allow or encour- age more vivid displays of emotions and expect people to act more consis- tently with their true emotions. In these cultures, people are expected to more honestly reveal their thoughts and feelings, be dramatic in their con- versational tones, and be animated in their use of nonverbal behaviors. For example, 81 percent of Ethiopians and 74 percent of Japanese agreed that it is considered unprofessional to express emotions overtly in their culture, whereas 43 percent of Americans, 33 percent of Italians, and only 19 per- cent of Spaniards, Cubans, and Egyptians agreed with this statement. 38 EMOTIONAL DISSONANCE Most jobs expect employees to engage in some level of emotional labor, such as displaying courtesy to unruly passengers or maintaining civility to coworkers. Often, employees are supposed to show emotions that are quite different from the emotions they actually experience at that moment. This incongruence produces an emotional tension called emotional dissonance.

Employees often deal with these discrepancies by engaging in surface acting; they pretend that they feel the expected emotion even though they actually experience a different emotion.

One problem with surface acting is that it can lead to higher stress and burnout. 39 By definition, emotional labor requires effort and attention, which consume personal energy.

Emotional labor also potentially requires people to be something they are not, which can lead to psychological separation from the self. These problems are greater when employees need to frequently display emotions that oppose their genuine emotions. A second problem with surface acting is that it is difficult to pretend to feel a partic- ular set of emotions. A genuine emotion automatically acti- vates a complex set of facial muscles and body positions, all of which are difficult to replicate when pretending to have these emotions. Meanwhile, our true emotions tend to re- veal themselves as subtle gestures, usually without our awareness. More often than not, observers see when we are faking and sense that we feel a different emotion. 40 Employees can somewhat reduce psychological damage caused by surface acting by viewing their act as a natural part Managing emotions is an important part of flight attendant training at the Malaysia Airlines Academy in Kuala Lumpur. Students learn how to smile, make eye contact, and keep their chin up at a level that displays confidence without arrogance. Students receive training in voice enrichment and public speaking. They also learn about personal grooming as well as different formalities of behavior in countries where the airline flies. The academy even has large mirrors on some walls so students constantly see how their facial expressions appear to others. 36 emotional labor The effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. emotional dissonance The psychological tension experienced when the emotions people are required to display are quite different from the emotions they actually experience at that moment. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 100 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 101 of their role. Flight attendants can remain pleasant to unruly passengers more easily when they define themselves by their customer service skill. By adopting this view, their faking is not depri- vation of personal self-worth. Instead, it is demonstration of their skill and professionalism. The dissonant interactions are accomplishments rather than dreaded chores. 41 Another strategy is to engage in deep acting rather than surface acting. 42 Deep acting involves visualizing reality differ- ently, which then produces emotions more consistent with the required emotions. Faced with an angry passenger, a flight attendant might replace hostile emotions with compassion by view- ing the passenger’s behavior as a sign of his or her discomfort or anxiety. Deep acting requires considerable emotional intelligence, which we discuss next. Awareness of own emotions Management of own emotionsAwareness of others’ emotions Yourself Recognition of emotions Abilities Regulation of emotionsOthers Management of others’ emotions EXHIBIT 4.3 Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence Sources: D. Goleman, “An EI-Based Theory of Performance,” in The Emo- tionally Intelligent Workplace, ed.

C. Cherniss and D. Goleman (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001), p. 28; Peter J. Jordan and Sandra A. Lawrence, “Emotional Intelligence in Teams: De- velopment and Initial Validation of the Short Version of the Workgroup Emo- tional Intelligence Profile (WEIP-S),” Journal of Management & Organization 15 (2009): 452–69.

emotional intelligence A set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others. Are you in touch with your emotions? Visit connect.mcgrawhill.

com to assess how well you know your emotional intelligence. Emotional Intelligence Buckman Laboratories International, Inc., pays close attention to the emotional intelligence of its job applicants and employees. The Memphis, Tennessee, chemical company has iden- tified key emotional intelligence competencies of team players, which are then applied to job interviews. “By defining the concrete behaviors that demonstrate emotional intelligence, we can better focus our behavioral interviewing questions,” explains Buckman’s head of human resources. The company also evaluates its leaders on 19 leadership competencies, “many of which are based on the ability of the leader to perceive, influence, and manage the emotions of themselves and others.” 43 Buckman Labs is among the growing flock of companies that consider emotional intelligence (EI) an important skill in effective employees. Emotional intelligence in- cludes a set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others. 44 Although several emotional intelligence dimensions have been proposed over the past decade, the research findings seem to be converging around the four-quadrant model shown in Exhibit 4.3. 45 This model organizes EI into four dimensions representing the mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 101 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 102 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes recognition of emotions in ourselves and in others, as well as the regulation of emotions in ourselves and in others.

• Awareness of own emotions. This is the ability to perceive and understand the mean- ing of your own emotions. You are more sensitive to subtle emotional responses to events and understand their message. Self-aware people are better able to eavesdrop on their own emotional responses to specific situations and to use this awareness as conscious information. 46 • Management of own emotions. Emotional intelligence includes the ability to manage your own emotions, something that we all do to some extent. We keep disruptive impulses in check. We try not to feel angry or frustrated when events go against us.

We try to feel and express joy and happiness toward others when the occasion calls for these emotional displays. We try to create a second wind of motivation later in the workday. Notice that management of your own emotions goes beyond displaying behaviors that represent desired emotions in a particular situation. It includes gener- ating or suppressing emotions. In other words, the deep acting described earlier re- quires high levels of the self-management component of emotional intelligence.

• Awareness of others’ emotions. This dimension refers to the ability to perceive and un- derstand the emotions of other people. To a large extent, awareness of other people’s emotions is represented by empathy—having an understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of others (see Chapter 3). This ability includes understanding the other person’s situation, experiencing his or her emotions, and knowing his or her needs, even though unstated. Awareness of others’ emotions extends beyond empathy to include being organizationally aware, such as sensing office politics and understanding social networks.

• Management of others’ emotions. This dimension of EI involves managing other peo- ple’s emotions. It includes consoling people who feel sad, emotionally inspiring team members to complete a class project on time, getting strangers to feel comfortable working with you, and managing dysfunctional emotions among staff who experi- ence conflict with customers or other employees.

These four dimensions of emotional intelligence form a hierarchy. 47 Awareness of your own emotions is lowest, because you need awareness to engage in the higher levels of emo- tional intelligence. You can’t manage your own emotions if you don’t know what they are (i.e., low self-awareness). Managing other people’s emotions is the highest level of EI, be- cause this ability requires awareness of your own and others’ emotions. To diffuse an angry conflict between two employees, for example, you need to understand the emotions they are experiencing and manage your emotions (and display of emotions). To manage your own emotions, you also need to be aware of your current emotions. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OUTCOMES AND TRAINING Does emotional intelligence make a difference in employee performance and well-being? A few OB experts question the usefulness of the emotional intelligence concept, claiming that there is a lack of agreement on its definition and that existing concepts such as personality and general intelligence can be used instead. 48 However, a consensus is slowly emerging around the meaning of EI, and there is considerable research suggesting that this concept does help us understand what goes on in social relations.

Most jobs involve social interaction with coworkers or external stakeholders, so employ- ees need emotional intelligence to work effectively. 49 Research suggests that people with high EI are better at interpersonal relations, perform better in jobs requiring emotional la- bor, are superior leaders, make better decisions involving social exchanges, are more success- ful in many aspects of job interviews, and are better at organizational learning activities. For example, leaders need substantial emotional intelligence, because their work involves regu- lating their own emotions as part of emotional labor (e.g., showing patience to employees mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 102 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 103 even when they might feel frustrated), as well as regulating the emotions of others (e.g., helping staff members feel optimism for the future even though they just lost an important contract).

