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12 The Mass Media Associated Press/Pablo Martinez Monsivais Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should be able to• Describe the evolution of the media in American politics.

• Outline the role of the media in political campaigns.

• Demonstrate how the media monitors and influences government.

• Examine the role of the Internet as a contemporary media source.

• Analyze media bias and the role of the media in shaping public opinion. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 281 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.1 The Evolution of the Media in American Politics On August 9, 2014, Michael Brown, an unarmed 18-year-old Black teenager and recent high school graduate, was shot and killed by police officer Darren Wilson in Ferguson, Missouri.

Brown was shot at least six times, including two shots to the head, one of which resulted in Brown’s death. On November 24, the St. Louis County prosecutor announced that Wilson would not be indicted by a grand jury. Demonstrations and protests erupted after both the police shooting and the grand jury’s decision.

The media was criticized for its coverage of these events and for inadvertently fueling the subsequent violence because of how it portrayed the Ferguson story. Some television stations presented the public’s response as consisting solely of riots and excessive property damage; other media outlets indicated that the crowds were protesting corruption in the Ferguson police department. Many argue that the media shaped the events in Ferguson by influencing how the public both outside and inside Ferguson responded to the protests. In essence, crit- ics suggest that how the media framed the issue shaped public perception of the events that unfolded in August and later in November.

For example, several major news outlets, including the New York Times, printed only Officer Wilson’s account of the events the next day and did not report the story from any other van - tage point. The New York Times reported St. Louis Police Chief Jon Belmar’s statements from a news conference that indicated that Brown had been shot and killed after he and another man had assaulted Wilson and that Brown and Wilson had struggled inside a patrol car. At least one shot was fired from inside the car, the police chief claimed. This report placed the blame for the event solely on Michael Brown and his accomplice.

Questions later emerged as to who had begun the altercation in the vehicle, whether the first shot had been fired inside or outside the car, and how far away Officer Wilson had been when he had shot the remaining bullets. Critics of the reporting also questioned why the New York Times did not ask what would motivate a recent high school graduate to assault a police offi - cer as well as why Officer Wilson would leave his patrol car. In essence, the New York Times and other media outlets were criticized for not investigating whether there was another side to the story. It was not for another two days, amid protest and criticism, that the New York Times and other well-known and highly used media outlets reported something other than the police department’s version of events. Critics suggest that the way the events were han - dled by the police, along with the media reporting, provoked the protests and riots.

The mass media plays many roles and serves multiple functions in American politics. Some say that it is the “fourth branch” of government, which means that it checks the other branches, while others suggest that the mass media shapes the relationship between the public and government. Protecting the public, filtering information, and setting the public’s agenda as to what government should do round out the roles of the media. This chapter will include a dis - cussion of how media has evolved in American politics, focusing on its functions of reporting the news and serving as a vehicle for campaign advertising. Finally, this chapter will address concerns about media bias. The chapter will be framed within the context of how technology has influenced the emergence of the mass media.

12.1 The Evolution of the Media in American Politics The notion that the media is an effective mechanism for informing the public about and influ - encing the public’s relationship with government is not a new one. During the French and fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 282 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.1 The Evolution of the Media in American Politics Indian War (also called the Seven Years’ War), which took place between 1754 and 1763, a political cartoon composed by Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) and published in the Pennsyl- vania Gazette on May 9, 1754 depicted the colonists’ lack of unity. The cartoon, titled “Join, or Die,” represents a snake cut into eight parts with each part representing most of the 13 colo - nies, as either individual colonies or regions. The cartoon was published to accompany Frank - lin’s editorial about the fractured experience of the colonies, which contributed to colonists’ collective struggles and desire to support Great Britain in winning the French and Indian War.

The cartoon later came to be seen as a call for independence and a symbol of the colonists’ pursuit of freedom during the American Revolutionary War.

Soon after the French and Indian War, the British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act in 1765 to raise rev - enue to pay for the costs of the war.

Requiring a stamp on every piece of printed paper not only added to the cost of doing business but also lim - ited the level of the public’s informa - tion about government. Fewer peo - ple purchased newspapers because the stamp increased the cost.

One other use of the media during colonial times was as a call to action.

In January 1776, Thomas Paine (1737–1809) published Common Sense, which encouraged colonists to seek independence from Great Britain. The pamphlet accused King George III of England of tyranny, challenged his right to hold power over the colonists, and blamed him for treating the colonists unfairly. Paine also wrote that the colonies needed a written constitution with a set of rules that everyone would have to follow and a government that could not abuse its power.