However, emotional intelligence does not improve some forms of performance, such as tasks that require minimal social interaction. 50 Given the potential value of emotional intelligence, it’s not surprising that Buckman Labs and other organizations try to measure this competency in job applicants. The United States Air Force (USAF) has a long history of screening applicants on the basis of their emotional intelligence. For instance, EI is one factor considered for entry into the elite para-rescue jumper (PJ) train- ing program, which costs $250,000 per graduate and has an 80 percent failure rate. The USAF’s research showed that trainees who scored highly on several emotional intelligence dimensions were two or more times as likely to complete the PJ program successfully. 52 Several studies also have found that companies can increase employees’ emotional intelligence through training programs de- signed for that purpose. 53 For instance, staff members at a resi- dence for people with intellectual disabilities in the Netherlands completed an EI training program where they learned about the concept, reviewed feedback on their initial EI test scores, applied EI dimensions to case studies, developed two personal goals to improve their EI profile, and later received professional feedback based on videos showing them meeting with difficult clients.

Generally, employees improve their emotional intelligence through awareness of the concept, self-awareness of their EI scores, and coaching and other forms of feedback. Emotional in- telligence also increases with age; it is part of the process called maturity.

So far, this chapter has introduced the model of emotions and attitudes, as well as emo- tional intelligence as the means by which we manage emotions in the workplace. The next two sections look at two specific attitudes: job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

These two attitudes are so important in our understanding of workplace behavior that some experts suggest the two combined should be called “overall job attitude.” 54 Job Satisfaction Probably the most studied attitude in organizational behavior is job satisfaction, a person’s evaluation of his or her job and work context. 55 It is an appraisal of perceived job character- istics, work environment, and emotional experiences at work. Satisfied employees have a favorable evaluation of their jobs, based on their observations and emotional experiences.

Job satisfaction is best viewed as a collection of attitudes about different aspects of the job and work context. You might like your coworkers but be less satisfied with your workload, for instance.

How satisfied are employees at work? The answer depends on the person, the workplace, and the country. Global surveys, such as the one shown in Exhibit 4.4, indicate with some consistency that job satisfaction tends to be highest in Denmark, Norway, and other Nordic countries, as well as in India, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The lowest levels of overall job satisfaction are usually recorded in Hungary and several Asian countries (e.g., Japan, Mainland China). 56 Other surveys report that more than four out of five working Americans are moderately or very satisfied with their jobs, a level that has been consistent for the past three decades. 57 Based on a recent survey of its graduates, the University of South Florida College of Medicine concluded that emotional intelligence training would help its students perform their job better. “We’ve created a lot of doctors that are like House,” says USF medical college Dean Stephen Klasko, referring to the fictional television physician with the caustic interpersonal style. Now, after two years at USF’s medical school, a select group of students spend two years at Lehigh Valley Health Network in Pennsylvania, one of the country’s top hospitals.

Along with its advanced medical training, the Lehigh program includes special coaching and role modeling to help students develop their emotional intelligence. “You have to have an emotionally intelligent, collaborative, interdisciplinary team practicing if you want young trainees to adopt that as their model,” explains the Lehigh CEO, Ronald Swinfard. 51 LO 4-3 job satisfaction A person’s evaluation of his or her job and work context. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 103 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 104 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes Can we conclude from these surveys that employees in Denmark, Norway, India, and the United States are happy at work? Possibly, but not as much as these statistics suggest. One problem is that surveys often use a single direct question, such as “How satisfied are you with your job?” Many dissatisfied employees are reluctant to reveal their feelings in a direct question, because this is tantamount to admitting that they made a poor job choice and are not enjoying life. There is some evidence that overall job satisfaction scores are inflated.

Surveys that report high overall job satisfaction also have found that most employees are dissatisfied with several aspects of their job, including how much they are paid, promotion opportunities, and recognition for work accomplishments. Furthermore, studies report that a large percentage of employees plan to look for work within the next year or would leave their current employer if the right opportunity came along. 59 In summary, employees in the United States, Denmark, India, and other countries have fairly high job satisfaction, but probably not as much as they claim in the overall ratings.

A second problem is that cultural values make it difficult to compare job satisfaction across countries. People in China and Japan tend to express subdued emotions in public, and there is evidence that they also avoid extreme survey ratings such as “very satisfied.” A third problem is that job satisfaction changes with economic conditions. Employees with the highest job satisfaction in current surveys tend to be in countries where the economies are chugging along quite well. 60 0% 10 % 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 90% Japan Hungary China Chile United StatesUnited KingdomNorway Denmark Mexico India 80% Satisfied Very satisfied 40%9% 47%8% 44% 15% 39% 31% 48% 24% 47% 31% 45% 35% 46% 38% 44% 41% 30%4% EXHIBIT 4.4 Job Satisfaction in Selected Countries 58 Note: Percentage of employees in each country who are satisfied or very satisfied in general working for their current employer. Survey data collected in 2012 for Randstad Holdings nv, with a minimum of 400 employees in each country. Visit connect.mcgrawhill.com for activities and test questions to help you learn about the EVLN model and other job satisfaction concepts. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 104 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 105 JOB SATISFACTION AND WORK BEHAVIOR Brad Bird pays a lot of attention to job satisfaction. “In my experience, the thing that has the most significant impact on a budget—but never shows up in a budget—is morale,” ad- vises Bird, who has directed several award-winning animation and live-action films at Pixar Animation Studios and Walt Disney Studios. “If you have low morale, for every dollar you spend, you get 25 cents of value. If you have high morale, for every dollar you spend, you get about $3 dollars of value.” 61 Brad Bird’s opinion about the importance of job satisfaction is consistently reflected in the actions of leaders in many companies. Many companies carefully monitor job satisfaction and related employee attitudes, and they actively compete to win best workplace awards. In some firms, executive bonuses depend partly on employee satisfaction ratings. The reason for this attention is simple: Job satisfaction affects many of the individual behaviors introduced in Chapter 2 (task performance, organizational citizenship, quitting, absenteeism). 62 A useful template for organizing and understanding the consequences of job dissatisfaction is the exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN) model. As the name suggests, the EVLN model identi- fies four ways that employees respond to dissatisfaction: 63 • Exit. Exit includes leaving the organization, transferring to another work unit, or at least trying to get away from the dissatisfying situation. The traditional theory is that job dissatisfaction builds over time and is eventually strong enough to mo- tivate employees to search for better work opportunities elsewhere. This is likely true to some extent, but the most recent opinion is that specific “shock events” quickly energize employees to think about and engage in exit behavior. For exam- ple, the emotional reaction you experience to an unfair management decision or a conflict episode with a coworker motivates you to look at job ads and speak to friends about job opportunities where they work. This begins the process of re- aligning your self-concept more with another company than with your current employer. 64 • Voice. Voice is any attempt to change, rather than escape from, the dissatisfying situ- ation. Voice can be a constructive response, such as recommending ways for manage- ment to improve the situation, or it can be more confrontational, such as filing formal grievances or forming a coalition to oppose a decision. 65 In the extreme, some employees might engage in counterproductive behaviors to get attention and force changes in the organization.

• Loyalty. In the original version of this model, loyalty was not an outcome of dissatisfac- tion. Rather, it determined whether people chose exit or voice (i.e., high loyalty re- sulted in voice; low loyalty produced exit). 66 More recent writers describe loyalty as an outcome, but in various and somewhat unclear ways. Generally, they suggest that “loy- alists” are employees who respond to dissatisfaction by patiently waiting—some say they “suffer in silence”—for the problem to work itself out or be resolved by others. 67 • Neglect. Neglect includes reducing work effort, paying less attention to quality, and increasing absenteeism and lateness. It is generally considered a passive activity that has negative consequences for the organization.

Which of the four EVLN alternatives do employees use? It depends on the person and situation. 68 The individual’s personality, values, and self-concept are important factors. For example, people with a high-conscientiousness personality are less likely to engage in neglect and more likely to engage in voice. Past experience also influences which EVLN action is applied. Employees who were unsuccessful with voice in the past are more likely to engage in exit or neglect when experiencing job dissatisfaction in the future. Another factor is loy- alty, as it was originally intended in the EVLN model. Specifically, employees are more likely to quit when they have low loyalty to the company, and they are more likely to engage in voice when they have high loyalty. Finally, the response to dissatisfaction depends on the situation. Employees are less likely to use the exit option when there are few alternative job exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN) model The four ways, as indicated in the name, that employees respond to job dissatisfaction. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 105 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 106 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes prospects, for example. Dissatisfied employees are more likely to use voice than the other options when they are aware that other employees are dependent on them. 69 JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE Is a happy worker a more productive worker? Most corporate leaders likely think so. Yet for most of the past century, organizational behavior scholars have challenged this “happy worker hypothesis,” concluding that job satisfaction minimally affects job performance.

Today, OB experts are concluding that maybe the popular saying is correct after all; there is a moderately positive relationship between job satisfaction and performance. In other words, workers tend to be more productive to some extent when they have more positive attitudes toward their job and workplace. 70 Why isn’t the job satisfaction–performance relationship even stronger? One reason is that general attitudes (such as job satisfaction) don’t predict specific behaviors very well. As the EVLN model explained, reduced performance (a form of neglect) is only one of four possi- ble responses to dissatisfaction. A second reason is that some employees are tethered to technology or coworkers so much that they have little control over their performance. An assembly line worker, for instance, installs a fixed number of windshields each hour with about the same quality of installation whether he or she is happy or unhappy with the work.

A third consideration is that job performance might cause job satisfaction, rather than vice versa.

71 Higher performers receive more rewards (including recognition) and consequently are more satisfied than low-performing employees who receive fewer rewards. The connec- tion between job satisfaction and performance isn’t stronger because many organizations do not reward good performance very well. JOB SATISFACTION AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION Wegmans Food Markets in Rochester, New York, and HCL Technologies in Noida, India, are on the opposite sides of the planet and in quite different industries, yet they both have the same unusual motto: Employees first, customers second. Why don’t these companies put customers at the top of the stakeholder list? Their rationale is that customer satisfaction is a natural outcome of employee satisfaction. Put differently, it is difficult to keep customers happy if employee morale is low. “We really believe that if you put the employees first, they Fifteen years ago, DaVita Inc.

rebounded from near-bankruptcy with a new name and a more successful way to operate a business. The Denver-based provider of kidney care and dialysis services developed an employee-first culture, in which employees are supported as valued teammates of the corporate “village.” The theory is that happier employees will provide better service to the company’s clients across its 2,000 outpatient centers across the United States. “We decided that if we were to care for our teammates with the same intensity that we cared for our patients, this could be a very unique place,” explains Laura Mildenberger, DaVita’s chief people officer. “The attitude that teammates bring into that clinic affects patients’ quality of care and their quality of life.” 73 mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 106 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 107 really and truly will take better care of the customer than anybody else,” says Container Store chairman and CEO Kip Tindell. 72 These companies are applying the service profit chain model, which proposes that job satisfaction has a positive effect on customer service, which flows on to stockholder financial returns. Exhibit 4.5 diagrams this process. Specifically, workplace practices affect job satis- faction, which influences employee retention, motivation, and behavior. These employee outcomes affect service quality, which then influence customer satisfaction and perceptions of value, customer referrals, and ultimately the company’s profitability and growth. The service profit chain model has considerable research support. However, the benefits of job satisfaction take considerable time to flow through to the organization’s bottom line. 74 Behind the service profit chain model are two key explanations for why satisfied employees tend to produce happier and more loyal customers. 75 One is that employees are usually in a more positive mood when they feel satisfied with their jobs and working conditions. Employ- ees in a good mood more naturally and frequently display friendliness and positive emotions.

When employees have good feelings, their behavior “rubs off ” on most (but not all) customers, so customers feel happier and consequently form a positive evaluation of the service experience (i.e., higher service quality). The effect is also mutual—happy customers make employees happier—which can lead to a virtuous cycle of positive emotions in the service experience.

The second explanation is that satisfied employees are less likely to quit their jobs, so they have better knowledge and skills to serve clients. Lower turnover also enables customers to have the same employees serve them, so there is more consistent service. Some evidence in- dicates that customers build their loyalty to specific employees, not to the organization, so keeping employee turnover low tends to build customer loyalty. JOB SATISFACTION AND BUSINESS ETHICS Before leaving the topic of job satisfaction, we should mention that job satisfaction is also an ethical issue that influences the organization’s reputation in the community. People spend a large portion of their time working in organizations, and many societies now expect companies to provide work environments that are safe and enjoyable. Indeed, employees in several coun- tries closely monitor ratings of the best companies to work for, an indication that employee satisfaction is a virtue worth considerable goodwill to employers. This virtue is apparent when an organization has low job satisfaction. The company tries to hide this fact, and when morale problems become public, corporate leaders are usually quick to improve the situation. service profit chain model A theory explaining how employees’ job satisfaction influences company profitability indirectly through service quality, customer loyalty, and related factors.

Organizational practices Employee satisfaction and commitment Employee motivation and behavior Employee retention Customer satisfaction/ perceived value Service quality Customer loyalty and referrals Company profitability and growth EXHIBIT 4.5 Service Profit Chain Model Source: This model is based on J. I. Heskett, W. E. Sasser, and L. A. Schlesinger, The Service Profit Chain (New York: The Free Press, 1997); A. J. Rucci, S. P. Kirn, and R. T. Quinn, “The Employee-Customer-Profit Chain at Sears,” Harvard Business Review 76 (1998): 83–97; S. P. Brown and S. K. Lam. “A Meta-Analysis of Relationships Linking Employee Satisfaction to Customer Responses,” Journal of Retailing 84, no. 3 (2008): 243–55. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 107 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 108 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes Organizational Commitment Organizational commitment represents the other half (with job satisfaction) of what some experts call “overall job attitude.” Affective organizational commitment is the employee’s emotional attachment to, involvement in, and identification with an organization. Affective commitment is a psychological bond whereby one chooses to be dedicated to and responsible for the organization. 76 We often think of this feeling as employee loyalty, though some ex- perts argue that loyalty and affective commitment have slightly different meanings.

Affective commitment is often distinguished from continuance commitment, which is a calculative attachment to the organization. This calculation takes two forms. 78 One form occurs where an employee has no alternative employment opportunities (e.g., “I dislike working here but there are no other jobs available”). This condition exists where unemployment is high, employees lack sufficient skills to be attractive to other employers, or the employee’s skills are so specialized that there is limited demand for them nearby.