These three examples show how the media affected the colonists and how a free media was a meaningful priority for them. The use of political cartoons to take a point of view as well as advocate a call to action demonstrated the positive effects of a free media, while the Stamp Act showed the colonists how limits on the media affected the flow of information.

The First Amendment and Freedom of the Press Recall that one of the key debates over whether to ratify the U.S. Constitution focused on whether an enumerated bill of rights should be included. Opponents of the proposed Consti - tution, the Anti-Federalists, thought it was important for the Constitution to include a bill of rights. This listing of specific rights included protections of freedom of the press, among oth - ers. The Bill of Rights was eventually added to the U.S. Constitution in 1791, and it included the First Amendment, which reads: Everett Collection/SuperStock “Join, or Die” is a political cartoon created by Benjamin Franklin in 1754 showing the disunity of the colonies and advocating for unity. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 283 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.1 The Evolution of the Media in American Politics Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibit- ing the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

The fact that freedom of the press was included in the first 10 amendments to be added to the U.S. Constitution is evidence of the primacy of a free press.

The First Amendment has since protected the freedom of the press in multiple ways. Freedom of the press has been protected as a news source and as a mechanism for candidates, politi- cal parties, interest groups, and advocates to communicate their messages to the people. The media has also served in a hybrid role by taking part in the political process and endorsing candidates, broadcasting campaign debates, taking positions on policy questions, and pub- lishing diverse opinion pieces and columns produced by political elites. The Influence of Technology The media is often referred to as the black box between the public and government because the public learns most of its information about government and politics from the media. The image of a black box is fitting; individuals cannot see what is between them and the other side. The public must trust the information that they receive through the media, as they have no real means to verify it. The black box metaphor also works in reverse; government and political entities such as political parties, candidates, and interest groups know that the media is reporting on their activities. Being aware of the media’s presence shapes their behavior.

Individuals on both sides of this relationship depend on the media to receive or transmit information.

As technology has evolved, so has the public’s access to information about government through the media. Technological and educa- tional advancements have broad- ened how the news is consumed and who consumes it. These tech - nological and educational advance- ments have occurred parallel to advances in political rights. Univer- sal suffrage is now the law of the land and enshrined in the U.S. Con - stitution through multiple amend- ments, which means that the per- centage of citizens eligible to vote is at its height. Together, this means that the media can now reach far more people and the percentage of those people eligible to vote has never been higher. The implication is that government, political parties, interest groups, and issue advocates must now reach the largest number of people ever in order to accomplish © Nik Wheeler/Corbis Newspapers used to be a main source of news, but the media has evolved to include television, the Internet, and social media for its coverage. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 284 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.1 The Evolution of the Media in American Politics their objectives, and they have the technological means to do so better, faster, and through more methods of communication. The large number and percentage of people who are able to access information about government because of advances in education and literacy also contributes to increases in the number of media consumers and their consumption levels.

The opportunities for the media to serve in its role as the black box of American politics have never been greater. The Rise of Regulation As technology has advanced, questions have arisen as to whether the press should be free to function without government inter- vention and regulation. After all, if the gov- ernment regulates the media, one could argue that it is limiting and shaping what the public learns about government to the government’s own advantage. For instance, the Federal Communications Act of 1934 (FCA) created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which regulates radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable com - munications throughout the United States, including the District of Columbia and U.S.

territories. The FCA includes Section 315, the Equal Time Provision, requiring that television and radio stations give candidates seeking the same office the same opportu - nity to use those stations. Translated into practical terms, this means that stations give candidates seeking the same office reason- ably equal news coverage with three key exceptions. First, if one of the candidates is engaged in a bona fide news event, such as an incumbent fulfilling his or her obligations of office, that coverage time is not consid - ered in terms of determining equal time.

An example of this exception took place in 2004. The state of Florida was hit by three intense (Category 4 and 5) hurricanes between August and September 2004. The last of the three hurricanes, Ivan, began at the end of the Republican National Convention. George W. Bush was running for reelection while U.S. Senator John Kerry was seeking to unseat Bush. Both Bush and Kerry traveled to Florida, one of the largest electoral vote states, to survey the hurricane damage. While cover - age of Bush did not fall under the Equal Time Provision because he was surveying the damage in his role as president (a bona fide news event), coverage of Kerry, who represented Massa - chusetts in the U.S. Senate, did fall under the provision because Kerry was spending time in Florida as the Democrats’ nominee. Associated Press/Charles Dharapak President Bush and Jo Bonner, former U.S.