The other form of continuance commitment occurs when leaving the company would be a significant finan- cial sacrifice (e.g., “I hate this place but can’t afford to quit!”). This perceived sacrifice condition occurs when the company offers high pay, benefits, and other forms of economic exchange in the employment relationship, or where quitting forfeits a large deferred financial bonus. Percentage of employees surveyed in selected countries who say they feel “totally committed” to their employer. More than 134,000 people in 29 countries were surveyed for Kelly Services. 25%36%38%39%43%47%52%53%60%65% 65% 0% Hungary Europe averageSingapore Italy Global averageAsia averageIndia Poland Sweden North America averageChina 15% 30% 45% 60% 75% Totally Committed: Affective Commitment Around the Planet 77 How committed are you to your school? Visit connect.mcgrawhill.

com to assess your affective organizational commitment to your school, as well as to assist your learning about organizational commitment. affective organizational commitment An individual’s emotional attachment to, involvement in, and identification with an organization. continuance commitment An individual’s calculative attachment to an organization. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 108 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 109 CONSEQUENCES OF AFFECTIVE AND CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT Affective commitment can be a significant competitive advantage. 79 Employees with a strong psychological bond to the organization are less likely to quit their jobs and be absent from work. They also have higher work motivation and organizational citizenship, as well as somewhat higher job performance. Organizational commitment also improves customer satisfaction because long-tenured employees have better knowledge of work practices and because clients like to do business with the same employees. One warning is that employees with very high loyalty tend to have high conformity, which results in lower creativity. There are also cases of dedicated employees who have violated laws to defend the organization.

However, most companies suffer from too little rather than too much employee loyalty.

In contrast to the benefits of affective commitment, employees with high levels of contin- uance commitment tend to have lower performance and are less likely to engage in organiza- tional citizenship behaviors. Furthermore, unionized employees with high continuance commitment are more likely to use formal grievances, whereas employees with high affective commitment engage in more cooperative problem solving when employee–employer rela- tions sour. 80 Although some level of financial connection may be necessary, employers should not confuse continuance commitment with affective commitment. Employers still need to win employees’ hearts (affective commitment), beyond tying them financially to the organi- zation (continuance commitment). BUILDING ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT There are almost as many ways to build organizational loyalty as there are topics in this textbook, but here are the most frequently mentioned strategies in the literature:

• Justice and support. Affective commitment is higher in organizations that fulfill their obligations to employees and abide by humanitarian values, such as fairness, courtesy, forgiveness, and moral integrity. These values relate to the concept of organizational justice, which we discuss in the next chapter. Similarly, organizations that support employee well-being tend to cultivate higher levels of loyalty in return. 81 • Shared values. The definition of affective commitment refers to a person’s identification with the organization, and that identification is highest when employees believe their values are congruent with the organization’s dominant values. Also, employees experi- ence more comfort and predictability when they agree with the values underlying corpo- rate decisions. This comfort increases their motivation to stay with the organization. 82 • Trust. Trust refers to positive expectations one person has toward another person in situations involving risk. 83 Trust means putting faith in the other person or group. It is also a reciprocal activity: To receive trust, you must demonstrate trust. Employees identify with and feel obliged to work for an organization only when they trust its leaders. This explains why layoffs are one of the greatest blows to affective commitment; by reducing job security, companies reduce the trust employees have in their em- ployer and the employment relationship. 84 • Organizational comprehension. Organizational comprehension refers to how well em- ployees understand the organization, including its strategic direction, social dynam- ics, and physical layout. 85 This awareness is a necessary prerequisite to affective commitment because it is difficult to identify with or feel loyal to something that you don’t know very well. Furthermore, lack of information produces uncertainty, and the resulting stress can distance employees from that source of uncertainty (i.e., the organization). The practical implication here is to ensure that employees develop a reasonably clear and complete mental model of the organization. This occurs by giving staff information and opportunities to keep up to date about organizational events, interact with coworkers, discover what goes on in different parts of the orga- nization, and learn about the organization’s history and future plans. 86 trust Positive expectations one person has toward another person in situations involving risk. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 109 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 110 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes Visit connect.mcgrawhill.com for activities and test questions to help you learn about work-related stress and its management. • Employee involvement. Employee involvement increases affective commitment by strengthening the employee’s psychological ownership and social identity with the organization. 87 Employees feel that they are part of the organization when they par- ticipate in decisions that guide the organization’s future (see Chapter 7). Employee involvement also builds loyalty because granting this power is a demonstration of the company’s trust in its employees.

Organizational commitment and job satisfaction represent two of the most often studied and discussed attitudes in the workplace. Each is linked to emotional episodes and cognitive judgments about the workplace and relationship with the company. Emotions also play an important role in another concept that is on everyone’s mind these days: stress. The final sec- tion of this chapter provides an overview of work-related stress and how it can be managed. LO 4-4 Work-Related Stress and Its Management When asked if they often feel stressed, most employees these days say “Yes!” Not only do they understand the concept; they claim to have plenty of personal experience with it. Stress is most often described as an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being. 88 It is a physiological and psychological condition that prepares us to adapt to hostile or noxious environmental conditions. Our heart rate increases, muscles tighten, breathing speeds up, and perspiration increases. Our body also moves more blood to the brain, releases adrenaline and other hormones, fuels the system by releasing more glucose and fatty acids, activates systems that sharpen our senses, and con- serves resources by shutting down our immune system. One school of thought suggests that stress is a negative evaluation of the external environment. However, critics of this “cognitive appraisal” perspective point out that stress is more accurately described as an emotional ex- perience, which may occur before or after a conscious evaluation of the situation. 89 Whether stress is a complex emotion or a cognitive evaluation of the environment, it has become a pervasive experience in the daily lives of most people. Three out of four Americans (and a similar percentage of people in Germany, Canada, Australia, and the United King- dom) say they frequently or sometimes feel stress in their daily lives. Another recent survey reported that 64 percent of American employees rate their stress as high. More than one-third of adult Canadians report feeling stressed most of the time. And in a survey of 115,000 em- ployees in 33 countries, respondents in Japan reported the most stress-related health com- plaints, followed by Canada, the Ukraine, Finland, Hong Kong, and Hungary. 90 Stress is typically described as a negative experience. This is known as distress—the degree of physiological, psychological, and behavioral deviation from healthy functioning. How- ever, some level of stress—called eustress—is a necessary part of life because it activates and motivates people to achieve goals, change their environments, and succeed in life’s chal- lenges. For example, more than two-thirds of 42,000 American employees polled report that on-the-job stress either energizes them or has no effect. 91 Our focus is on the causes and management of distress, because it has become a chronic problem in many societies. GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME The word stress was first used more than 500 years ago to describe the human response to harsh environmental conditions. However, it wasn’t until the 1930s that researcher Hans Selye (often described as the father of stress research) first documented the stress experience, called the general adaptation syndrome. Selye determined (initially by studying rats) that stress An adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 110 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 111 How stressed are you? Visit connect.mcgrawhill.com to assess your perceived general level of stress. people have a fairly consistent and automatic physiological response to stressful situations, which helps them cope with environmental demands. 92 The general adaptation syndrome consists of the three stages shown in Exhibit 4.6. The alarm reaction stage occurs when a threat or challenge activates the physiological stress re- sponses that were noted above. The individual’s energy level and coping effectiveness de- crease in response to the initial shock. The second stage, resistance, activates various biochemical, psychological, and behavioral mechanisms that give the individual more en- ergy and engage coping mechanisms to overcome or remove the source of stress. To focus energy on the source of the stress, the body reduces resources to the immune system during this stage. This explains why people are more likely to catch a cold or some other illness when they experience prolonged stress. People have a limited resistance capacity, and if the source of stress persists, the individual will eventually move into the third stage, exhaustion.

Most of us are able to remove the source of stress or remove ourselves from that source before becoming too exhausted. However, people who frequently reach exhaustion have increased risk of long-term physiological and psychological damage. 93 Ability to copeNormal state Stage 1 Alarm reactionStage 2 ResistanceStage 3 Exhaustion Time High Low EXHIBIT 4.6 General Adaptation Syndrome Source: Adapted from H. Selye, The Stress of Life (New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1956). CONSEQUENCES OF DISTRESS Stress takes its toll on the human body. 94 Many people experience tension headaches, muscle pain, and related problems mainly due to muscle contractions from the stress response. Studies have found that high stress levels also contribute to cardiovascular disease, including heart at- tacks and strokes, and may be associated with some forms of cancer. Stress also produces vari- ous psychological consequences, such as job dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, and lower organizational commitment. Furthermore, various behavioral outcomes have been linked to high or persistent stress, including lower job performance, poor decision making, and in- creased workplace accidents and aggressive behavior. Most people react to stress through “fight or flight,” so increased absenteeism is another outcome, because it is a form of flight. 95 A particular stress consequence, called job burnout, occurs when people experience emo- tional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced feelings of personal accomplishment. 96 Emotional exhaustion, the first stage, is characterized by a lack of energy, tiredness, and a feeling that one’s emotional resources are depleted. This is followed by cynicism (also called depersonal- ization), which is an indifferent attitude toward work, emotional detachment from clients, a cynical view of the organization, and a tendency to strictly follow rules and regulations general adaptation syndrome A model of the stress experience, consisting of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 111 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 112 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes rather than adapt to the needs of others. The final stage of burnout, called reduced personal accomplishment, entails feelings of diminished confidence in one’s ability to perform the job well. In such situations, employees develop a sense of learned helplessness, because they no longer believe that their efforts make a difference.

STRESSORS: THE CAUSES OF STRESS Before identifying ways to manage work-related stress, we must first understand its causes, known as stressors. Stressors include any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on a person. 97 There are numerous stressors in the workplace and in life in general. In this section, we’ll highlight three of the most common work-related stressors:

harassment and incivility, workload, and lack of task control. Harassment and Incivility One of the fastest-growing sources of workplace stress is psychological harassment. Psychological harassment includes repeated hostile or un- wanted conduct, verbal comments, actions, and gestures that undermine an employee’s dig- nity or psychological or physical integrity. This covers a broad landscape of behaviors, from threats and bullying to subtle yet persistent forms of incivility. 98 Psychological harassment pervades many workplaces. One recent global survey of 16,517 employees reported that 83 percent of Europeans, 65 percent of Americans, and 55 percent of people in Asia have been physically or emotionally bullied. More than two-thirds of teachers in the United Kingdom say they have experienced or witnessed workplace bullying within the past 12 months. The government of Quebec, Canada, which passed the first workplace anti-harassment legislation in North America, received more than 2,500 com- plaints in the first year alone! Labor bureaus in Japan received more than 32,000 complaints of harassment in a recent year, a fivefold increase from six years earlier. 99 Sexual harassment is a type of harassment in which a person’s employment or job perfor- mance is conditional and depends on unwanted sexual relations (called quid pro quo harass- ment) and/or the person experiences sexual conduct from others (such as posting pornographic material) that unreasonably interferes with work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment (called hostile work environment harassment). 100 Work Overload University of Michigan professor Dave Ulrich recalls visiting IBM’s headquarters in Armonk, New York, three decades ago to deliver executive programs. Almost everyone, including professional and management staff members, worked 35–45 hours per week. The offices were vacant by 5:30 p.m. Back then, IBM employees took sick leave whenever they experienced health problems. They also took real vacations of up to five weeks, with no cell phones, computers, or other electronics to keep them tethered to the job. Those days are long gone, says Ulrich. “Today the employees in that same building work 60 to 80 hours per week, keep on working through most health problems, and take almost no real vacation.” 101 IBM isn’t the only company where employees work long hours and seldom take vaca- tions. Surveys by the Families and Work Institute report that 44 percent of Americans say they are overworked, up from 28 percent who felt this way a few years earlier. In addition, 40 percent of Americans say they haven’t had a real vaca- tion within the previous two years (where vacation con- sists of leisure travel for a week or more to a destination at least 100 miles from home). 102 Global Connections 4.1 describes how overwork has also become a serious matter in China.

Why do employees work such long hours? One explana- tion is the combined effects of technology and globalization.

People increasingly work with coworkers in distant time zones, and their constantly-on communications habits make stressors Environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on the person. psychological harassmentRepeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions, or gestures that affect an employee’s dignity or psychological or physical integrity and that result in a harmful work environment for the employee. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 112 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 113 it difficult to separate work from personal life. A second factor is that many people are caught up in consumerism; they want to buy more goods and services, and doing so requires more income through longer work hours. A third reason, called the “ideal worker norm,” is that professionals expect themselves and others to work longer work hours. For many, toiling away far beyond the normal workweek is a badge of honor, a symbol of their superhuman capacity to perform above others. 104 Low Task Control One of the most important findings emerging from stress research is that employees are more stressed when they lack control over how and when they perform their tasks, as well as lack control over the pace of work activity. Work is potentially more stressful when it is paced by a machine, involves monitoring equipment, or the work schedule is controlled by someone else. Low task control is a stressor because employees face high workloads without the ability to adjust the pace of the load to their own energy, attention span, and other resources. Furthermore, the degree to which low task control is a stressor in- creases with the burden of responsibility the employee must carry. 105 Assembly-line workers have low task control, but their stress can be fairly low if their level of responsibility is also low. In contrast, sports coaches are under immense pressure to win games (high responsibil- ity), yet they have little control over what happens on the playing field (low task control). Working to Death in China 103 Wang Jijiang has been working non-stop for 36 hours, and the marathon is taking its toll. “My brain doesn’t seem to be work- ing,” says the 25-year-old media planner in Shanghai. “I don’t have time to take a nap. Actually, I don’t even have the energy to think if I’m tired or not.” Wang does not receive overtime pay, yet most days she has to work 10 or 12 hours to com- plete her tasks. The workday extends well past midnight during the company’s busy year-end period.

Stress seems to be on the rise in China due to increasing workloads and hours of work. More than 30 percent of em- ployees in one recent poll said they worked more than 10 hours every day over the previous six months. Another survey reported that 70 percent of white collar workers in downtown Beijing show signs of overwork. A global survey recently re- ported that employees in China are much more likely than em- ployees in any other country to think their time at work (away from personal life) has increased over the past two years.

Overwork and its consequences have been well known for several decades in Japan, where the word karoshi means “death from overwork.” In China, working to death (called guolaosi) also seems to be a serious concern. Although difficult to calcu- late, one prominent newspaper estimates that guolaosi claims the lives of 600,000 people in China each year. For example, an engineer at Foxconn’s Shenzhen factory died suddenly after working nonstop for 34 hours during a month of extended night shifts. A dozen other employees at the factory took their own lives around that time, many apparently due to overwork and the impersonal conditions. An employee at Web game op- erator 17173.com in Fuzhou City died of viral myocarditis due to overwork. A junior auditor in the Shanghai office of Price-waterhouseCoopers (PwC) died of cerebral meningitis, which many believe was caused by overwork. PwC says the employee was on sick leave at the time of her death, but her microblog included many messages posted from work after midnight complaining of her ailment and overwork (including “overtime again” and “I’d die for sleep”).