representative for Alabama’s first congres- sional district, tour the damage done during Hurricane Ivan in Orange Beach, Alabama. The president’s media coverage in this event did not fall under the equal time coverage rule of the FCC. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 285 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.2 The Media in Political Campaigns The second exception is that the media does not need to extend equal time to minor party candidates. Finally, the third exception is that the tone of the coverage does not need to be equal; one competitor may receive mostly positive coverage while another candidate for the same office may receive mostly negative coverage. In addition to the Federal Communica- tions Act, the FCC created the Fairness Doctrine in 1949 to ensure that controversial issues would be presented in a balanced manner. The Fairness Doctrine was eliminated by the FCC in 2011, on the grounds that the Obama administration deemed the doctrine to be “outdated and obsolete.” Measures of consumer preferences, such as ratings and circulation, also influence the types of stories that the press report on, the amount of time (if on television or radio) or print (if in a newspaper, on an Internet site, or in a news magazine) devoted to any subject or story, or the overall length of the broadcast or printed text in a publication. Because press organizations are themselves private entities, their desire to succeed as corporations influences how they operate. News coverage, including campaign coverage, is no different. Coverage that does not interest the public will result in lower ratings or circulation, which affects the media outlets’ profits. Taken together, this means that media organizations make strategic choices when deciding which aspects of campaigns to cover and how that coverage will take shape.

12.2 The Media in Political Campaigns The media also takes an active role in political campaigns. Freedom of the press extends to election campaigns, where press coverage includes providing information and commentary about the candidates, issues, and political parties. The media also serves as a vehicle for can- didates, political parties, interest groups, and even ordinary citizens to convey their mes - sages during election campaigns through advertising. Each role the media plays influences the course that campaigns take, affecting the campaign messages put forward by candidates, interest groups, and political parties; the manner in which these messages are presented; and how the public receives and responds to those messages.

Providing Information and Commentary The way that the media covers campaigns can have a strong impact on elections. The nomi - nation process is especially affected by media coverage because primaries often bring out candidates who lack widespread name recognition, especially in open-seat races where there is no incumbent. The media lacks the time to give all candidates equal press coverage. Conse - quently, the media focuses on those candidates believed to have a serious chance at winning.

Critics argue that such practices demonstrate media bias, the idea that the media chooses how news is presented to the public. These practices create a self-fulfilling prophecy where the media pays more attention to “serious” candidates. Voter interest and support then fol - low. The opposite is also true. If a candidate is portrayed as a loser, it is then more difficult for that candidate to raise money and other forms of support. Lacking financial and volunteer support makes it more difficult to enhance name recognition and voter support. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 286 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.2 The Media in Political Campaigns Regardless, the media provides commentary on all aspects of political campaigns, including the role of the media in political campaigns. One form that such commentary takes is with cartoons that often appear in newspapers on the opinion or the comics pages. It should be noted that those news outlets that perform editorializing functions, such as newspaper edito- rials, retain free speech and press protections when performing these functions. This means that newspapers may endorse candidates for any office on their editorial pages, but not in any other place. Still, researchers have found that newspapers that endorse candidates tend to extend more positive news coverage toward those candidates that they have endorsed com - pared with candidates not endorsed by those newspapers.

Scholars have noted that the news focuses far more attention on char- acteristics about the campaign itself—such as who is ahead or behind in public support, fund- raising, or votes (the “horse race” aspects of the campaign)—than it does on information about the can - didates themselves or candidate issue positions. One consequence of news organizations’ tendency to focus on horse race aspects of campaigns is that commercials and other campaign messages may end up doing a better job of inform - ing voters about policy positions, helping voters distinguish between candidates, and educating the elec- torate about candidates compared with the news media. This means that campaign communication is a more essential voter information resource than is campaign-related news coverage.

Hosting Advertising Campaign-related entities pay media outlets to advertise their messages. Unlike news cover - age, where the news organizations control what they broadcast, print, or produce, campaign advertising gives candidates, interest groups, and political parties the opportunity to control their messages about themselves and their opponents. Most campaign-related advertising is available where there are the most consumers. There are far more television consumers than there are radio, Internet, newspaper, or news magazine consumers. Thus, far more campaign- related advertising is found on television than in any other medium. Among non-television media, radio and the Internet, including social media (see section 12.4: Media and the Inter - net), are far more often used as campaign advertising outlets than are newspapers or news magazines. Electronic media draws far more consumers than does print media. Associated Press/Mark J. Terrill Because there were so many 2016 Republican presidential candidates, media coverage could not accommodate all of them in the GOP debates. The candidates with lower poll ratings participated in less- publicized debates at earlier times on the same day.