“Those accounting firms used to be my ideal work destina- tions and I had dreamed of working there since I was a fresh student in university,” says Kong Ranran, an accounting student at Peking University in Beijing. However, Kong’s opinion changed after a recent three-month internship at Pricewater- houseCoopers. “I saw the tough situation behind the halo and it was definitely not appealing,” she says. “The work hours are endless and it is impossible to squeeze any time for leisure or anything else.” Kong now prefers a government job where she thinks there is some work–life balance. global connections 4.1 mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 113 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 114 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes LO 4-5 workaholic A person who is highly involved in work, feels compelled to work, and has a low enjoyment of work. Are you a workaholic? Visit connect.mcgrawhill.com to assess yourself on this stress-related personal characteristic. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN STRESS People experience different stress levels when exposed to the same stressor. One factor is the employee’s physical health. Regular exercise and a healthy lifestyle produce a larger store of energy to cope with stress. A second individual difference is the coping strategies employees use to ward off a particular stressor. 106 People sometimes figure out ways to remove the stressor or minimize its presence. Seeking support from others, reframing the stressor in a more posi- tive light, blaming others for the stressor, and denying the stressor’s existence are some other coping mechanisms. Some coping strategies work better for certain stressors, and some are better across all stressors. 107 Thus, someone who uses a less effective coping mechanism in a particular situation would experience more stress in response to that situation. People have a tendency to rely on one or two coping strategies and those who rely on generally poor coping strategies (such as denying the stressor exists) are going to experience more stress.

Personality is the third and possibly the most important reason people experience differ- ent levels of stress when faced with the same stressor. 108 Individuals with low neuroticism (high emotional stability) usually experience lower stress levels because, by definition, they are less prone to anxiety, depression, and other negative emotions. Extraverts also tend to experience lower stress than do introverts, likely because extraversion includes a degree of positive thinking and extraverts interact with others, which helps buffer the effect of stress- ors. People with a positive self-concept—high self-esteem, self-efficacy, and internal locus of control (see Chapter 3)—feel more confident and in control when faced with a stressor. In other words, they tend to have a stronger sense of optimism. 109 While positive self-concept protects us from stress, workaholism attracts more stressors and weakens the capacity to cope with them. The classic workaholic (also called work addict) is highly involved in work, feels compelled or driven to work because of inner pressures, and has a low enjoyment of work. Workaholics are compulsive and preoccupied with work, often to the exclusion and detriment of personal health, intimate relationships, and family. 110 MANAGING WORK-RELATED STRESS Many people deny the existence of their stress until it has more serious outcomes. This avoidance strategy creates a vicious cycle because the failure to cope with stress becomes another stressor on top of the one that created the stress in the first place. To prevent this vicious cycle, employers and employees need to apply one or more of the stress management strategies described next: remove the stressor, withdraw from the stressor, change stress per- ceptions, control stress consequences, and receive social support. 111 Remove the Stressor There are many ways to remove the stressor, but some of the more common actions involve assigning employees to jobs that match their skills and pref- erences, reducing excessive workplace noise, having a complaint system, taking corrective action against harassment, and giving employees more control over the work process. An- other important way that companies can remove stressors is by facilitating better work–life balance. Work–life balance initiatives minimize conflict between the employee’s work and nonwork demands. Five of the most common work–life balance initiatives are flexible and limited work time, job sharing, telecommuting, personal leave, and child care support. 112 • Flexible and limited work time. An important way to improve work–life balance is lim- iting the number of hours that employees are expected to work and giving them flexi- bility in scheduling those hours. For example, San Jorge Children’s Hospital offers a mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 114 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles Chapter Four Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress 115 unique form of work flexibility that has dramatically reduced turnover and stress. The Puerto Rican medical center introduced a “ten-month work program” in which em- ployees can take summer months off to care for their children while out of school. 113 • Job sharing. Job sharing splits a career position between two people so that they expe- rience less time-based stress between work and family. They typically work different parts of the week, with some overlapping work time in the weekly schedule to coor- dinate activities. This strategy gives employees the ability to work part-time in jobs that are naturally designed for full-time responsibilities.

• Telecommuting. Telecommuting (also called teleworking) involves working from home or a site close to home rather than commuting a longer distance to the office every day (see Chapter 1). By reducing or eliminating commuting time, employees can more easily fulfill family obligations, such as temporarily leaving the home office to pick the kids up from school. Consequently, telecommuters tend to experience better work–life balance. 114 However, teleworking may increase stress for those who crave social interaction and who lack the space and privacy necessary to work at home.

• Personal leave. Employers with strong work–life values offer extended maternity, pa- ternity, and personal leave for employees to care for a new family or take advantage of a personal experience. Most countries provide 12 to 16 weeks of paid leave, with some offering one year or more of fully or partially paid maternity leave. 115 • Child care support. According to one estimate, almost one-quarter of large American employers provide on-site or subsidized child care facilities. Child care support re- duces stress because employees are less rushed to drop off children and less worried during the day about how well their children are doing. 116 Withdraw from the Stressor Removing the stressor may be the ideal solution, but it is often not feasible. An alternative strategy is to permanently or temporarily remove employees from the stressor. Permanent withdrawal occurs when employees are transferred to jobs that are more compatible with their competencies and values. Temporarily withdrawing from stressors is the most frequent way that employees manage stress. Vacations and holidays are important opportunities for employees to recover from stress and re-energize for future challenges. A small number of companies offer paid or unpaid sabbaticals. 118 Many firms also provide innovative ways for employees to withdraw from stressful work throughout the day, such as game rooms, ice cream cart breaks, nap rooms, and cafeterias that include live piano recitals. Change Stress Perceptions Earlier, we said that employees experience different stress levels because they have different levels of positive self-evaluation and optimism. Consequently, another way to manage stress is to help employees improve their self-concept so that job chal- lenges are not perceived as threatening. Personal goal setting and self-reinforcement can also No company is completely free of negative stress (distress), but SAS Institute might come close. The Cary, North Carolina, analytics software company prides itself on having a family- friendly culture, with a strong emphasis on work–life balance throughout its worldwide sites. SAS’s offices in Oslo, Norway, for example, offer yoga and meditation classes during working hours, a large games room, dry cleaning and meals delivered to their home, flexible work hours, and paid leave to care for children and elderly parents. “We have determined that it pays for SAS to be generous in this way” says Hilde Sundt-Hansen, SAS’s HR Director in Norway. “We want SAS Institute to be a good place to work, where we encourage a balance between work and private life.” 117 mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 115 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 116 Part Two Individual Behavior and Processes chapter summary 4-1 Explain how emotions and cognition (conscious rea- soning) influence attitudes and behavior.

Emotions are physiological, behavioral, and psychological epi- sodes experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness. Emotions differ from attitudes, which rep- resent a cluster of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event. Beliefs are a person’s estab- lished perceptions about the attitude object. Feelings are posi- tive or negative evaluations of the attitude object. Behavioral intentions represent a motivation to engage in a particular be- havior toward the target.

Attitudes have traditionally been described as a purely rational process in which beliefs predict feelings, which predict behavioral intentions, which predict behavior. We now know that emotions have an influence on behavior that is equal to or greater than that of cognition. This dual process is apparent when we internally ex- perience a conflict between what logically seems good or bad and what we emotionally feel is good or bad in a situation. Emotions also affect behavior directly. Behavior sometimes influences our subsequent attitudes through cognitive dissonance. 4-2 Discuss the dynamics of emotional labor and the role of emotional intelligence in the workplace.

Emotional labor consists of the effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during in- terpersonal transactions. It is more common in jobs requiring a variety of emotions and more intense emotions, as well as in jobs in which interactions with clients are frequent and long in dura- tion. Cultures also differ on the norms of displaying or conceal- ing a person’s true emotions. Emotional dissonance is the psychological tension experienced when the emotions people are How do you cope with stressful situations? Visit connect.

mcgrawhill.com to identify the type of coping strategy you prefer to use in stressful situations. Receive Social Support Social support occurs when coworkers, supervisors, family members, friends, and others provide emotional and/or informational support to buffer an individual’s stress experience. For instance, one recent study found that employees whose managers were good at empathizing experienced fewer stress symptoms than did employees whose managers were less empathetic. Social support potentially (but not always) improves the person’s optimism and self-confidence because support makes people feel valued and worthy. Social support also provides information to help the person interpret, comprehend, and possibly remove the stressor. For instance, to reduce a new employee’s stress, coworkers could describe ways to handle difficult customers. Seeking social support is called a “tend and befriend” response to stress, and research suggests that women often follow this route rather than the “fight-or-flight” response mentioned earlier. 122 reduce the stress that people experience when they enter new work settings. Research also suggests that some (but not all) forms of humor can improve optimism and create positive emotions by taking some psychological weight off the situation. 119 Control Stress Consequences Regular exercise and maintaining a healthy lifestyle is an effective stress management strategy because it controls stress consequences. Research indi- cates that physical exercise reduces the physiological consequences of stress by helping employ- ees moderate their breathing and heart rate, muscle tension, and stomach acidity. 120 Many companies offer Pilates, yoga, and other exercise and meditation classes during the workday.

Research indicates that various forms of meditation reduce anxiety, reduce blood pressure and muscle tension, and moderate breathing and heart rate. 121 Wellness programs can also help control the consequences of stress. These programs inform employees about better nutrition and fitness, regular sleep, and other good health habits. Many large employers offer employee assistance programs (EAPs)—counseling services that help employees resolve marital, financial, or work-related troubles, but some counseling also varies with the industry. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 116 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 117 CASE STUDY: ROUGH SEAS ON THE LINK650 Professor Suzanne Baxter was preparing for her first class of the semester when Shaun O’Neill knocked lightly on the open door and announced himself: “Hi, Professor, I don’t suppose you remember me?” Professor Baxter had large classes, but she did remember that Shaun was a student in her organizational behavior class a few years ago. Shaun had decided to work in the oil industry for a couple of years be- fore returning to school to complete his diploma.

“Welcome back!” Baxter said as she beckoned him into the office. “I heard you were working on an oil rig in the United Kingdom. How was it?” “Well, Professor,” Shaun began, “I had worked two sum- mers in the Texan oil fields and my family’s from Ireland, so I hoped to get a job on the LINK650. It’s that new WestOil drilling rig that arrived with so much fanfare in the North Sea fields a few years ago. The LINK650 was built by LINK, Inc.

in Texas. A standard practice in this industry is for the rig man- ufacturer to manage its day-to-day operations, so employees on the LINK650 are managed completely by LINK managers with no involvement from WestOil. We all know that drilling rig jobs are dangerous, but they pay well and offer generous time off. A local newspaper there said that nearly 1,000 people lined up to complete job applications for the 50 nontechnical positions. I was lucky enough to get one of those jobs.

“Everyone hired on the LINK650 was enthusiastic and proud. We were one of the chosen few and were really pumped up about working on a new rig that had received so much media attention. I was quite impressed with the recruiters—so were several other hires—because they really seemed to be concerned about our welfare out on the plat- form. I later discovered that the recruiters came from a con- sulting firm that specializes in hiring people. Come to think of it, we didn’t meet a single LINK manager during that pro- cess. Maybe things would have been different if some of those LINK supervisors had interviewed us.

“Working on LINK650 was a real shock, even though most of us had some experience working in the oil fields. I’d say that none of the 50 nontechnical people hired was quite affective organizational commitment, p. 108 attitudes, p. 95 cognitive dissonance, p. 99 continuance commitment, p. 108 emotional dissonance, p. 100 emotional intelligence (EI), p. 101emotional labor, p. 100 emotions, p. 94 exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN) model, p. 105 general adaptation syndrome, p. 110 job satisfaction, p. 103psychological harassment, p. 112 service profit chain model, p. 107 stress, p. 110 stressors, p. 112 trust, p. 109 workaholic, p. 114 key terms required to display are quite different from the emotions they actually experience at that moment. Deep acting can minimize this dissonance, as can the practice of hiring people with a natu- ral tendency to display desired emotions.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others. This concept includes four components arranged in a hierarchy:

self-awareness, self-management, awareness of others’ emotions, and management of others’ emotions. Emotional intelligence can be learned to some extent, particularly through personal coaching.

4-3 Summarize the consequences of job dissatisfaction, as well as strategies to increase organizational (affective) commitment.

Job satisfaction represents a person’s evaluation of his or her job and work context. Four types of job dissatisfaction consequences are quitting or otherwise getting away from the dissatisfying sit- uation (exit), attempting to change the dissatisfying situation (voice), patiently waiting for the problem to sort itself out (loy- alty), and reducing work effort and performance (neglect). Job satisfaction has a moderate relationship with job performance and with customer satisfaction. Affective organizational com-mitment (loyalty) is the employee’s emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in a particular organiza- tion. This form contrasts with continuance commitment, which is a calculative bond with the organization. Companies build loyalty through justice and support, shared values, trust, organi- zational comprehension, and employee involvement. 4-4 Describe the stress experience and review three major stressors.

Stress is an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to a person’s well-being. The stress experience, called the general adaptation syndrome, involves moving through three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Stressors are the causes of stress and include any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on a per- son. Three stressors that have received considerable attention are harassment and incivility, work overload, and low task control. 4-5 Identify five ways to manage workplace stress.

Many interventions are available to manage work-related stress, including removing the stressor, withdrawing from the stressor, changing stress perceptions, controlling stress consequences, and receiving social support. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 117 22/11/13 7:32 PM f-500 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 118 CLASS EXERCISE: STRENGTHS-BASED COACHING PURPOSE To help students practice a form of interpersonal development built on the dynamics of positive emotions.

MATERIALS None.

BACKGROUND Several chapters in this book introduce and apply the emerging philosophy of positive organizational behavior, which suggests that focusing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational suc- cess and individual well-being. An application of positive OB is strengths-based or appreciative coaching, in which the coach focuses on the person’s strengths rather than weaknesses and helps realize the person’s potential. As part of any coach- ing process, the coach listens to the employee’s story and uses questions and suggestions to help that person redefine her or his self-concept and perceptions of the environment. Two important skills in effective coaching are active listening and probing for information (rather than telling the person a solu- tion or direction). The instructions below identify specific in- formation and issues that the coach and coachee will discuss.

INSTRUCTIONS Step 1: Form teams of four people. One team can have six people if the class does not have multiples of four. For odd-numbered class sizes, one person may be an observer.

Divide into pairs in which one person is coach and the other is the coachee. Ideally for this exercise, the coach and coachee should have little knowledge of each other.

Step 2: Coachees will describe something about themselves in which they excel and for which they like to be recognized.

This competency might be work-related, but not necessarily.

It would be a personal achievement or ability that is close to prepared for the brutal jobs on the oil rig. We did the dirtiest jobs in the biting cold winds of the North Sea. Still, during the first few months most of us wanted to show the company that we were dedicated to getting the job done. A couple of the new hires quit within a few weeks, but most of the people hired with me really got along well—you know, just like the ideas you mentioned in class. We formed a special bond that helped us through the bad weather and grueling work.