This could be considered media bias. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 287 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.3 Monitoring and Influencing Government Electronic media enjoys a core advantage for reaching large audiences because these outlets are free to use, provided that one already owns or has access to a television, radio, or com- puter. Print media must usually be purchased in order to enjoy access, and periodic issues, such as daily, weekly, or monthly publications, render regular purchase or access necessary in order to keep current. As accessing electronic advertising is much easier than accessing print advertising is, it follows that the more readily available media will enjoy higher consumer use and will attract more campaign advertising dollars.

Televised campaign advertising spots were first aired in 1952. The cost and use of television advertising has grown exponentially since then, which has resulted in shorter television spots (and, critics argue, the inclusion of less information and a greater emphasis on entertaining viewers). More recent presidential campaigns have seen television advertisement spots run from 30 to 60 seconds. Large-scale races are often contested using television, which is the most widely used news source in the United States. Television commercials tend to blanket the airwaves during highly contested elections; their short duration means that they are eas- ily broadcast during regular television programming. However, as freedom of the press is not absolute, neither is freedom of the press in campaigns.

Campaign coverage and advertising has been regulated by the federal government since the Federal Communications Act of 1934, discussed earlier. Since then, other laws have been enacted that limit and otherwise regulate campaign coverage and advertising. More recently, the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA) placed restrictions on campaign adver- tising sponsored by interest groups. BCRA bans corporate or union money from being used to pay for broadcast advertising that identifies a federal candidate within 30 days of a primary or nominating convention, or within 60 days of a general election. These restrictions were upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in McConnell v. Federal Election Commission 540 U.S. 93 (2003).

12.3 Monitoring and Influencing Government Individuals and organizations seeking to influence government will use the media to bring attention to government actions. The media also acts alone to bring attention to government actions, thereby enabling the public to use its First Amendment rights to monitor and influ - ence government. Interest groups form to draw attention to government actions, encourage their members to interact with government and with the press, and raise money to accom - plish their political and policy goals.

The Media as Watchdog The Founding Fathers believed that a free media was necessary to monitor government. In fact, in a 1787 letter to Edward Carrington, Thomas Jefferson wrote, “Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter.” Jefferson believed that an independent media was needed to prevent government from abusing its power. Government fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 288 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.3 Monitoring and Influencing Government functioning out of the spotlight might take actions violating the public interest, while a media free to watch and report on government to the people keeps government honest and the pub- lic informed. Freedom of the press allows the media to serve in a watchdog role as one means to protect individuals from the government infringing on their rights.

Media independence occurs when the media brings attention to gov- ernment actions. In bringing atten - tion to the public about govern - ment actions, the media informs the public about possible government wrongdoing. Democracies require an independent and free press to add another check and balance on the potential abuse of power. A story in the press about a Cabinet member may catch the attention of members of Congress, leading to oversight hearings into the actions of the executive branch. In this case, the press serves as a watchdog to help keep public officials honest.

Related to the media’s watchdog role is the preponderance of televised campaign debates. The media plays critical roles in these debates. First, because the television networks broadcast the debates (and they are simultaneously broadcast on the radio), they have a say in various debate-related aspects, including the length of the debate (some debates last an hour, while others may last 90 min - utes or more), the date that the debates take place, and whether the debates will take place toward the earlier or later part of the evening, which affects viewership in different time zones. It is unlikely that candidates would participate in debates that they were not certain would be broadcast widely. The second role that the media plays in debates is that one or more well-known news media personalities moderate the debates—they write the questions, ask follow-up questions, and oversee the debate as it transpires by ensuring that participants do not go over their allotted time and that candidates have the chance to make rebuttals if they are entitled to do so. That media personalities, and not well-known leaders from other sectors of society, moderate the debates suggests that the public perceives the media as an objective watchdog and is comfortable with the media holding this role.

The Media as Gatekeeper Another way that media independence occurs is through the media’s gatekeeper role. When members of the media act as gatekeepers, they decide which information to share with the public. In deciding what the public should know, the media is deciding which stories are appropriate as well as identifying the most appropriate sources to use when reporting a story.