“The LINK650 supervisors were another matter. They were mean taskmasters who had worked for many years on oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico or North Sea. They seemed to relish the idea of treating their employees the same way they had been treated before becoming managers. We put up with their abuse for the first few months, but things got worse when the LINK650 was shut down twice to correct mechanical problems. These setbacks embarrassed LINK’s management and they put more pressure on the supervisors to get us back on schedule.

“The supervisors started to ignore equipment problems and pushed us to get jobs done more quickly without regard to safety procedures. They routinely shouted obscenities at em- ployees in front of others. A couple of my work mates were fired and a couple of others quit their jobs. I almost lost my job one day just because my boss thought I was deliberately work- ing slowly. He didn’t realize—or care—that the fittings I was connecting were damaged. Several people started finding ways to avoid the supervisors and get as little work done as possible.

Many of my coworkers developed back problems. We jokingly called it the ‘rigger’s backache’ because some employees faked their ailment to leave the rig with paid sick leave.

“Along with having lousy supervisors, we were always kept in the dark about the problems on the rig. Supervisors said that they didn’t know anything, which was partly true, but they said we shouldn’t be so interested in things that didn’t concern us. But the rig’s problems, as well as its future con- tract work, were a major concern to crew members who weren’t ready to quit. Their job security depended on the rig’s production levels and whether WestOil would sign contracts to drill new holes. Given the rig’s problems, most of us were concerned that we would be laid off at any time.

“Everything came to a head when Bob MacKenzie was killed because someone secured a hoist improperly. Not sure if it was mentioned in the papers here, but it was big news around this time last year. A government inquiry concluded that the person responsible wasn’t properly trained and that employees were be- ing pushed to finish jobs without safety precautions. Anyway, while the inquiry was going on, several employees decided to unionize the rig. It wasn’t long before most employees on LINK650 had signed union cards. That really shocked LINK’s management and the entire oil industry because it was, I think, just the second time that a rig had ever been unionized there.

“Since then, management has been doing everything in its power to get rid of the union. It sent a ‘safety officer’ to the rig, although we eventually realized that he was a consultant the company hired to undermine union support. Several managers were sent to special seminars on how to manage a unionized work force, although one of the topics was how to break the union.

“So you see, Professor, I joined LINK as an enthusiastic employee and quit last month with no desire to lift a finger for them. It really bothers me, because I was always told to do your best, no matter how tough the situation. It’s been quite an experience.” Discussion Questions 1. Identify the various ways that employees expressed their job dissatisfaction on the LINK650.

2. Shaun O’Neill’s commitment to the LINK organization dwindled over his two years of employment. Discuss the factors that affected his organizational commitment. Source: © Copyright. Steven L. McShane. This case is based on actual events, though names and some information have been changed. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 118 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 119 TEAM EXERCISE: RANKING JOBS ON THEIR EMOTIONAL LABOR their self-concept (how they define themselves). The coach mostly listens but also prompts more details from the coachee using “probe” questions (e.g., “Tell me more about that,” “What did you do next?” “Could you explain that further, please?” “What else can you remember about that event?”). As the coachee’s story develops, the coach will guide the coachee to identify ways to leverage this strength. For example, the pair would explore situational barriers to practicing the coachee’s strength, as well as aspects of this strength that re- quire further development. The strength may also be dis- cussed as a foundation for the coachee to develop strengths in other, related ways. The session should end with some discus- sion of the coachee’s goals and action plans. The first coaching session can be any length of time specified by the instructor, but 15 to 25 minutes is typical for each coaching session.

PURPOSE This exercise is designed to help you under- stand the jobs in which people tend to experience higher or lower degrees of emotional labor.

INSTRUCTIONS Step 1: Individually rank-order the extent that the jobs listed below require emotional labor. In other words, assign a “1” to the job you believe requires the most effort, planning, and control to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. Assign a “10” to the job you believe requires the least amount of emotional labor.

Mark your rankings in column 1.Step 3: After completing the first coaching session, regroup so that each pair consists of different partners than those in the first pair (i.e., if pairs were A–B and C–D in session 1, pairs are A–C and B–D in session 2). The coaches become coachees to their new partners in session 2.

Step 4: The class will debrief regarding the emotional experi- ence of discussing personal strengths, the role of self-concept in emotions and attitudes, the role of managers and coworkers in building positive emotions in people, and the value and limitations of strengths-based coaching. Note: For further information about strengths-based coaching, see Sara L.

Orem, Jacqueline Binkert, and Ann L. Clancy, Appreciative Coaching (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007); Marcus Buckingham and C. Coffman, First, Break All the Rules (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999).

Step 2: The instructor will form teams of four or five mem- bers, and each team will rank-order the items on the basis of consensus (not simply averaging the individual rankings).

These results are placed in column 2.

Step 3: The instructor will provide expert ranking informa- tion. This information should be written in column 3. Then, students calculate the differences in columns 4 and 5.

Step 4: The class will compare the results and discuss the features of jobs with high emotional labor. Occupational Emotional Labor Scoring Sheet (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) INDIVIDUAL TEAM EXPERT ABSOLUTE ABSOLUTE OCCUPATION RANKING RANKING RANKING DIFFERENCE OF 1 AND 3 DIFFERENCE OF 2 AND 3 Bartender Cashier Dental hygienist Insurance adjuster Lawyer Librarian Postal clerk Registered nurse Social worker Television announcer TOTAL Your score Team score (The lower the score, the better.) mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 119 11/11/13 10:00 PM user-f-w-198 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles 120 SELF-ASSESSMENT ARE YOU IN TOUCH WITH YOUR EMOTIONS?

PURPOSE This self-assessment is designed to help you un- derstand the meaning and dimensions of emotional intelli- gence and to estimate your perceptions of your emotional intelligence. OVERVIEW Emotional intelligence has become an im- portant concept and ability in the workplace. It is a skill that people develop throughout their lives to help them interact better with others, make better decisions, and manage the attitudes and behavior of other people. Although emotional intelligence is best measured as an ability test, this scale offers you an opportunity to estimate your perceptions and self-awareness of this ability in yourself. INSTRUCTIONS Read each of the statements below and select the response that best describes you. Then, use the scoring key in Appendix B of this book to calculate your results. This self-assessment is completed alone so that students rate them- selves honestly without concerns of social comparison. How- ever, class discussion will focus on the meaning and dimensions of emotional intelligence, its application in the workplace, and the best ways to measure emotional intelligence. Emotional Intelligence Self-Assessment TO WHAT EXTENT DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE STRONGLY MODERATELY SLIGHTLY SLIGHTLY MODERATELY STRONGLY WITH EACH OF THESE STATEMENTS? AGREE AGREE AGREE DISAGREE DISAGREE DISAGREE (continued) 1. I tend to describe my emotions accurately.

2. I show respect for others’ opinions, even when I think those opinions are wrong.

3. I know how others are feeling, even when they try to hide their feelings.

4. I am good at getting people enthusiastic and motivated.

5. When I get worried or angry, I have difficulty suppressing those emotions such that others do not notice them.

6. I have a talent for gauging from their body language a person’s true feelings.

7. I usually know when I am feeling frustrated. 8. I tend to have difficulty getting people in the right emotional frame of mind.

9. I am very much aware of my own emotions.

10. I am able to understand all sides of a disagreement before forming an opinion.

11. I can easily cheer people up when they are feeling discouraged or sad.

12. I am sometimes unaware when I get emotional about an issue.

13. I can tell when others do not mean what they say.

14. I am good at controlling my own emotions when the situation requires such control. mcs62589_ch04_092-121.indd Page 120 22/11/13 7:33 PM f-500 /204/MH02010/mcs62589_disk1of1/0077862589/mcs62589_pagefiles