The reason that gatekeeping is essential is that the public depends so much on the media for quality information about subjects they would otherwise have little to no access to. © Bettmann/Corbis Bob Woodward (left) and Carl Bernstein research the Watergate case at their Washington Post desks. They were the two key investigative reporters covering the scandal. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 289 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.3 Monitoring and Influencing Government In fact, the public now depends more than ever on the media acting in a gatekeeping role during election campaigns. Journalists engage in fact-checking when candidates make claims about their record or the record of their opponents. The Tampa Bay Times investigates poli- ticians’ claims through a tool called PolitiFact. The truthfulness of politicians’ statements is reported to the public with such labels as “False” and “Pants on Fire” for particularly prob- lematic claims. The Washington Post reports on the truthfulness of politicians’ statements using “Pinocchios,” where the more Pinocchios a politician’s claims are assigned, the worse the lie is. In reporting the results of its research, the media strengthens its gatekeeping role with the public and reinforces to politicians that their claims will be investigated before being reported as factual. The public and government both rely on the media taking its gatekeeping role seriously, because the public’s primary means of learning about government is through the media, and politicians depend on good coverage to earn the public’s trust.

Another perspective on the media’s gatekeeping role is linked to whether a story should be reported because of concerns about national security. One well-known instance in which this issue arose was in the “Pentagon Papers” case. The U.S. Supreme Court decided New York Times v. United States in 1971 in response to President Nixon trying to keep the New York Times from publishing classified Defense Department materials that included a study of U.S. activities in Vietnam. President Nixon argued that the Defense Department materials included “classified information,” which justified that the New York Times should exercise “prior restraint” and not publish the Pentagon Papers. In Nixon’s view, national security should take precedence over freedom of the press. The U.S. Supreme Court took the side of the New York Times in a 6–3 decision that the Nixon administration did not justify the need for “prior restraint” in this situation in part because it had failed to properly outline the specific national security con - cerns and the threat to the safety of American forces that justified limiting the freedom of the press guaranteed in the First Amendment. The U.S. Supreme Court’s opinion in the Pentagon Papers case reinforces the media’s role as gatekeeper in that the decision demonstrates the media’s right to report what it deems worthy of reporting.

The media’s role as gatekeeper focuses on its value to the public in keeping it informed by reporting what it deems important for the public to know, broadcasting and moderating campaign debates, conducting research on claims made by candidates and officeholders, and reporting about government actions even if the government would prefer to operate out of the public eye.

The Media as Agenda Setter The primary way that government officials communicate with the citizenry is through the media. Public officials are well aware that the media is monitoring them and reporting their actions to the public; at the same time, policymakers fully understand that, if they want the public to know and understand their motives and actions, they must use the media for that purpose. The idea that the news media can influence what the public considers important is known as agenda-setting theory.

Government officials manage information for public consumption in how they present issues.

Issues about which government officials seek public support may involve those officials using the media for press coverage of their actions. For example, government officials will try to use the media to set the public agenda such that the media prioritizes issues that the \ government fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 290 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Ian Dagnall/age fotostock/SuperStock Accessing news on the Internet has become increasingly popular in the 21st century. Section 12.4 Media and the Internet wishes for the public to focus on and presents the information in a way that causes the public to support the government’s position on those issues. An independent media sets the publi\ c agenda as to what is important and which aspects of it the public should focus on.

12.4 Media and the Internet The media takes many forms. Various forms of more traditional media, including print (news- papers, news magazines) and broadcast (tele- vision, radio), have been discussed earlier in this chapter. Over the last generation, there has been a meaningful increase in the use of social and interactive media that has changed the face of American politics. Of particular interest is the preponderance of the Internet in American polit - ical life.

The advent of the Internet began sometime in the early 1980s when the U.S. Department of Defense created a computer network whose primary purpose was to link the Pentagon to faraway military bases and defense contractors.

Soon after, large research universities joined the network. At that time, its applications were limited. Since then, the Internet has become a multipurpose communication tool. Its value for education, political mobilization, information dissemination, marketing, and social networking has brought the Internet into multiple, far-reach - ing private and public realms.

The opportunity to disseminate real-time and immediate information updates to Internet consumers has transformed the Internet into a critical, functional link between government and citizens. It is now common for elected officials at the national, state, and local levels to publicize their email addresses on their own or government-sponsored websites. This means that citizens may now contact their elected representatives and other public officials directly.

The Internet also serves as a tool for government officials and agencies to share information with their constituents. The Internet has become an established tool of political engagement because it provides a readily available opportunity for communication between citizens and the government.

News organizations now enjoy a regular Internet presence. It is common for both broadcast and print media to have web pages. This means that, long before the next edition of a news - paper is printed (and distributed the following day), and hours before the next scheduled television news broadcast, media organization websites can provide up-to-the minute news updates and, as appropriate, live coverage of news events. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 291 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.4 Media and the Internet The value of the Internet for political campaigns has changed campaign strategy in critical ways. The Internet is a relatively cheap way to control one’s message, and it is relatively easy to create and maintain a web page. Candidates may publish responses to recent events or oppo- nents’ attacks within minutes of these events, and they can provide links to other Internet sites (such as those of political parties or government institutions), thereby easing navigation among various information sources. Candidates can also provide information updates, such as newly scheduled appearances, and use their Internet sites to show campaign commercials.

Candidates can also carry on virtual conversations using social media , which allows indi- viduals, organizations, businesses, and government offices and officials to create and share content or participate in virtual networks all through the Internet. Examples of social media are websites and phone applications where users can share content and interact with one another. Twitter, an online social networking service, allows users to send and read short messages (called “tweets”) to individuals and groups of persons (“followers”) who share a particular interest, such as a student environmental group. Twitter provides an inexpensive mobilization strategy for political candidates. For example, in 2008, then-U.S. Senator Barack Obama had 100,000 Twitter followers before Election Day. By 2012, President Obama had more than 20 million Twitter followers by Election Day. Also in 2012, the campaign staffs affiliated with both President Obama and Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney engaged in online “Twitter duels” with the intent of having the media and others read the tweets.

The Internet also eases fundraising for candidates because donors may give to one or several candidates with a few mouse clicks. The low cost associated with maintaining an Internet site, coupled with the relative ease in sending out multiple email messages at little cost, increases exponentially the opportunities for candidates, political parties, and interest groups to ask for financial and volunteer support and get a fast response.

One adjunct to the Internet as a news and information source is web-based logs, or blogs, which are online journals. Blogging has become a popular way for candidates, interest groups, and political parties to share and discuss information. It is not uncommon for news organiza - tion websites to have blogs or other mechanisms for news consumers to post their responses to news items and to participate in an online discussion with other interested individuals.

Individuals can also create a blog with relative ease. While questions have arisen as to the validity of information found on blogs, they do provide an outlet for political discussions.

Social media enhances opportunities for democratic participation with widely available technologies encouraging interaction among citizens and between citizens and government.

Government use of social media to encourage citizen-government interaction has increased steadily, as has public familiarity with these tools. Governments at the local, state, and federal levels now use social media tools to engage citizens in government decision making. Partici- pating governments use these tools to invite public input and enhance two-way communica - tion. Public trust is enhanced when governments demonstrate their efforts to be transparent, accountable, and responsive. Table 12.1: Civic engagement in the Digital Age Political engagement on social networking sites 60% of American adults use social networking sites such as Facebook or Twitter; these are some of the civic behaviors they have taken part in on these sites: % of SNS users who have done this % of all adults who have done this “Like” or promote material related to political/ social issues that others have posted 38% 23% Encourage other people to vote 3521 Post your own thoughts/comments on politi- cal or social issues 34 20 Repost content related to political/social issues 33 19 Encourage others to take action on political/ social issues that are important to you 31 19 Post links to political stories or articles for others to read 28 17 Belong to a group that is involved in political/ social issues, or working to advance a cause 21 12 Follow elected officials, candidates for office, or other public figures 20 12 Total who said yes to any of the activities listed above 66% 39% “Civic Engagement in the Digital Age,” Pew Research Center, Washington, DC (April, 2013). http://w w w.pewinternet .org/2013/04/25 /civic-engagement-in-the-digital-age/ fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 292 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.5 The Forms of Media Bias The value of the Internet for political campaigns has changed campaign strategy in critical ways. The Internet is a relatively cheap way to control one’s message, and it is relatively easy to create and maintain a web page. Candidates may publish responses to recent events or oppo- nents’ attacks within minutes of these events, and they can provide links to other Internet sites (such as those of political parties or government institutions), thereby easing navigation among various information sources. Candidates can also provide information updates, such as newly scheduled appearances, and use their Internet sites to show campaign commercials.

Individuals can also create a blog with relative ease. While questions have arisen as to the validity of information found on blogs, they do provide an outlet for political discussions.

Social media enhances opportunities for democratic participation with widely available technologies encouraging interaction among citizens and between citizens and government.

Government use of social media to encourage citizen-government interaction has increased steadily, as has public familiarity with these tools. Governments at the local, state, and federal levels now use social media tools to engage citizens in government decision making. Partici- pating governments use these tools to invite public input and enhance two-way communica - tion. Public trust is enhanced when governments demonstrate their efforts to be transparent, accountable, and responsive. Table 12.1: Civic engagement in the Digital Age Political engagement on social networking sites 60% of American adults use social networking sites such as Facebook or Twitter; these are some of the civic behaviors they have taken part in on these sites: % of SNS users who have done this % of all adults who have done this “Like” or promote material related to political/ social issues that others have posted 38% 23% Encourage other people to vote 3521 Post your own thoughts/comments on politi- cal or social issues 34 20 Repost content related to political/social issues 33 19 Encourage others to take action on political/ social issues that are important to you 31 19 Post links to political stories or articles for others to read 28 17 Belong to a group that is involved in political/ social issues, or working to advance a cause 21 12 Follow elected officials, candidates for office, or other public figures 20 12 Total who said yes to any of the activities listed above 66% 39% “Civic Engagement in the Digital Age,” Pew Research Center, Washington, DC (April, 2013). http://w w w.pewinternet .org/2013/04/25 /civic-engagement-in-the-digital-age/ 12.5 The Forms of Media Bias The role of the media in presenting information is often not balanced—the media may pre - sent information in a way that favors one perspective (media bias), advocates a clear point of view or action (propaganda), or references or presents images to serve as information shortcuts (symbolism).

Media bias may take several forms. One form of bias involves the information shared with the public. It is impossible for the media to report all information to which the public has no direct connection; thus, the media chooses what to report on and how much information to share about that news item. Another form of media bias focuses on how information is pre - sented to the public. For example, a media story on poverty may show members of a specific race, gender, age, or ethnic group as being impoverished, which may affect how the public reacts to news stories about poverty; people’s perceptions about poverty may be shaped by their opinions about the impoverished persons portrayed in the news story. Bias may also be demonstrated in the importance given to a news item, such as by placing a news story on the front page of a newspaper or by leading with that story on a televised news program. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 293 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 12.5 The Forms of Media Bias Propaganda is a way for government and political entities to shape or motivate political action or public opinion. For example, the government may use public information campaigns to bring about certain behaviors, such as during World War I when the federal government sponsored a campaign to encourage the public to buy liberty bonds to fund the war effort.

Symbols provide the public with information shortcuts; they often replace text. Symbols may also bias public opinion and serve as propaganda tools. For example, “U.S.” is often used to represent the “United States.” The “United States” is also often represented as an older White male dressed in clothing with red and white stripes, and white stars on a blue background (the colors, symbols, and patterns of the American flag). This “person,” “Uncle Sam,” is a sym- bol of patriotism toward the United States and has been used to encourage individuals to fulfill civic responsibilities such as registering for the draft, paying taxes, and voting.

In transmitting information to the public, political entities use the media to shape informa- tion that includes bias, symbolism, and propaganda when sharing information with the pub - lic. These communication methods influence public opinion and political behavior; how the public learns information affects the public’s reaction.

The press often plays a role in shaping public opinion because what people learn through the media will affect their views on the issues being discussed. Changes in public opinion may result in the public putting pressure on government that it otherwise would not have.

The media is a powerful force in American politics because it decides what it will report and how much time to devote to a particular story. As gatekeepers, newspaper editors and televi - sion news producers decide which stories are important. Editorial page editors decide what types of editorials to print. By shaping the agenda, the press can influence public opinion, which in turn can affect election outcomes.

Central to media power is its ability to frame and set an agenda. Framing involves how a par- ticular story is set up and the context in which it is presented. Framing affects how the public interprets political events and results. If news stories involving former President Bill Clinton are introduced with a reminder of his impeachment, the public might consider his presidency more in terms of his impeachment and not in terms of his political accomplishments. Simi - larly, setting up stories about political candidates with a discussion about the “Tea Party” can affect viewers’ preferences about that candidate.

Priming is another source of media influence. Priming occurs when media coverage affects how the public evaluates political leaders and candidates. For example, priming happens when news content suggests that an audience ought to use specific benchmarks to evaluate a public official’s performance.

Measuring public opinion is important to the electoral process. But it is not always clear.

When members of Congress take a position on an issue, they might be responding to public opinion as reported either in polls or in what is being reported in the press. This means that the press also plays an important role in American politics. It can serve to hold public officials accountable by making it clear what the public believes on a given issue. But the press can also influence public opinion by framing the political agenda. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 294 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Summary and Resources Chapter Summary The mass media plays many roles and serves multiple functions in American politics. Some say that it is the “fourth branch” of government, protected by the First Amendment, which protects freedom of the press. Because the public learns the most about government through the media, the media is often called a “black box,” in that it shapes the relationship between the public and government. The media’s role is far more than a mechanism for informing the public about government. Since long before the founding of the nation, the media has served in several roles, including watchdog, gatekeeper, and agenda setter. The media also serves as a vehicle for candidates, interest groups, political parties, and individuals to communicate their messages to the public and government.

The media plays a critical role in political contests at all stages of the campaign. Positive media coverage enhances candidates’ opportunities to raise money and to earn public favor, which translates to votes. Unethical and illegal activities, including being caught in a public or pri- vate scandal such as an extramarital affair, are widely reported by the media. The media also serves as a platform for campaign advertising such that candidates must be given an equal chance to publicize their messages by being charged the same rate for the same time slot in broadcast media for candidates seeking the same office. The media also hosts and moderates campaign debates. This means that debates are scheduled so that they can be televised and broadcast during those times that the public is most likely to pay attention, and the media works with candidates, candidate organizations, and political parties to determine the for- mat of the debate. Media representatives write debate questions that are not provided to the candidates in advance.

The media is often criticized for biasing the stories that are printed or broadcast. These criti - cisms are levied against the media because how people learn the news affects their opinions of newsmakers and candidates.

Key Ideas to Remember • The First Amendment protects the freedom of the press. As one of the six protec- tions included in the First Amendment, the freedom of the press is considered a central tenet of a participatory democracy. • The media has been used as a mechanism for shaping public opinion and political participation since before the founding of the United States. • The public learns the most about government through the media, which has resulted in the media being called a “black box” through which the people learn about gov - ernment; consequently, it affects how government represents itself to the people. • The media serves several roles in shaping the relationship between the public and government, including watchdog, gatekeeper, and agenda setter. • The media shapes public opinion by informing the public, endorsing candidates, moderating debates, and serving as a platform for candidates, interest groups, politi- cal parties, and individuals to make their viewpoints known to the public through campaign advertising. • The media has been criticized for its presentation of information through priming and framing, which bias the information that the public receives. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 295 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Timeline: Evolution of the mass media Photo credits (top to bottom): PhotoAlto/Superstock, Slalom/iStock/Thinkstock, . Corbis, Tanuha2001/iStock/Thinkstock, Tovovan/iStock/ Thinkstock fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 296 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Questions to Consider 1. What are the forms that media bias takes? 2. How is the media used in political campaigns? 3. Why was a free press important to the nation’s founders? 4. How does the media influence government? 5. What are the issues that the U.S. Supreme Court addresses when considering free press issues? Key Terms agenda-setting theory The theory that the news media influences public priorities. black box The idea that the media acts as a filter and conduit of most information about the government. blog An abbreviation for “web log,” an Internet-based log of news, information, and analysis.

Federal Communications Act of 1934 (FCA) Legislation that regulates interstate and foreign commerce in electronic commu- nication; it created the Federal Communica - tions Commission, which regulates radio and television. framing When referring to the media, the way the media reports a story, thereby affecting how people interpret political events and results. gatekeeper When referring to the media, the media’s role in deciding which informa- tion about government and about which events the public should learn. media bias The belief that the media determines how the news is presented to the public, which slants what the public learns about government and how the public perceives the information learned through the media. priming When referring to the media, the way media coverage affects the public’s evaluation of political leaders or candidates for office. social media The websites and applications that the public, government, media, political parties, interest groups, and others use to interact with one another. watchdog When referring to the media, the media’s role in holding the government accountable. Further Reading Boydstun, A. E. (2013). Making the news: Politics, the media, and agenda setting . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Dahlgren, P. (2009). Media and political engagement: Citizens, communication and democracy. New York, NY:

Cambridge University Press.

Graber, D. (Ed.). (2008). The politics of news/the news of politics. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.

Graber, D. (Ed.). (2010). Media power in politics (6 th ed.). Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. fin82797_12_c12_281-298.indd 297 3/24/16 1:44 PM \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Graber, D. (2011). On media: Making sense of politics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Graber, D., & Dunaway, J. L. (Eds.). (2014). Mass media and American politics. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.

Iyengar, S. (2016). Media politics: A citizen’s guide (3 rd ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

Key, V. O., Jr. (1955). A theory of critical elections. The Journal of Politics, 17, 3–18.

Stromer-Galley, J. (2014). Presidential campaigning in the Internet age. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Tewksbury, D., & Rittenberg, J. (2012). News on the Internet: Information and citizenship in the 21st century. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Wolfsfeld, G. (2011). Making sense of media and politics: Five principles in political communication. New York, NY: