Unit V Literature Review
5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& hi … 1 /7 7 E B SC O P ublis h in g C it a tio n F orm at: A PA ( A m eric an P sych olo gic al A sso c.) : N OTE : Revie w th e in str u ctio ns at h ttp ://s u pport.e bsco .c o m .lib ra ry re so urc e s.c o lu m bia so uth ern .e du/h elp /? i n t= ehost& la ng= & fe atu re _id = A PA a nd m ake a ny n ece ssa ry c o rre ctio ns b efo re u sin g. P ay s p ecia l a tte n tio n to p ers o nal n am es, c ap it a liz a tio n, a n d d ate s. A lw ays c o nsu lt y o ur lib ra ry r e so urc e s fo r th e e xa ct fo rm attin g a nd p unctu atio n g uid elin es. R efe re n ces M orris s, A . P ., & D udle y, S . E . (2 006). D EFIN IN G W HAT T O R EG ULA T E : S IL IC A A N D T H E P R OBLE M O F R EG ULA TO RY C AT E G ORIZ AT IO N. A dm in is tr a tiv e L aw R evie w , 5 8 ( 2 ), 2 693 57. < ! A ddit io nal In fo rm atio n:
P ers is te nt lin k to th is re co rd (P erm alin k): h ttp s://lib ra ry re so urc e s.c o lu m bia so uth ern .e du/lo gin ? u rl= http ://s e arc h .e bsco host.c o m /lo gin .a sp x? dir e ct= tr u e& db= bth & AN =21435715& sit e = ehost liv e & sco pe= sit e E nd o f c it a tio n> S ectio n:
A R TIC LE S D EFIN IN G WHAT TO REG ULA TE : SIL IC A AND TH E PR OBLE M OF REG ULA TO RY C ATE G ORIZ A TIO N I N TR ODUCTIO N F ir m s a nd d octo rs in vo lv e d in s ilic o sis s u it s a re fa cin g g ra nd ju ry in ve stig atio ns in N ew Y ork , a nd a fe dera l j u dge in T e xa s h as s u ggeste d fr a ud m ay b e in vo lv e d in s o m e o f th e te ns o f th ousa nds o f s ilic o sis c la im s p endin g in h er c o urt, c h arg in g th at o ne fir m h ad a tte m pte d " to in fla te th e n um ber o f P la in tif f s a nd c la im s in o rd er to o ve rw helm th e D efe ndants a nd th e ju dic ia l s yste m ." [1 ] D octo rs in vo lv e d in d ia gnosin g s ilic o sis c la im ants a re p le adin g th e F if th A m endm ent rig ht a gain st s e lf in crim in atio n ra th er th an e le ctin g to te stif y b efo re C ongre ss a bout th eir ro le s in th e la w su it s .[2 ] A t th e s a m e tim e, s ilic a d ust re gula tio n is o n th e a genda o f re gula to ry a gencie s a ro und th e w orld . T he U nit e d S ta te s O ccu patio nal S afe ty a nd H ealt h A dm in is tr a tio n (O SH A) a nd re gula to rs in o th er c o untr ie s[3 ] a re c o nsid erin g is su in g n ew s ta ndard s fo r s ilic a d ust, s p urre d o n b y th e In te rn atio nal L abor O rg aniz a tio n a nd th e W orld H ealt h O rg aniz a tio n's G lo bal C am paig n fo r th e E lim in atio n o f S ilic o sis a nd th e In te rn atio nal A gency fo r R ese arc h o n C ance r's (IA R C) 1 997 c la ssif ic a tio n o f s ilic a a s a h um an c a rc in ogen.[4 ] In a ddit io n to c a nce r, th e re gula to rs c o ntin ue to h ave th eir tr a dit io nal c o nce rn s w it h r e sp ir a to ry p ro ble m s fr o m d ust in hala tio n, s ili c o sis in th e c a se o f s ilic a d usts .[5 ] S om e a ctio n b y O SH A o n silic a in th e n ear fu tu re is vir tu ally ce rta in b eca use th e cu rre nt s ta ndard , d eriv e d fr o m a 1 962 c o nse nsu s s ta ndard o rig in ally c re ate d b y th e A m eric a n C onfe re nce o f G ove rn m enta l In dustr ia l H yg ie nis ts (A C GIH ), "is base d on partic le co untin g te ch nolo gy, w hic h is c o nsid ere d o bso le te "[6 ] a nd b eca use th e IA R C c o nclu sio n h as m ade c le ar th at th e e xis tin g s ta ndard , w hic h d id n ot c o nsid er th e c a nce r ris k, is n o lo nger a dequate . A s a re su lt , s ilic a re gula tio n is a "h ig h p rio rit y " in it ia tiv e a t O SH A, o ne o f o nly fo ur s u ch lis te d in O SH A's D ece m ber 2 004 u nif ie d a genda.[7 ] O ccu patio nal healt h and envir o nm enta l re gula to rs fa ce ch alle nges in deve lo pin g re gula tio ns th at a dequate ly addre ss th e co m ple xit y of bio lo gic a l, min era lo gic a l, ch em ic a l, physic a l, and oth er c h ara cte ris tic s o f s u bsta nce s lik e s ilic a . T o o m uch d eta il in duce s p ara ly sis ; to o lit tle p ro duce s re gula tio ns t h at fa il to fo cu s o n th e a ctu al h arm fu l s u bsta nce s a nd s o im pose s c o sts w it h out c o rre sp ondin g b enefit s . 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& hi … 2 /7 7 A s th e In re S ilic a P ro ducts L ia bilit y L it ig a tio n o pin io n d em onstr a te s,[8 ] c ru cia l q uestio ns a ls o a ris e a s to t h e r o le o f th e to rt s yste m in r e gula tin g h aza rd ous p ro ducts .
I n th is A rtic le w e e xa m in e th e c u rre nt a nd fu tu re r e gula tio n o f s ilic a a nd th e is su es in vo lv e d in d eve lo pin g n ew s ta ndard s. In S ectio n I, w e d escrib e th e p ro ble m o f c a te goriz in g th e s u bje ct o f r e gula tio n. In S ectio n I I, w e u se th e e xp erie nce w it h s ilic a a nd p ublic c h oic e th eory to fo cu s o n b oth th e p re ssu re s a gencie s fa ce a nd th e ro le s in te re st g ro ups p la y in s h a pin g o ccu patio nal s a fe ty a nd h ealt h re gula tio ns. T his re gula to ry h is to ry m ake s s ilic a re gula tio n a n id eal c a se s tu dy fo r e xa m in in g th e g enera l p ro ble m o f c a te goriz in g r e gula te d su bsta nce s. In Sectio n III, th e his to ry of asb esto s lit ig atio n illu str a te s th e undesir a ble c o nse quence s o f re ly in g o n th e to rt s yste m to d riv e re gula tio n. In S ectio n IV , w e re ca p th e p ro ble m s a sso cia te d w it h th e re gula tio n o f s ilic a a nd o th er c o m pounds th at a re d if f ic u lt to c h ara cte riz e , a nd w e d is cu ss p ossib le o ptio ns fo r d eve lo pin g s o und p olic y.
I . T H E P R OBLE M O F C ATE G ORIZ A TIO N S ilic a is th e c o m mon n am e fo r m in era ls c o nta in in g a c o m bin atio n o f s ilic o n a nd o xyg en s u ch a s s ilic o n d io xid e (S iO ) . A s s ilic a is o ne o f th e m ost c o m mon s u bsta nce s in th e E arth ,[9 ] it m ig ht a ppear th at d efin in g s ilic a fo r re gula to ry p urp ose s w ould b e tr iv ia l. A nd, o f c o urs e , re gula to rs c o uld d efin e s ilic a fo r r e gula to ry p urp ose s a s th e m in era l S iO . Y et s u ch a d efin it io n w ould b e g ro ssly o ve rin clu siv e , p ote ntia lly s u bje ctin g v ir tu ally e ve ry h um an a ctiv it y to r e gula tio n.[1 0] T hus, a m ore s o phis tic a te d d efin it io n o f s ilic a is n ece ssa ry fo r e ff e ctiv e r e gula to ry a ctio n.
S ilic a c o m es in m ult ip le fo rm s th at h ave v a ry in g m in era lo gic a l c h ara cte ris tic s. F ir s t, s ilic a m ay b e "fr e e" ( o nly S iO is p re se nt) , o r it m ay b e m ix e d c h em ic a lly w it h a noth er a to m o r m ole cu le .[1 1 ] T his is im porta nt b eca use o n ly fr e e s ilic a is c u rre ntly c o nsid ere d to h ave h um an h ealt h e ff e cts .[1 2] F urth er, fr e e s ilic a c a n b e d is tin guis h ed in to a m orp hous a nd c ry sta llin e s ilic a .[1 3] T he fo rm er is " e sse ntia lly b enig n," w hile a t le ast s o m e fo rm s o f th e la tte r a re p ote ntia lly to xic w hen in hale d o r o th erw is e in geste d.[ 1 4] A s w e w ill d is cu ss in g re ate r deta il belo w , how eve r, th is sim ple bin ary ch ara cte riz a tio n is still to o cru de to ca ptu re th e d is tin ctio ns n ece ssa ry to d if f e re ntia te th e r is ks p re se nte d b y d if f e re nt fo rm s o f s ilic a .[1 5] T he d if f ic u lt ie s in a dequate ly c h ara cte riz in g e ve n w hat a ppears to b e a c o m para tiv e ly s tr a ig htfo rw ard , c o m mon s u bsta nce lik e s ilic a , w hic h h as a lo ng h is to ry o f m edic a l s tu dy, a re m ag nif ie d w hen th e is su e is a s u bsta nce a bout w hic h lit tle s cie ntif ic re se arc h h as b een u nderta ke n.[1 6] U nle ss re gula to rs a re w illin g to e m plo y a v e rs io n o f th e p re ca utio nary p rin cip le th at a llo w s th em to p re ve nt a ll in nova tio n u ntil a s u bsta nce i s p ro ve n s a fe ,[1 7] th ere by c u ttin g o ff h u ge a re as o f e co nom ic a ctiv it y , r e gula to rs w ill h ave to o pera te w it h a g re at d eal o f u nce rta in ty .[1 8] R egula to rs th us n eed a p rin cip le d a ppro ach to d e te rm in in g h ow m uch o f a d is tin ctio n to d ra w in c h ara cte riz in g th e s u bje ct o f a r e gula tio n.
A . C hara cte riz a tio n T he a b ilit y to r e gula te r e sts o n th e r e gula to r's a bilit y to d efin e w hat is b ein g r e gula te d. N ot o nly m ust th e r e gula to r o ff e r a le gal d efin it io n o f th e re gula te d s u bsta nce , b ut re gula to rs m ust a ls o c re ate a m eans o f c h ara cte riz in g th e r e gula te d s u bsta nce s u ch th at it c a n b e id entif ie d u sin g te st e quip m ent.[1 9] T his im plie s t h e a bilit y to d efin e th e r e gula te d s u bsta nce s cie ntif ic a lly . S im ila r p ro ble m s a ls o e xis t w it h r e sp ect to n on p hysic a l d efin it io ns: A re gula to r o f a fin ancia l p ro duct m ust d efin e th e c h ara cte ris tic s o f th e p ro duct (fo r e xa m ple , d is tin guis h in g a s to ck fr o m a b ond).[2 0] A lt h ough w e c o nce ntr a te o n s cie ntif ic c h ara cte riz a tio n f o r th e p urp ose s o f w ork p la ce h ealt h a nd e nvir o nm enta l r e gula tio n, o ur a naly sis a pplie s to o th er fo rm s o f r e gula tio n a s w ell.
A h yp o th etic a l e xa m ple illu str a te s th e p ro ble m . S uppose a s u bsta nce , k ry p to nit e , is s u sp ecte d o f h avin g d ele te rio us h ealt h e ff e cts o n h um ans e xp ose d to it . F urth er in ve stig atio n r e ve als th at k ry p to nit e c o m es in t w o fo rm s: α k ry p to nit e a nd β k ry p to nit e . B ase d o n th is in it ia l in ve stig atio n, it a ppears th at o nly α k ry p to nit e 2 2 2 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& hi … 3 /7 7 c a use s h ealt h e ff e cts ; th ere is n o e vid ence th at β k ry p to nit e is h arm fu l. B ut, th ere is a ls o n o e vid ence th at β k ry p to nit e is n ot h arm fu l. In s h ort, w e h ave r e aso n to b elie ve th at α k ry p to nit e is h arm fu l, a lt h ough w e d o n ot k n ow w hy it is h a rm fu l; w e k n ow o nly th at β k ry p to nit e is d if f e re nt fr o m α k ry p to nit e a nd th at th e d ata s u pportin g th e k n ow le dge th at α k ry p to nit e is h arm fu l c o m e fr o m s tu die s o f α k ry p to nit e .
A re gula tio n o f "k ry p to nit e " w hic h d oes n ot d is tin guis h b etw een α k ry p to nit e a nd β k ry p to nit e w ill e it h er o ve rre gula te o r u nderre gula te th e u se s o f k ry p to nit e .[2 1] If w e re gula te b oth fo rm s o f k ry p to nit e a t th e l e ve l a ppro pria te fo r α k ry p to nit e a nd β k ry p to nit e is n ot h arm fu l (o r n ot a s h arm fu l a s α k ry p to nit e ), th en w e w ill o ve rre gula te . T hat is , a r e gula tio n th at d oes n ot d is tin guis h th e tw o fo rm s w ill im pose u nnece ssa ry c o sts o n u se rs o f β k ry p to nit e .[2 2] A s a re su lt , u se rs o f β k ry p to nit e w ill re duce o utp ut (s in ce th eir c o sts h ave g one u p), c o nsu m ers o f β k ry p to nit e p ro ducts w ill fa ce h ig her p ric e s, a nd e m plo ym ent w ill d eclin e in β k ry p to nit e u sin g in dustr ie s a nd in in dustr ie s u sin g p ro ducts m ade w it h β k ry p to nit e .
I f, o n th e o th er h and, th e k ry p to nit e r e gula tio n r e gula te s b oth fo rm s a t a le ve l a ppro pria te fo r β k ry p to nit e , i t w ill underre gula te th e use rs of αk ry p to nit e . T hat is , th e re gula tio n w ill fa il to im pose co sts , th e i m posit io n o f w hic h w ould y ie ld b enefit s th at e xce ed th ose c o sts . A s a r e su lt , u se rs o f α k ry p to nit e w ill u se t o o m uch , c a usin g h arm to e m plo ye es a nd/o r c o nsu m ers o f p ro ducts p ro duce d w it h th e α k ry p to nit e .
F in ally , a u nif o rm s ta ndard b ase d o n a n a ve ra ge o f th e tw o fo rm s o f k ry p to nit e w ill u nderre gula te u se rs o f α k ry p to nit e a nd o ve rre gula te u se rs o f β k ry p to nit e . T he c h alle nge fo r r e gula to rs , th ere fo re , is to p ro perly d efin e w hat th ey are re gula tin g so th at th ey avo id th e tw in dangers of ove rre gula tio n and under r e gula tio n.
I n th e h yp oth etic a l w e a ssu m e th at b oth th e r e gula to rs a nd th e r e st o f th e c o m munit y k n ow th at k ry p to nit e c o m es in b oth a a nd β fo rm s, th at th e α k ry p to nit e fo rm is h aza rd ous, a nd th at th ere is n o e vid ence c o nce rn in g th e β fo rm . It is a ls o p ossib le th at th e d is tin ctio n b etw een th e a a nd β fo rm s is u nkn ow n a nd t h at d is co ve rin g th e d is tin ctio n w ill r e quir e s u bsta ntia l in ve stm ent in r e se arc h . W it h out k n ow le dge o f h ow a s u bsta nce c a use s h arm , it is d if f ic u lt to d ete rm in e w hic h ty p es o f d is tin ctio ns m atte r. W e th us m ay fa ce q uestio ns n ot o nly a bout α k ry p to nit e a nd β k ry p to nit e b ut a ls o a bout α k ry p to nit e a nd α ' k ry p to nit e .
R eso lv in g w heth er th ere is a n α ' k ry p to nit e ~ and w heth er it is th e d is tin ctio n b etw een α a nd α ' fo rm s, α a nd β fo rm s, both , or neit h er th at m atte rs — and doin g so on th e basis of am big uous epid em io lo gic a l e vid ence [2 3] a nd a nim al stu die s[2 4] — re quir e s a su bsta ntia l in ve stm ent o f b oth tim e a nd m oney in r e se arc h .[2 5] N ow s u ppose th e re gula to r h as a va ila ble o nly a s tu dy th at s h ow s a h ealt h im pact fr o m a n u nsp ecif ie d f o rm o f k ry p to nit e . T he re gula to r p ro pose s a k ry p to nit e s ta ndard b ase d o n th e a va ila ble e vid ence a nd r e so lv in g th e u nce rta in tie s c a use d b y th e n ece ssa rily in co m ple te e vid ence b efo re it . D urin g th e c o m ment p erio d, a n e ntit y p ote ntia lly s u bje ct to th e n ew s ta ndard p ro vid es e vid ence th at k ry p to nit e e xis ts in b oth a a nd β fo rm s a nd th at th e s tu die s o n w hic h th e re gula to r re lie d m easu re d o nly th e im pact o f α k ry p to nit e .
B eca use th e re gula to r d oes n ot k n ow th e p re cis e m ech anis m th ro ugh w hic h k ry p to nit e c a use s h arm , h e c a nnot k n ow w it h c e rta in ty w heth er th e α / β d is tin ctio n is re le va nt. B eca use th e α / β d is tin ctio n w as p re vio usly u nkn ow n, th e r e gula to r a ls o c a nnot d ra w o n a s cie ntif ic c o nse nsu s a bout it s r e le va nce .
H ow s h ou ld th e re gula to r re sp ond to th e n ew k n ow le dge th at th e α / β d is tin ctio n e xis ts ? S hould h e p ro ce ed to re gula te o nly α k ry p to nit e ? O r d oes so m e p re ca utio nary p rin cip le sh if t th e b urd en to th e r e gula te d p artie s to s h ow th at th e α / β d is tin ctio n is r e le va nt to th e h arm c a use d b y k ry p to nit e ? If s o , h ow c a n h e d o s o w it h o ut u nders ta ndin g th e h arm m ech anis m ? S hould th e re gula tio n b e d ela ye d e ntir e ly ?
W it h re sp ect to th e β k ry p to nit e o nly ? H ow s h ould a c o urt tr e at e vid ence in a to rt s u it s e ekin g to im pose l ia bilit y b ase d o n k ry p to nit e e xp osu re w hen s u ch a d is tin ctio n is d em onstr a te d? 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& hi … 4 /7 7 A t s o m e le ve l, th e b urd en m ust r e st o n th e r e gula to r — a s h ow in g o f h arm fr o m e xp osu re to b enze ne, fo r e xa m ple , d o es n ot ju stif y im posin g r e gula tio ns o n c o tto n d ust b eca use b enze ne a nd c o tto n d ust a re e asily d is tin guis h able . B ut ju st a s o bvio usly , a s h ow in g o f h arm fr o m o ne s u bsta nce m ay ju stif y r e gula to ry a ctio n w it h re sp ect to a c lo se a nalo gue in th e a bse nce o f e vid ence th at th e d is tin ctio ns b etw een th e tw o a re r e le va nt.[2 6] W e d o n ot re quir e in div id ual re gula tio n s fo r e ach fir m to b e b ase d o n th e p re cis e c h em ic a l, p hysic a l, m in era lo gic a l, o r o th er fo rm o f c o m posit io n o f it s ra w m ate ria ls . W e d o re quir e d if f e re nt re gula tio ns fo r s u bsta nce s th at a re d if f e re nt a t a fa ir ly c ru de le ve l, e ve n c lo se r th an th e d is tin ctio n b etw een b enze ne a nd c o tto n d ust. T he q uestio ns, th ere fo re , a re w here re gula to rs a re to d ra w th e lin e in it ia lly a nd w hat s o rt o f e vid ence fr o m th e r e gula te d ju stif ie s s h if tin g th e lin e d urin g th e r u le m akin g p ro ce ss.
B . S ilic a C ate g oriz a tio n a n d H ealt h E ffe cts W hile s ilic a is d efin ed b ro adly , s ilic a re la te d d is e ase s a re c u rre ntly a sso cia te d o nly w it h fr e e c ry sta llin e s ilic a .[2 7] D is tin guis h in g betw een cry sta llin e and noncry sta llin e silic a is m ere ly th e begin nin g of our k n ow le dge o f p ote ntia l d is tin ctio ns, h ow eve r. F or e xa m ple , th e M in era lo gic a l S ocie ty o f A m eric a c la ssif ie s c ry sta llin e s ilic a in to 1 7 fo rm s.[2 8] R ese arc h o n h ealt h e ff e cts fo cu s o n o nly fo ur p rin cip al fo rm s,[2 9] b ut t h e w id er s e t o f M in era lo gic a l S ocie ty c la ssif ic a tio ns s u ggests th at th ese c a te gorie s m ay n ot c a ptu re th e i m pact o f a ll o f th e p ote ntia lly r e le va nt d is tin ctio ns a m ong th e ty p es. C hanges in s cie ntif ic k n ow le dge h ave a lr e ady le d to n ew th eorie s a bout h ow s ilic a c a use s h ealt h e ff e cts .[3 0] F utu re c h anges m ay le ad to fu rth er d eve lo pm ent o f k n ow le dge. In it s 2 002 re vie w , th e N atio nal In stit u te o f O ccu pa tio nal S afe ty a nd H ealt h ( N IO SH ) re co m mended fu rth er re se arc h to re duce u nce rta in ty re gard in g "m ech anis m s a nd th e in flu ence o f p artic le c h ara cte ris tic s o n d eve lo pm ent o f d is e ase ." [3 1] M ore ove r, w heth er a n in div id ual e xp ose d to s ilic a d ust d eve lo ps s ilic o sis d epends o n a r a nge o f in div id ual f a cto rs in clu din g pers o nal ch ara cte ris tic s unre la te d to th e exp osu re , su ch as w heth er th e in div id ual s m oke s.[3 2] T he A m eric a n T hora cic S ocie ty , fo r e xa m ple , fo und e vid ence s u g gestin g th at e xp osu re to c ry sta llin e s ilic a '" p ro duce s in cre ase d ris k fo r b ro nch ogenic c a rc in om a,'" b ut '" n o te d th at le ss in fo rm atio n w as a va ila ble fo r lu ng c a nce r r is ks a m ong s ilic o tic s w ho h ad n eve r s m oke d a nd fo r s ilic a e xp ose d w ork e rs w ho d id n ot h ave s ilic o sis .'" [3 3] A nd n ot a ll d ust c o nta in in g fr e e c ry sta llin e s ilic a , c u rre ntly th ought to b e th e m ost d ang ero us, is h arm fu l. F ilt r a tio n b y th e n ose , th ro at, a nd u pper a ir w ays re m ove la rg er p artic le s b efo re th ey r e ach th e in nerm ost d epth s o f th e r e sp ir a to ry tr a ct ( a lv e oli o r a ir s a cs) w here s ilic o sis d am age o ccu rs .[3 4] T he s iz e o f d ust p artic le s is th us im porta nt to d ete rm in in g h aza rd le ve ls a s w ell. T his s h ort s u m mary is in te nded to m ake th e p oin t th at o ur u nders ta ndin g o f h ow silic a a ff e cts h um an h ealt h is i n co m ple te . C le arly w e fa ce a d anger o f o ve rre gula tio n b eca use w e d o n ot k n ow w heth er p artic u la r fo rm s o f s ilic a a re h arm fu l, e ve n if w e a re c e rta in th at s o m e p artic u la r fo rm is h arm fu l.
M ost re ce ntly , s tu die s h ave s u ggeste d th at th ere m ay b e a c ru cia l d if f e re nce b etw een fr e sh ly fr a ctu re d c ry sta llin e s ilic a a nd s ilic a w it h o ld er fr a ctu re s. F ra ctu re d s ilic a th at h as a ged fo r w eeks to m onth s p ose s f e w er h ealt h r is ks th a n fr e sh ly fr a ctu re d s ilic a .[3 5] T he S orp tiv e M in era ls In stit u te ( S M I) , w hic h r e pre se nts t h e abso rp tiv e cla y in dustr y , is stu dyin g th e dif f e re nce s in healt h ris k betw een exp osu re to fr e sh ly f r a ctu re d, a ged s ilic a a nd th e "g eolo gic a lly a ncie nt" c la ys (fr a ctu re d o ve r e ons th ro ugh n atu ra l g eolo gic a l p ro ce sse s) u se d in th at in dustr y .[3 6] T he in it ia l r e su lt s o f it s e xp erim ents s u ggest th at th e c h ara cte ris tic s o f a rtif ic ia lly fr a ctu re d q uartz (p ulv e riz e d, g ro und, b la ste d, o r o th erw is e fr a ctu re d b y m an) m ake it a g re ate r h ealt h th re at th an r e sp ir a ble q uartz g enera te d th ro ugh n atu ra l g eolo gic a l p ro ce sse s.
W e a ls o fa ce th e d anger o f u nderre gu la tio n. P ro lo nged e xp osu re to fr e e c ry sta llin e s ilic a is a sso cia te d w it h s c a rrin g o f th e lu ngs (s ilic o sis ). S ilic o sis is a p ro gre ssiv e , in cu ra ble d is e ase th at im pair s re sp ir a to ry f u nctio n.[3 7] It ta ke s y e ars to d eve lo p, s e ld om e xh ib it in g s ym pto m s in u nder fiv e y e ars .[3 8] N ot c o ntr o llin g 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& hi … 5 /7 7 e xp osu re to h arm fu l fo rm s o f silic a th us ris ks ir re para ble d am age to e xp ose d in div id uals ' lu ngs. A s d escrib ed b elo w , th e r e gula to ry h is to ry o f s ilic a in clu des fr e quent, in co rre ct a sse rtio ns th at th e p ro ble m s o f s ilic a e xp osu re h ad b een s o lv e d b y re gula to ry m easu re s th at s u bse quent k n ow le dge re ve ale d to b e le ss e ff e ctiv e th an p ro m is e d. In th e e arly 1 990s, 2 00 to 3 00 silic o sis d eath s p er ye ar w ere re porte d.[3 9] F urth er, re se arc h has re ce ntly asso cia te d ch ro nic exp osu re to hig h le ve ls of ce rta in fo rm s of fr e e c ry sta llin e s ilic a w it h lu ng c a nce r. D ela y in a ddre ssin g s ilic a e xp osu re th us a ls o h as it s c o sts , a nd th ere is n ow r e aso n to b elie ve th at th ose c o sts a re la rg er th an p re vio usly th ought.
T he p ro ble m o f c a te goriz a tio n is c e ntr a l to r e gula to ry a ctio n c o nce rn in g s ilic a . T he IA R C a naly sis o f s ilic a d ust, fo r e xa m ple , n ote d th at "c a rc in ogenic it y in h um ans w as n ot d ete cte d in a ll in dustr ia l c ir c u m sta nce s s tu die d. C arc in ogen ic it y m ay b e d ependent o n in here nt ch ara cte ris tic s o f th e cry sta llin e silic a o r o n e xte rn al fa cto rs a ff e ctin g it s b io lo gic a l a ctiv it y o r d is tr ib utio n o f it s p oly m orp hs." [4 0] D ete rm in in g w hic h f o rm s o f s ilic a p ose a h um an h ealt h th re at, a nd s o a re c a ndid ate s fo r r e gula to ry a ctio n, is th us k e y.
I n s u m , w e k n ow th at s ilic a c a n b e c la ssif ie d in m ult ip le w ays. T hese c la ssif ic a tio ns m ay o r m ay n ot h ave a r e la tio nsh ip to th e h ea lt h e ff e cts o bse rv e d in e pid em io lo gic a l s tu die s o f s ilic a e xp osu re a nd o th er r e se arc h o n s ilic a 's h ealt h e ff e cts . W e d o n ot k n ow , fo r e xa m ple , e xa ctly w hat fo rm o f s ilic a m edic a l re se arc h ers i n clu ded in so m e e arly stu die s b eca use d is tin ctio ns n ow re co gniz e d w ere u n kn ow n o r th ought to b e u nim porta nt a t th e tim e th e s tu die s w ere c o nducte d. Y et th ese d is tin ctio ns a re p ote ntia lly a s im porta nt a s t h e dis tin ctio n betw een silic a dust and dust th at does not co nta in silic a . O SH A re gula te s (a nd is c o nsid erin g tig hte nin g re gula tio ns o n) s ilic a b ase d o n a re co gnit io n th at s ilic a d ust is d if f e re nt fr o m o th er d usts . If it tu rn s o ut th at o nly fr e sh ly fr a ctu re d c ry sta llin e s ilic a d ust is h aza rd o us, fa ilin g to d ra w th at d is tin ctio n w ill h ave u nnece ssa rily im pose d s u bsta ntia l c o sts o n in dustr ie s u sin g o th er fo rm s o f s ilic a . W e a re th us in th e p osit io n o f th e r e gula to r c o nsid erin g α k ry p to nit e , α ' k ry p to nit e , a nd β k ry p to nit e : W e h ave m ult ip le d is tin ctio ns, b ut w e d o n ot k n ow if th ey a re re le va nt. A s o ur a bilit y to d ra w d is tin ctio ns b ase d o n c h em ic a l, m in era lo gic a l, a nd o th er b ase s g ro w s, it in cre asin gly e xce eds o ur a bilit y to u nders ta nd th e r e le va nce o f th e d is tin ctio ns w e c a n d ra w .
W e h ave th us e sta blis h ed th e fa ir ly o b vio us fa ct th at re gula to rs m ust d ra w lin es. W hat m ay b e le ss o bvio us is th at th e a bilit y to d ra w th ese d is tin ctio ns is e ndogenous. T hat is , th e c h ara cte riz a tio n o f th e r e gula te d s u bsta nce (a nd o th er d is tin ctio ns) d epends o n th e in ve stm ent b y th e re gula to r, th e re gula te d, a nd o th er in te re st g ro ups in c re atin g a nd u sin g k n ow le dge a bout th e s u bje ct o f th e re gula tio n. D if f e re nt p artic ip ants h ave d if f e re nt in ce ntiv e s to in ve st in b uild in g a nd u sin g s u ch k n ow le dge. W e d is cu ss th ese i n ce ntiv e s in th e n ext S ectio n.
C . In cen tiv es f o r D evelo pin g K now le d ge I f w e h ad c o m ple te k n ow le dge a bout a w ork p la ce h aza rd , it s r is ks, a nd it s r e m ed ie s, w e m ig ht b e a ble to d esig n a c o m pre hensiv e re gula tio n th at p erfe ctly a lig ned p ro te ctiv e m easu re s a n d h aza rd s, s tr ik in g ju st t h e r ig ht b ala nce b etw een th e c o st a nd b enefit o f m it ig atio n. O f c o urs e , w e d o n ot h ave s u ch in fo rm atio n a bout w ork p la ce h aza rd s a ny m ore th an w e h ave it a bout a nyth in g e ls e .[4 1] E xa m in in g a tte m pts to i m ple m ent r e gula to ry s o lu tio ns in e co nom ic p olic y, N obel P riz e w in nin g e co nom is t F rie dric h A . v o n H aye k c o in ed th e te rm "th e k n ow le dge p ro ble m " to e xp la in w hy c e ntr a liz e d re gula to ry s o lu tio ns a re in fe rio r to d ece ntr a liz e d m ark e t p ro ce sse s.[4 2] H aye k's c e ntr a l p oin t w as th at d ece ntr a liz e d m ark e ts fo cu s d is p ers e d i n fo rm atio n — in fo rm atio n th at n o o ne in div id ual (n ot e ve n a re gula to r) ca n o bta in — a nd co nve y it e ff ic ie ntly to m ark e t p artic ip ants .
1 . M ark et In cen tiv es a n d M ark et F ailu re s T o u nders ta nd H aye k's p oin t, co nsid er th e fin ancia l in ce ntiv e s a n u nre gula te d w ork p la ce p ro vid es fo r p ro te ctin g h ealt h a nd s a fe ty . F ir s t, e m plo ye es h ave o bvio us in ce ntiv e s to p ro te ct th eir o w n h ealt h — fa ce d 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& hi … 6 /7 7 w it h tw o o th erw is e e qual jo bs w it h d if f e re nt r is ks, e m plo ye es w ill p re fe r th e le ss r is ky jo b. T hus, in fo rm ed e m plo ye es w ill d em and s a fe guard s fo r h ealt h a nd s a fe ty .
S eco nd, eve n w holly se lf in te re ste d em plo ye rs have in ce ntiv e s to pro vid e sa fe and healt h y w ork e nvir o nm ents to e nsu re a p ro ductiv e w ork fo rc e .[4 3] E m plo ye rs o fte n h ave s ig nif ic a nt in ve stm ents in th eir e m plo ye es' fir m s p e cif ic h um an c a pit a l. [4 4] S afe guard in g th at in ve stm ent re quir e s re ducin g tu rn ove r.[4 5] M ore ove r, e m plo ye es in m ore r is ky jo bs c a n c o m mand h ig her w ages th an e m plo ye es w it h e quiv a le nt s kills i n le ss ris ky e nvir o nm ents , w hic h p ro vid e s fin ancia l in ce ntiv e s fo r e m plo ye rs to p ro te ct th e h ealt h a nd s a fe ty o f e m plo ye es, e ve n in th e a bse nce o f g ove rn m ent r e quir e m ents .[4 6] In deed, e ve n c rit ic s o f m ark e t f o rc e s co nce de th at m ark e t re sp onse s so m etim es occu r befo re re gula to ry actio n.[4 7] F or exa m ple , s yste m atic m edic a l e xa m s o f e m plo ye es, a n im porta nt to ol in u nco ve rin g w ork p la ce d is e ase s, w ere p art o f " p ate rn alis tic p ro gra m s to c a re fo r th e w ork e rs ' b ro ader n eeds, o fte n to w ean th em a w ay fr o m tr a de u nio ns." [4 8] T he m ark e t fa ilu re analy sis of w ork p la ce healt h and sa fe ty str e sse s obsta cle s to th ese in ce ntiv e s' o pera tio n. F or e xa m ple , s o m e a rg ue th at b eca use e m plo ye es a re ig nora nt o f th e tr u e n atu re o f th e ris ks t h ey fa ce , th ey fa il to d em and s u ff ic ie nt s a fe ty .[4 9] S im ila rly , o th ers c o nte nd th at e m plo ye rs a re a ble to i m pose o ne s id ed b a rg ain s o n e m plo ye es a nd a re a ble to fo rc e th em to a cce pt d angero us jo bs w hen e m plo ye es w ould p re fe r s a fe r w ork in g c o ndit io ns.[5 0] A s a r e su lt o f th ese m ark e t fa ilu re s, c rit ic s a rg ue, a n u nre gula te d w ork e nvir o nm ent w ould b e h aza rd ous to e m plo ye es' h ealt h a nd s a fe ty . B eca use e m plo ye rs c o uld im pose c o ntr a cts in clu din g d angero us w ork in g c o ndit io ns w it h out fu lly c o m pensa tin g e m plo ye es fo r t h e a ddit io nal r is k, e m plo ye rs w ould c h oose n ot to in ve st in s a fe ty , th ere by s h if tin g th e c o st to e m plo ye es.
2 . In cen tiv es f o r C ate g oriz a tio n a n d K now le d ge W it h re sp ect to th e p ro ble m o f c a te goriz a tio n, w e c a n u se o ur k ry p to nit e e xa m ple to illu str a te h ow th e i n ce ntiv e s o pera te . S uppose w e b egin w it h th e p ro ble m o f k ry p to nit e e xp osu re g enera lly , w it h out r e gard to t h e v a rio us fo rm s o f k ry p to nit e . E m plo ye rs w ill h ave a n in ce ntiv e to in ve st in d is co ve rin g w heth er th ere a re r e le va nt dis tin ctio ns am ong fo rm s of kry p to nit e (α , α', and β) beca use th e dis co ve ry of a re le va nt d is tin ctio n c a n re duce th e ris k p re m iu m th ey m ust p ay to e m plo ye es. N ote th at th is b enefit o f in cre ase d k n ow le dge to em plo ye rs is dependen t upon co nvin cin g em plo ye es th at th e dis tin ctio n is re le va nt.
E m plo ye rs m ust p ers u ade th e e m plo ye es to a cce pt a lo w er r is k p re m iu m fo r w ork in g w it h th e le ss h arm fu l f o rm o f kry p to nit e . E m plo ye rs w ill h ave to m ake in ve stm ent d ecis io ns u nder co nsid era ble u nce rta in ty ( s in ce th ey d o n ot e ve n k n ow if th ere a re m ult ip le fo rm s o f k ry p to nit e , le t a lo ne w heth er th e h arm c a use d b y th e d if f e re nt fo rm s, th at m ay o r m ay n ot e xis t, is d if f e re nt) . T he k e y is th at th e in ce ntiv e e xis ts to p ro duce k n ow le dge, e ve n if th e in ce ntiv e is n ot to p ro duce p erfe ct k n ow le dge.
H ow eve r, m ark e t fa ilu re s a ff e ct in ce ntiv e s to in ve st in c a te goriz a tio n. If e m plo ye es m is p erc e iv e th e r is ks o f k ry p to nit e g enera lly , a nd s o fa il to d em and a n a ppro pria te r is k p re m iu m , o r a re u nable to b arg ain fo r r is k p re m iu m s a t a ll, e m plo ye rs w ill h ave n o in ce ntiv e to in ve st in k n ow le dge a bout k ry p to nit e 's p ote ntia l fo rm s.
M ore ove r, if e m plo ye es m is p erc e iv e r is ks b eca use th ey a re in ca pable o f u nders ta ndin g s cie ntif ic e vid ence , [ 5 1] th ey w ill b e u nlik e ly to a ccu ra te ly a sse ss th e e vid ence p ro duce d b y e m plo ye rs . E m plo ye rs m ay th en i n ve st in in accu ra te e vid ence to m is le ad e m plo ye es a bout th e ris ks o f k ry p to nit e . If th e m ark e t fa ilu re s d om in ate th e u nre gula te d m ark e t, th e in ce ntiv e s fo r in ve stin g in k n ow le dge w ill b e d ilu te d o r d estr o ye d, a nd a p erv e rs e in ce ntiv e to c re ate ju nk s cie nce m ay e xis t.
T he c h oic e in a ddre ssin g h ealt h a nd s a fe ty is su es is n ot, o f c o urs e , b etw een O SH A a nd th e c o m ple te ly u nre gula te d m ark e tp la ce . W e m ust th ere fo re als o co nsid er th e im pact of in te rm edia te re gula to ry m easu re s o n w ork p la ce h ealt h a nd s a fe ty . S in ce th e e arly tw entie th c e ntu ry , w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n a nd o th er fo rm s o f in su ra nce fin ance d th ro u gh p re m iu m s p aid b y e m plo ye rs h ave p ro vid ed in ce ntiv e s fo r 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& hi … 7 /7 7 w ork p la ce healt h and sa fe ty .[5 2] In su ra nce giv e s em plo ye rs in ce ntiv e s to pro m ote sa fe ty beca use e m plo ye rs w it h p oor s a fe ty re co rd s fa ce h ig her w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n in su ra nce p re m iu m s.[5 3] T hese i n ce ntiv e s a ppear to h ave h ad a n im pact o n th e w ork p la ce : T he d oublin g o f w ork e rs ' co m pensa tio n p re m iu m s b etw een 1 984 ($ 15 b illio n p er ye ar) a nd 1 991 ($ 31 b illio n), fo r e xa m ple , le d to sig nif ic a nt i m pro ve m ents in w ork e r s a fe ty . B y th e la te 1 990s, w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n p re m iu m s h ad fa lle n to $ 26 b illio n.[5 4] R ese arc h s u ggests th at, if n ot fo r w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n, o ccu patio n al fa ta lit ie s w ould b e o ne t h ir d h ig he r th an th ey a re .[5 5] W ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n in su ra nce th us h as h ad a d em onstr a ble im pact o n w ork p la ce h ealt h a nd s a fe ty .
W it h re sp ect to th e in ce ntiv e s to u nders ta nd h ealt h im pacts o f p ote ntia lly h aza rd ous s u bsta nce s in th e w ork p la ce , w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n in su ra nce c re ate s in ce ntiv e s fo r re se arc h b y a ddin g a re peat p la ye r c o nce rn ed w it h lo w erin g c o sts . In su ra nce c o m panie s p ro fit fr o m th e d if f e re nce b etw een th e c la im s th ey p ay a n d th e p re m iu m s th ey c o lle ct.[5 6] W ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n in su re rs c o m pete a m ong th em se lv e s fo r e m plo ye r b usin ess b y o ff e rin g lo w er p re m iu m s.[5 7] If a n in su re r c a n d is co ve r a b asis fo r d is tin guis h in g a m ong h ig h a nd lo w ris k e m plo ye rs (fo r e xa m ple , th e α / β k ry p to nit e d is tin ctio n), it c a n o ff e r lo w ris k e m plo ye rs lo w er p re m iu m s a nd w in m ark e t s h are . M ore ove r, e m plo ye rs w ho c a n d em onstr a te th at th eir w ork p la ce s a re le ss h aza rd ous th an th e w ork p la ce s o f o th er fir m s b y s h ow in g a d is tin ctio n in e xp osu re s w ill b e a ble to n egotia te lo w er p re m iu m s. T hus, b oth in su re rs a nd e m plo ye rs h ave in ce ntiv e s to s e ek to i n cre ase k n ow le dge a bout th e a ppro pria te c a te goriz a tio n o f w ork p la ce h aza rd s. A c o m ple te p ic tu re o f th e i n ce ntiv e s to b uild k n ow le dge o f w ork p la ce h aza rd s m ust in clu de th e in ce ntiv e s o f r e peat p la ye rs s u ch a s i n su ra nce c o m panie s.
3 . G overn m en t F ailu re s a n d t h e R ole o f In te re st G ro ups M ark e t fa ilu re th eory p ro ponents s o m etim es v ie w d ocu m entin g, o r p erh aps e ve n s im ply a sse rtin g, th e e xis te nce o f o ne o r b oth o f th e e ff e cts d escrib ed a bove ( e m plo ye es' in adequate u nders ta ndin g o f p ote ntia l r is ks and in adequate barg ain in g str e ngth co m pare d to em plo ye rs ) as su ff ic ie nt ju stif ic a tio n fo r sta te i n te rv e ntio n. A c ru cia l in sig ht o f p ublic c h oic e th eory , h ow eve r, is th at w e m ust c o nsid er th e p ossib ilit y th at s ta te in te rv e ntio ns w ill m ake th in gs w ors e . In o th er w ord s, th ere m ay b e a " g ove rn m ent fa ilu re " a s w ell a s a m ark e t fa ilu re , a nd th e m eans o f p ro perly ju dgin g th e re la tiv e w orth o f a lt e rn ativ e in stit u tio ns is to c o m pare th e str e ngth s and w eakn esse s of both ra th er th an th e str e ngth s of sta te actio n w it h th e w eakn esse s of m ark e t pro ce sse s.[5 8] U nders ta ndin g th e co m ple te se t of in stit u tio nal str e ngth s and w eakn esse s r e quir e s th at w e c o nsid er th e in ce ntiv e s c re ate d b y b oth .
M ore ove r, w e m ust c o nsid er th e fo rm o f th e in te rv e ntio n r e quir e d to c o m pensa te fo r a ny m ark e t fa ilu re s. If t h e pro ble m is a la ck of in fo rm atio n am ong em plo ye es about th e m agnit u de of ris ks, fo r exa m ple , p ro vid in g th em w it h th e in fo rm atio n is o n e m eans o f c o rre ctin g th e m ark e t fa ilu re ; d ir e ctly s p ecif y in g th e r is k re ductio n m easu re s e m plo ye rs m ust ta ke is a noth er. T hese tw o s o lu tio ns h ave d if f e re nt in ce ntiv e e ff e cts , a nd th e c o sts a nd b enefit s o f e ach s h ould b e c o nsid ere d in c o nte m pla tin g th e fo rm o f in te rv e ntio n.
G iv e n th e o th er in ce ntiv e s e m plo ye rs a nd e m plo ye es h ave to p ro te ct w ork e r h ea lt h a nd s a fe ty , w hat r o le s h ould fe d era l r e gula tio n h ave ? T ra dit io n al w elf a re e co nom ic s a rg ues th at th e e xis te nce o f m ark e t fa ilu re s r e quir e s g ove rn m ent in te rv e ntio n.[5 9] It s u ggests th at p olit ic ia ns s e ekin g to s e rv e th e p ublic in te re st w ill r e gula te to c o rre ct th ose "m ark e t fa ilu re s," in w hic h c a se w e w ould s e e re gula tio ns e nacte d to s e rv e th e p ublic in te re st b y a ddre ssin g p erc e iv e d o r re al m ark e t fa ilu re s.[6 0] T his d oes n o t a ppear to b e u nif o rm ly t h e c a se , h ow eve r, s u ggestin g th at a ric h er th eory o f re gula tio n is n eeded.[6 1] M any re gula tio ns d o n ot c o rre sp ond to m ark e t fa ilu re s. E co nom ic re gula tio ns, th e p re dom in ate ty p e o f re gula tio n th ro ugh th e 1 960s, w ere n ot w ell c o rre la te d w it h id entif ia ble m ark e t fa ilu re s, a nd in deed, th ey o fte n s e em ed to s e rv e p riv a te , n ot p ublic , in te re sts .[6 2] In th e c a se o f O SH A re gula tio n, e m pir ic a l a naly sis h as n ot fo und s tr o ng 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& hi … 8 /7 7 e vid ence th at O SH A re gula tio ns have had a su bsta ntia l im pact on w ork e r healt h and sa fe ty ,[6 3] s u ggestin g th at a lt e rn ativ e e xp la natio ns a re n ece ssa ry .
T he u nders ta ndin g o f re gula tio n im pro ve d w it h th e in sig hts o f G eorg e S tig le r a n d J a m es B uch anan, tw o N obel P riz e w in nin g e co nom is ts . T he w ork s o f S tig le r a nd B uch anan d eve lo pe d in sig hts fo r p re dic tin g w hen p olic ym ake rs w ould p ro m ulg ate r e gula tio ns a nd th e fo rm th ey w ould b e li k e ly to ta ke . In p artic u la r, S tig le r's 1 971 a rtic le , T he T heory o f E co nom ic R egula tio n, h elp ed ra is e a w are ness o f th e in ce ntiv e s c re ate d b y r e gula tio ns a nd w ealt h re dis tr ib utio n c o nse quence s o f e co nom ic r e gula tio n. S tig le r s ta rte d w it h t h e p re m is e s th at (1 ) th e b asic re so urc e o f th e g ove rn m ent is th e p ow er to c o e rc e , (2 ) a n in te re st g ro up t h at c a n c o nvin ce th e g ove rn m ent to u se it s c o erc iv e p ow er to it s b enefit c a n im pro ve it s w ell b ein g a t th e e xp ense o f o th ers , a nd (3 ) a gents (fir m s, in div id uals , g ove rn m ent o ff ic ia ls , in te re st g ro ups) a re ra tio nal a nd tr y to m axim iz e th eir o w n u tilit y ( w ell b ein g).[6 4] W it h th is fo undatio n, S tig le r s e t fo rth th e h yp oth esis th at r e gula tio n is s u pplie d in r e sp onse to th e d em ands o f in te re st g ro ups a ctin g to m axim iz e th eir o w n w ell b ein g ( in co m e).[6 5] H e o bse rv e d th at th e b ehavio r o f l e gis la to rs is d riv e n b y th eir d esir e to s ta y in o ff ic e (m axim iz e p olit ic a l s u pport) . R egula tio n is o ne w ay to r e dis tr ib ute w ealt h , a nd in te re st g ro ups c o m pete fo r th at w ealt h re dis tr ib utio n b y o ff e rin g p olit ic a l s u pport i n e xch ange fo r fa vo ra ble le gis la tio n.
T he im plic a tio n o f S tig le r's th eory is th at r e gula tio n is lik e ly to b e b ia se d to w ard b enefit in g in te re st g ro ups t h at a re b ette r o rg aniz e d a nd h ave m ore to g ain fr o m th e w ealt h r e dis tr ib utio n. R egula tio n is th us lik e ly to b enefit s m alle r, b ette ro rg aniz e d in te re st g ro ups w it h s tr o ngly fe lt p re fe re nce s a t th e e xp ense o f la rg er i n te re st g ro ups w it h w eakly fe lt p re fe re nce s.
B uch anan's w ork (to geth er w it h G ord o n T ullo ck) c o ntr ib ute d to th is ric h er u nde rs ta ndin g o f re gula tio n t h ro ugh th e c re atio n o f p ublic c h oic e th eory .[6 6] P ublic c h oic e e co nom ic s b egin s w it h th e r e co gnit io n th at ( 1 ) in div id uals in gove rn m ent (p olit ic ia ns, re gula to rs , vo te rs , etc .) , ju st as in div id uals in oth er c ir c u m sta nce s, a re d riv e n b y s e lf in te re st a nd (2 ) th ese in div id uals a re n ot o m nis cie nt.[6 7] P ublic c h oic e t h eory a rg ues th at g ove rn m ent o ff ic ia ls c a nnot s im ply s yste m atic a lly m axim iz e th e p ublic in te re st. F or e xa m ple , to p ro duce fa vo ra ble o utc o m es, e ve n a b enevo le nt p olit ic ia n m ust b e in o ff ic e . T o g ain a nd r e ta in o ff ic e , th e p olit ic ia n m ust o bta in c a m paig n fu nds a nd v o te s; g ettin g b oth r e quir e s c o opera tin g w it h in te re st g ro ups s e ekin g to m axim iz e th eir o w n w elf a re . T hus, p ublic c h oic e e co nom ic s r e ach c o nclu sio ns s im ila r to t h ose d ra w n fr o m S tig le r's e co nom ic th eory o f re gula tio n. P ublic c h oic e a ls o re co gniz e s th at, b eca use p olic ym ake rs are not om nis cie nt re ga rd in g th e co nse quence s of dif f e re nt polic y ch oic e s, th eir i n te rv e ntio ns, e ve n w hen d esig ned to c o rre ct m ark e t fa ilu re s, m ay p ro duce " g ove rn m ent fa ilu re s." [6 8] T he in sig hts o f p ublic c h oic e th eory a nd th e e co nom ic th eory o f r e gula tio n s h ed n ew lig ht o n w hen w e a re l ik e ly to o bse rv e re g ula tio n a nd th e fo rm s it w ill ta ke . C ru cia lly , th ey te ll u s th at w e n eed n ot re ly o n b ad a cto rs in g ove rn m ent to e xp la in s u bo ptim al o utc o m es. G ood p eople , w it h p ure m otiv e s, w ill a ls o p ro duce s p ecia l in te re st re gula tio ns d ue to th e s tr u ctu re o f th e p olit ic a l s yste m . T hus, s m all, o rg aniz e d in te re st g ro ups ca n exe rc is e th e polit ic a l w ill to gain sp ecia liz e d benefit s w hile sp re adin g co sts to la rg e u norg aniz e d c it iz e ns. T o s tu dy re gula tio n, th ere fo re , w e m ust u nders ta nd th e in te re st g ro ups th at h ave a s ta ke in r e gula to ry a ctio ns a nd th e p olit ic a l p la ye rs in vo lv e d.[6 9] I I. A N IN TE R EST G ROUPB ASED A CCOUNT O F S IL IC A R EG ULA TIO N I n S ectio n I, w e a rg ued th at s ig nif ic a nt p ro ble m s m ust b e re so lv e d fo r th e d esig n o f e ff e ctiv e re gula to ry m easu re s. In th is S ectio n, w e tu rn to th e r e gula to ry h is to ry o f s ilic a d ust b eca use u nders ta ndin g r e gula to ry o utc o m es depends on th e exa m in atio n of th e ro le s in te re st gro ups and in ce ntiv e s pla y in sh apin g r e gula to ry p olic y. 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& hi … 9 /7 7 A . T he E arly A w are n ess o f t h e H ealt h R is ks o f S ilic a S ilic a is e ve ry w here — it is th e s e co nd m ost c o m mon m in era l in th e e arth 's c ru st.[7 0] S ilic a d ust is a h ig hly v is ib le a ir c o nta m in an t, u nlik e m any o th er w ork p la ce h aza rd s lik e g ase s th at a re p o te ntia lly c a rc in ogenic a t l o w c o nce ntr a tio ns a nd d if f ic u lt to id entif y in th e w ork p la ce . D ust, a fte r a ll, is g enera lly v is ib le to th e n ake d e ye e ve n if th e s p ecif ic p artic le s th at a re m ost h aza rd ous a re n ot. D is cu ssio ns o f s ilic a a nd s ilic o sis o fte n b egin w it h a q uote fr o m D e R e M eta llic a , a s ix te enth c e ntu ry tr e atis e o n m in in g, b y th e G erm an s ch ola r, d octo r, a nd fo under o f m odern g eolo gy G eorg B auer (a ls o kn ow n a s G eorg iu s A gric o la ), o r a noth er s o urc e o f s im ila r h is to ric v in ta ge to m ake th e p oin t th at th e h aza rd s a re w ell k n ow n.[7 1] S uch a cco unts a re a t le ast p artia lly c o rre ct. B y a s e arly a s th e e nd o f th e n in ete enth c e ntu ry , o cc u patio nal h ealt h w rit e rs h ad cle arly e sta blis h ed a re la tio nsh ip b e tw een d usts , in clu din g silic a d usts , a nd h ealt h .[7 2] T hus, th e h aza rd s o f s ilic o sis a re n ot a n ew d is co ve ry , e ve n th ough th e c o m ple xit ie s o f it s c a use a nd e ff e ct a re s till b ein g e xp lo re d to day.[7 3] A c o nclu sio n o ne m ig ht d ra w fr o m th ese v e nera ble s o urc e s is th at th e m ark e t h as c le arly fa ile d w it h r e sp ect to d ust e xp osu re s. H ow , a fte r a ll , c o uld h undre ds o f y e ars o f e xp osu re to d angero us d usts o ccu r u nle ss th ere w as a m ark e t fa ilu re ? T he a nsw er lie s w it h th e e vo lv in g n atu re o f s cie ntif ic k n ow le dge a nd t h e n a tu re o f d ust in duce d h ealt h p ro ble m s. D esp it e w id esp re ad g enera l k n ow le dge th at d ust e xp osu re p ose d ris ks, in fa ct lit tle s p ecif ic k n ow le dge e xis te d a s to th e ty p es o f ris ks w it h w hic h w e a re c o nce rn ed t o day. N in e te enth c e ntu ry a nd e arlie r o bse rv e rs c o uld s e e d ust in th e a ir in m in es a nd o th er w ork p la ce s a nd o bse rv e th at s o m e o f th e e m plo ye es w ork in g in th ose lo ca tio ns b eca m e s ic k. T hey h ad lit tle a ccu ra te k n ow le dge a bout w hy th e e m plo ye es b eca m e ill, w hy s o m e d id a nd s o m e d id n o t, a nd h ow th e d ust th ey o bse rv e d w as c o nne cte d to th e illn ess. C ondit io ns in th ese w ork p la ce s w ere g ene ra lly q uit e d if f e re nt fr o m t h ose th at p re va il to day. E xp osu re s in p re in dustr ia l e co nom ie s, fo r e xa m ple , te n ded to b e lim it e d to a fe w h ig hris k o ccu patio ns (fo r e xa m ple , m in in g). E ve n in th ose o ccu patio ns, th e te ch nolo gy u se d in p re i n dustr ia l R evo lu tio n m in in g d if f e re d fr o m m odern m eth ods, a nd it p ro duce d d if f e re nt ty p es a nd v o lu m es o f d ust. W e re m em ber th e s u cce ssfu l id entif ic a tio n o f th e a sso cia tio n b etw een d ust a nd s ilic o sis , fo rg ettin g t h e m any sim ila r th eorie s th at h ave sin ce b een p ro ve n w ro ng (fo r e xa m ple , th e co nnectio n b etw een " m ia sm as" and dis e ase ).[7 4] W e ca nnot co nclu de fr o m A gric o la 's w rit in gs th at th e public w id ely u nders to od th at th e c o ndit io ns h e o bse rv e d c a use d d is e ase . N or c a n w e c o nclu de th at th e a bse nce o f a ctio n to c o ntr o l th e d ust h aza rd u ntil th e tw entie th c e ntu ry re pre se nts in dif f e re nce to th e h ealt h a nd w elf a re o f th e e m plo ye es b y e it h er th e e m plo ye es th em se lv e s o r th eir e m plo ye rs .
B . F ro m t h e In dustr ia l R evo lu tio n t o t h e N ew D eal A lt h ough m in ers and so m e oth er occu patio ns had exp erie nce d dust exp o su re s fo r ce ntu rie s, th e d eve lo pm ent o f p ow er to ols a nd o th er n ew te ch nolo gie s a s a r e su lt o f th e in dustr ia l r e vo lu tio n d ra m atic a lly c h anged th e s co pe a nd ty p e o f d ust e xp osu re fo r e m plo ye es in a w id e r a nge o f in dustr ie s.
1 . In dustr ia liz a tio n's Im pacts I n dustr ia liz a tio n in th e U nit e d S ta te s b ro ught a sh arp in cre ase in a ccid enta l d eath s a nd in ju rie s.[7 5] T hro ughout th e la te n in ete enth a nd e arly tw entie th ce ntu rie s, A m eric a ns g ra pple d w it h a n um ber o f r e sp onse s to th e p ro ble m . N ot s u rp ris in gly , g iv e n th e to ll fr o m a ccid ents , th e p ro b le m o f w ork p la ce d is e ase w as n ot th e fir s t p rio rit y .[7 6] T he in it ia l r e sp onse to th e in cre ase d a ccid ent r a te w as a n " o utp ourin g" o f n ew t o rt lit ig atio n d esp it e th e re str ic tiv e to rt d octr in es th at m ade s u it s d if f ic u lt fo r p la in tif f s to w in — b etw een 1 870 a nd 1 910, to rt c a se s in N ew Y ork C it y h ad g ro w n fr o m 4 .2 % to 4 0.9 % o f th e tr ia l c o urt c a se lo ad.[7 7] C om pla in ts c o nce rn in g th e p la in tif f s ' b a r u se d a la rm is t te rm s: '" b arra tr o us s p ecu la tio ns,'" '" c o m munis tic t e ndencie s,'" and '" e norm ous ve rd ic ts '" all co ntr ib ute d to th e denig ra tio n of'" m anly and pro fe ssio nal d ig nit y '" a t th e b ar.[7 8] 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 1 0/7 7 D ust m ay n ot h ave b een a t th e to p o f th e s o cia l a genda, b ut it to o w as a ff e cte d b y in dustr ia liz a tio n. A s a r e su lt of te ch nolo gic a l ch ange, th e sco p e of th e dust pro ble m gre w dra m atic a lly w it h th e In dustr ia l R evo lu tio n.[7 9] E xp osu re to s ilic a d ust in cre ase d s h arp ly in th e e arly y e ars o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry a fte r t h e in ve ntio n o f th e p neum atic h am mer d rill in 1 897 a nd s a nd b la stin g in 1 904.[8 0] T he n ew te ch nolo gie s m eant th a t m ore d ust w as m ade u p o f sm alle r p artic le s.[8 1] A lt h ough n o syste m atic m easu re m ents e xis te d, fe dera l s tu die s c o nducte d b y th e B ure au o f M in es fo und th at m in es in J o plin , M is so uri a nd B utte , M onta na c o nta in ed d ust le ve ls a t m ore th an 1 00 tim es th e le ve ls la te r a llo w ed u nder th e O SH A s ta ndard s i m pose d in th e 1 970s.[8 2] E ve n in s ta te s w it h la w s re quir in g v e ntila tio n o f d usty w ork p la ce s, in su ff ic ie nt k n ow le dge r e su lt e d in la w s th at la cke d s p ecif ic it y in d efin in g m eanin gfu l e xp osu re o r v e ntila tio n le ve ls .[8 3] F urth er, th e lim it s o f p re tw entie th c e ntu ry m edic a l k n ow le dge s ig nif ic a ntly h am pere d m edic a l d ia gnosis o f d ust re la te d in ju rie s. T he a bse nce o f X ra y te ch nolo gy s e ve re ly lim it e d th e a bilit y to e xa m in e th e lu ngs o f l iv in g p atie nts ,[8 4] a nd th e la ck o f th e g erm th eory le ft d octo rs w it h out a c o rre ct c a usa l u nders ta ndin g o f m uch o f w hat w e ta ke fo r g ra nte d in m edic in e to day.[8 5] F or e xa m ple , s cie ntis ts h ad tr o uble d is tin guis h in g t u berc u lo sis fr o m lu ng s ca rrin g c a use d b y d ust e xp osu re .[8 6] E ve n to day, r a dio g ra phic te ch niq ues c a nnot d is tin guis h s ilic o sis fr o m m any o th er r e sp ir a to ry d is e ase s.[8 7] S im ila rly , v a ria tio n in in div id ual s u sce ptib ilit y t o v a rio us in dustr ia l h aza rd s d is co ura ged in ve stm ent in g enera l m it ig atio n m easu re s s o le ly b eca use s o m e e m plo ye es b eca m e ill. [8 8] M edic a l s ta ndard s c h anged r a pid ly in th e fir s t q uarte r o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry , b eco m in g m ore s cie nce b ase d a nd m akin g m uch g re ate r u se o f te ch nolo gy.[8 9] T his in clu ded e xp ansio n o f in fo rm atio n te ch nolo gy s u ch a s p unch c a rd s, w hic h e nable d th e tr a ckin g o f p atte rn s o f d is e ase .[9 0] P re tw entie th c e ntu ry u nders ta ndin g o f d ust h aza rd s w as p rim it iv e b y m odern s ta ndard s, a nd im pro vin g t h at u nders ta ndin g u lt im ate ly r e quir e d te ch nolo gic a l c h ange ( th e in ve ntio n o f r a dio gra phy in 1 895)[9 1] a nd s cie ntif ic b re akth ro ughs in m edic in e (th e g erm th eory 's im pact o n m edic in e in th e 1 870s a nd 1 880s).[9 2] A lt h ough th e d is co ve ry o f X ra y te ch nolo gy p ro m pte d a m assiv e re actio n a lm ost o ve rn ig ht — m ach in es w ere fo r s a le in th e U nit e d S ta te s fo r $ 50 w it h in a s h ort tim e a fte r th e d is co ve ry o f th e te ch niq ue in G erm any, a nd m ore th an 1 ,0 00 a rtic le s a nd 4 9 b ooks o n th e to pic a ppeare d in th e fir s t y e ar a fte r it s d is co ve ry [9 3] — it to o k tim e fo r th e p ra ctic a l a pplic a tio n o f it to s p re ad b eyo nd m ajo r u rb an c e nte rs .[9 4] It a ls o to ok tim e fo r th e n ew te ch nolo gy to b eco m e a cce pte d a s a v it a l p art o f d ia gnosis e ve n fo r o bvio us c o ndit io ns s u ch a s b ro ke n b ones.[9 5] F in ally , a lt h ough th e te ch nolo gy w as c e rta in ly a va ila ble b y 1 900, m ajo r in nova tio ns in re ducin g th e c o st o f it s u se w ere n ot re aliz e d u ntil th e d em ands o f W orld W ar I p ro m pte d in nova tio n.[9 6] I n a ddit io n , b efo re th e tw entie th c e ntu ry , p ublic h ealt h w as "s till la rg ely th e p ro vin ce o f a m ate urs a nd g entle m en," [9 7] a nd th e g entle m en d id n ot h ave th e to ols o r th e p olit ic a l b ase to d em and r e so urc e s. O nly w hen p riv a te fo undatio ns a nd s ta te g ove rn m ents b egan fu ndin g r e se arc h in th e fir s t y e ars o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry d id a m ore s yste m atic a naly sis o f w ork p la ce s a fe ty a nd h ealt h b egin .[9 8] T he d em and fo r m ore k n ow le dge about dust re la te d healt h haza rd s als o gre w beca use of th e ch anges th at th e In dustr ia l R evo lu tio n in tr o duce d in fa cto rie s.
S lo w in g th e d eve lo pm ent o f a ccu ra te k n ow le dge o f th e c a use s o f w ork p la ce d is e ase s w as the ambiguous way that occupational ailments often manifested themselves. Even widely recognized industrial diseases could be difficult to identify with any certainty in a given worker. Ailments without characteristic signs of their occupational origins, such as cardiovascular illnesses, many muscular strains and cramps, or even the infectious lung 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& h … 1 1 /7 7 diseases that often complicated silicosis, were easily attributable to nonoccupational rather than workplace causes. Even for those diseases more specifically connected with certain occupations, like lead poisoning, recognition could be difficult.[99] A c lo se lo ok a t w hen k n ow le dge d eve lo ped s u pports th is a cco unt. A n a rtic le p ublis h ed in 1 900 in th e J o urn al o f th e A m eric a n M edic a l A sso cia tio n b eca m e th e fir s t m ajo r U .S . m edic a l p ublic a tio n to id entif y s ilic a d ust a s th e c a use o f fib ro sis .[1 00] It d is cu sse d e le va te d d eath ra te s fo llo w in g th e in tr o ductio n o f m ech anic a l m illin g e quip m ent in a N eva da g old m illin g fir m .[1 01] B rit is h re se arc h ers a ls o d ocu m ente d p ro ble m s in S outh A fr ic a n m in es in th is sa m e perio d.[1 02] S ig nif ic a ntly , dust haza rd s w ere fir s t d ocu m ente d in th e c o nte xt o f h ig h e xp osu re o ccu patio ns (m in in g a nd m illin g) in w hic h n ew te ch niq ues i n cre ase d th e h aza rd a t th e sa m e tim e a s n ew m edic a l te ch nolo gy a nd kn ow le dge m ade d ia gnosis p ossib le .
T he p ublic re acte d to th e n ew k n ow le dge b y d em andin g y e t m ore k n ow le dge. A s e arly a s 1 911 , fo r e xa m ple , a n in su ra nce c o m pany s ta tis tic ia n p ush ed fo r a fe dera lly fu nded s tu dy in to th e h ealt h o f m eta l m in ers .[1 03] In su ra nce c o m pany in te re st in th e s u bje ct is n ot s u rp ris in g: S om e e stim ate s to day a re th at " a t l e ast th ir ty th ousa nd" m eta l m in ers "a t a ny tim e" d urin g th is p erio d h ad silic o sis .[1 04] A nd in su ra nce p olic ie s fo r fa cto ry w ork e rs h ad b oom ed in th e p re ce din g d eca des — e stim ate s r u n a s h ig h a s 3 .5 m illio n p olic ie s b y 1 900.[1 05] N ew k n ow le dge w as p ro duce d — "B y th e 1 920s, s ilic o sis w as e sta blis h ed a s a n i m porta nt in dustr ia l d is e ase ." [1 06] T he n e w k n ow le dge w as fa r fr o m c o m ple te : "[S ]ilic o sis w as p erc e iv e d a s a p ro ble m a ff e ctin g r u ra l, r e la tiv e ly is o la te d p opula tio ns in w id ely s ca tte re d c o m munit ie s" r a th er th an a s a w id esp re ad p ro ble m .[1 07] K now le dge a bout s ilic o sis g re w to geth er w it h m ore g enera l k n ow le dge a bout w ork re la te d d is e ase — P ro fe sso r S elle rs co nclu des, fo r e xa m ple , th at th e fie ld o f in dustr ia l h yg ie ne " c o ale sce d betw een th e 1910s and 1930s." [1 08] V ie w ed in lig ht of co nte m pora ry kn ow le dge and t e ch nolo gy, th e m ark e t r e acte d to th e u n pre ce dente d in cre ase s in s ilic a d ust e xp o su re c a use d b y th e n ew t e ch nolo gie s a ro und th e tu rn o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry b y d em andin g k n ow le dge. In su ra nce c o m panie s, a m ong o th ers , sto od to p ro fit fr o m cre atin g b ette r u nders ta ndin g o f th e h ealt h e ff e cts o f silic a d ust e xp osu re , a nd a s d ia gnostic te ch nolo gy a dva nce d a nd m edic a l k n ow le dge im pro ve d, p riv a te in te re sts r e acte d to th e in cre ase d e xp osu re a nd re su lt in g in cre ase in s ilic o sis b y in ve stin g in k n ow le dge. T hese i n ve stm ents a ppear to u s to h ave b een m ade fa ste r th an w ould h ave b een e xp ecte d g iv e n th e lo ng l a te ncy p erio ds fo r s ilic o sis . F ar fr o m a m ark e t fa ilu re , th is in it ia l re sp onse a ppears to h ave b een q uit e r a pid in lig ht o f th e u nce rta in tie s in m ed ic in e, p rim it iv e u nders ta ndin g o f th e d is e a se , lo ng la te ncy p erio d, a nd r a pid te ch nolo gic a l c h ange.
2 . T he R eactio n o f In te re st G ro ups T he s a m e in dustr ia l in nova tio ns th at p ro duce d fin er a nd m ore d angero us d ust a ls o le d to m ajo r in cre ase s i n la bor p ro ductiv it y a nd, a s a r e su lt , p ro d uce d s ig nif ic a nt d is lo ca tio ns in a n um ber o f in dustr ie s.[1 09] F or e xa m ple , in th e nin ete enth c e ntu ry fo undry in dustr y , m ould m akin g w as a skille d occu patio n[1 1 0] s u pporte d b y a g re at d eal o f s e m i s kille d a nd u nskille d la bor.[1 11 ] S ta rtin g in th e tw entie th c e ntu ry , m uch o f th e s u pport w ork w as m ech aniz e d a nd o utp ut s o are d: " B y th e e arly y e ars o f th e [tw entie th ] c e ntu ry , o ne w ork e r r u nnin g a m ach in e m ix e r fo r tw o h ours c o uld m ix a s m uch s a nd [fo r m ould s] a s tw o w ork e rs m ix in g b y h and fo r a n e ntir e d ay." [1 1 2] C ra ft w ork e rs g enera lly re sis te d e m plo ye r c o ntr o l o ve r th eir w ork ,[1 1 3] w hic h lim it e d e m plo ye r k n ow le dge a bout h aza rd s. F or e xa m ple , S elle rs r e porte d th at:
[ T]he Wheeling nail manufacturers rented out nail‐making machines on their premises and paid nailers by the piece; otherwise, they left many of the nailers' working methods in the hands of the nailers themselves. Many 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 1 2/7 7 Wheeling nailers chose not to wet down their cutting machines, which would have reduced the volume of dust to which they were exposed, because dry nail cutting went faster and paid better — at least over the short term.[114] I n th e c a se o f th e m ould m ake rs , p neum atic to ols fo r c le anin g c a st it e m s a ls o r a is e d e ff ic ie ncy, a s d id th e a ddit io n o f p ow er to ols to th e fin is h in g s ta ges o f p olis h in g a nd g rin din g.[1 1 5] T he b ig gest c h ange w as th e i n tr o ductio n o f m ould in g m ach in es th at re pla ce d th e s kille d m ould m ake rs .[1 1 6] T hese in nova tio ns a ls o c re ate d g re ate r s ilic a e xp osu re , s in ce th e p ow er a nd p neum atic to ols b oth c re ate d m ore d ust a nd b le w m ore d ust in to th e a ir .[1 1 7] T he in cre a se d p ro ductio n ra is e d e xp osu re s, a s d id th e e xp ansio n o f th e i n dustr y tr ig gere d b y th e fa llin g p ric e s o f ir o n p ro ducts d ue to h ig her la bor p ro ductiv it y .
I n th is e nvir o nm ent, it is n ot s u rp ris in g th at o ccu patio nal d is e ase is su es b eca m e a n im porta nt b arg ain in g t o ol fo r u n io ns.[1 1 8] T he s a m e c h anges th at th re ate ned u nio n m em bers ' p osit io ns w it h in fir m s th re ate ned t h e h ealt h o f th eir m em bers . E m plo ye es a ls o re sis te d s a fe ty m easu re s a t tim es, n ot a cce ptin g th e n ew e quip m ent a nd m eth ods e it h er b eca use th ey d id n ot b elie ve th em s a fe r o r b eca use th e c h anges r e duce d i n co m e a s w ell a s in cre asin g s a fe ty .[1 1 9] O pposin g te ch nolo gic a l c h ange is d if f ic u lt w it h out a n onL uddit e r a tio nale , a nd h ealt h is su es p ro vid ed u nio ns w it h th e m eans to s e ek to c o ntr o l th e im pact o f te ch nolo gy in t h e w ork p la ce . S im ila rly , a s th e n um ber o f s m all fo undrie s g re w in th e la te n in ete enth a nd e arly tw entie th c e ntu rie s,[1 20] u nio n s m ust a ls o h ave s e en th e h ealt h is su e a s a m eans o f lim it in g th is c o m petit io n to th e l a rg er, u nio niz e d s h o ps s in ce th e s m alle r s h ops g enera lly c o uld n ot a ff o rd to fo llo w th e s a fe ty s ta ndard s s e t b y th e la rg er fir m s.[1 21] T he cra ft b asis o f e arly tw entie th c e ntu ry A m eric a n u nio nis m lim it e d it s e ff e ctiv e ness b y fr a gm entin g w ork e rs in e ach s h op.[1 22] T he e arly tw entie th c e ntu ry a ls o s a w th e p assa ge o f s ta te la w s p ro te ctin g th e h ealt h o f e m plo ye es a nd th e c re atio n of agencie s th at in ve stig ate d fa cto ry co ndit io ns and occu patio nal healt h is su es, part of th e P ro gre ssiv e E ra te ndency to w ard e xp ert a gencie s. T he o rg aniz a tio n o f th e A m eric a n A sso cia tio n fo r L abor L egis la tio n (A A LL) in 1 906 c re ate d a lo bbyin g g ro up s e ekin g la bor le gis la tio n a nd s u pportin g it s d em ands th ro ugh c o nfe re nce s, in ve stig atio ns, a nd re ports .[1 23] It h eld it s fir s t n atio nal c o nfe re nce o n i n dustr ia l d is e ase in 1 910.[1 24] T he o rg aniz a tio n a ls o s p onso re d p ublic a tio n o f p apers o n th e to pic . A s a r e su lt , a fte r th e p ublic a tio n o f p apers fr o m th e s e co nd A ALL c o nfe re nce , A m eric a n p ublic a tio ns e xce eded t h ose o f th e fo rm er le aders — th e B rit is h a nd th e G erm ans.[1 25] T he A ALL m ad e o ccu patio nal d is e ase s o ne o f it s to p p rio rit ie s.[1 26] T he p olic y e ntr e pre neurs o f th e A ALL, w ho in clu ded R ic h ard E ly a nd J o hn C om mons, s o ught to d efin e a "s cie ntif ic " p ath to le gis la tio n th at w ould im pro ve h um an w elf a re .[1 27] In d oin g s o , th ey h elp ed c re ate a "m ore c o here nt fie ld o f s tu dy" d ealin g w it h o cc u patio nal d is e ase .[1 28] U ndoubte dly m otiv a te d b y c o nce rn fo r th e g enera l w elf a re , th ese e xp erts a ls o " a im ed to s e cu re a p la ce fo r t h eir p ro fe ssio ns" in p ublic p olic y.[1 29] P opula r d em and fo r a ctio n g re w , in p art, fr o m m edia a cco unts o f w ork p la ce h aza rd s. M agazin e a nd b ook p ublis h ers p rin te d r e gula r a cco unts o f w ork p la ce d is e ase a nd in ju ry b eca use s u ch s to rie s s o ld m agazin es.
[ 1 30] S ta te fa cto ry in sp ecto rs g re w in n um ber n atio nw id e, fr o m fe w er th an 3 00 in 1 907 to 4 25 in 1 911 .
[ 1 31] In th e p ro ce ss, th ey h elp ed c re ate a c o nstit u ency fo r le gis la tio n.[1 32] O rg aniz a tio ns re pre se ntin g a v a rie ty o f in te re st g ro ups s p ra ng u p in th e 1 910s.[1 33] B y 1 914, 3 3 s ta te s h ad c re ate d fa cto ry in sp ectio n b ure aus,[1 34] 15 sta te s had passe d le gis la tio n re quir in g re portin g of occu patio nal dis e ase s by all p hysic ia ns,[1 35] a nd 2 5 h ad p asse d w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s ta tu te s.[1 36] W orld W ar I's d em ands o n th e e co nom y a nd la bor s tim ula te d e ve n g re ate r in te re st in in dustr ia l h yg ie ne.[1 37] W hile th ese fir s t a gencie s' c a pabilit ie s w ere ru dim enta ry ,[1 38] re fle ctin g th e s cie ntif ic s ta ndard s o f th e t im e, th eir c re atio n m eant th at a s ta te b ure aucra cy n ow in ve ste d in d ocu m entin g o ccu patio nal d is e ase s. 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 1 3/7 7 N ot s u rp ris in gly , th ese n ew a gencie s q uic kly e xp anded: N ew Y ork w ent fr o m o ne to fo ur d octo rs b etw een 1 922 a nd 1 924; C onnectic u t fo rm ed a "D iv is io n o f O ccu patio nal D is e ase s" in 1 928 a nd h ad "b oth a p hysic ia n a nd a n 'in dustr ia l h yg ie nis t' o n it s s ta ff b y 1 930." [1 39] T he fe dera l g ove rn m ent a ls o fu nded s tu die s a im ed a t o ccu patio nal d is e ase .[1 40] W ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s ta tu te s s p urre d c o m panie s to h ir e p la nt p hys ic ia ns — a P ublic H ealt h S erv ic e s tu dy in 1 919 fo und " 1 1 8 o ut o f th e 1 70 p la nts q uestio ned p aid a p h ysic ia n fo r s e rv ic e s, e it h er p art tim e o r fu ll tim e." [1 41] T his in te re st b y g ove rn m ents s p urre d fu rth er m ark e t re sp onse s: T he fir s t A m eric a n te xtb ooks o n o ccu patio nal m edic in e a ppeare d in 1 914,[1 42] a nd H arv a rd ap poin te d th e fir s t fu ll tim e pro fe sso r of in dustr ia l m edic in e in 1919.[1 43] T he in it ia l sta te r e sp onse m im ic ke d th e p riv a te s e cto r r e sp onse : in ve stin g in c re atin g k n ow le dge.
3 . W ork ers ' C om pen satio n A s a re su lt o f th e in cre ase in w ork p la ce h aza rd s b ro ught a bout b y in dustr ia liz a tio n, a b ro ad c o alit io n d eve lo ped in fa vo r of le gis la tio n to addre ss th e pro ble m s it pose d fo r em plo ye rs , em plo ye es, and i n su ra nce co m panie s.[1 44] E m plo ye es w ante d co m pensa tio n; em plo ye rs and in su ra nce co m panie s w ante d lim it e d lia bilit y ; so cia l re fo rm ers w ante d m ore sta te in te rv e ntio n in th e w ork p la ce . M ore ove r, r e fo rm ers o fte n b elie ve d re gula to ry s o lu tio ns to b e in adequate , tu rn in g to th e fin ancia l in ce ntiv e s o ff e re d b y th e in su ra nce a ppro ach .[1 45] T he p rim ary re su lt in th e U nit e d S ta te s w as th e d eve lo pm ent o f th e w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s yste m fo r in dustr ia l a ccid ents (a lt h ough in it ia lly n ot fo r w ork p la ce d is e ase s), a c o m pro m is e th at lim it e d e m plo ye rs ' lia bilit y a nd in cre ase d e m plo ye es' c e rta in ty o f re co ve ry .[1 46] O th er n ew in it ia tiv e s in clu ded th e e sta blis h m en t a nd e xp ansio n o f sta te la bor a gencie s, th e cre atio n o f th e f e dera l D epartm ent o f L abor, a nd th e p assa ge o f v a rio us a cts re gula tin g w ork in g c o ndit io ns in s p ecif ic i n dustr ie s.[1 47] T he fir s t w ave o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s ta tu te s, h ow eve r, d id n ot a ddre ss d is e ase s. W hy n ot? S eve ra l f a cto rs c o ntr ib ute d to th e in it ia l fo cu s o n in ju rie s ra th er th an d is e ase , a re la tiv e ly c ru de v e rs io n o f th e c a te goriz a tio n p ro ble m . F ir s t, w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n, s o c o m monpla ce to day, w as a r a dic a l in nova tio n a t t h e tim e.[1 48] S eco nd, m ass in dustr ia l d is e ase , a s o ppose d to is o la te d in cid ents , w as still re la tiv e ly u nre co gniz e d. T he lo ng la te ncy p erio ds ( a s m uch a s tw enty y e ars fo r s ilic o sis )[1 49] a nd r e la tiv e ly p rim it iv e u nders ta ndin g of m edic in e m ade dia gn osis of nona cu te co ndit io ns ch alle ngin g.[1 50] T he in dustr ia l c h anges th at in cre ase d e xp osu re c o m bin ed w it h th e la te ncy p erio d to m ake th e re al b oom in d is e ase r e co gniz a ble o nly a fte r s ta te le gis la tu re s h ad p asse d th e fir s t w ave o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s ta tu te s.
[ 1 51] O ne k e y r e su lt o f th e in tr o ductio n o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n in su ra nce , h ow eve r, w as th at a la w ye r n am ed C ry sta l E astm an b egan to g ath e r s ta tis tic s o n th e c a use s o f in ju rie s.[1 52] A b enefit o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n acts w as th at th ey "m ove d analy sis of w ork accid ents fr o m th e clo se sp ecif ic it y of i n div id ualiz e d in quir ie s in to partic u la r accid ent ca se s to a hig her pla ne of sta tis tic a l genera lit y ." [1 53] I n su re rs s o ught to in tr o duce p re ve nta tiv e m easu re s to lo w er ris ks.[1 54] It w ork e d: "F ro m 1 907 to 1 920, w ork fa ta lit y r a te s p er m anhour in A m eric a n in dustr y d ro pped b y tw oth ir d s; n onfa ta l w ork in ju ry r a te s a nd l o st w ork d ays p er m anhour … a ppear to h ave d eclin ed b y h alf ." [1 55] I n te re st in s u ch is su es re m ain ed a t th e s ta te le ve l in p art b eca use th e fe dera l g ove rn m ent h ad n ot y e t b eco m e la rg e e noug h to m ake a d if f e re nce . "S ta te a nd lo ca l g ove rn m ent e xp e ndit u re s w ere a bout fiv e t im es la rg er th an th e fe dera l b udget in 1 929" — fe dera l e xp endit u re s r e pre se nte d a m ere th re e p erc e nt o f g ro ss n atio nal p ro duct th at y e ar.[1 56] T he 1 920s w ere a tim e o f e co nom ic g ro w th a nd a dva nce m ent fo r e m plo ye es. In dustr ia liz a tio n b ro ught n ew m ate ria l w ealt h :
T hroughout the late 1920s surveys of consumer habits marveled at the wide range of purchases made by 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 1 4/7 7 working‐class people, many of them involving durable goods such as radios, washing machines, and even automobiles…. All experts agreed that by the end of the 1920s, the nation's working people had greater access to health care, recreational and cultural facilities, public services, and education than ever before.[157] P ric e s fo r co nsu m er goods w ere fa llin g ra pid ly , puttin g th em w it h in th e re a ch of an eve rw id enin g p ro portio n o f th e c o untr y 's p opula tio n.[1 58] L abor p eace la rg ely p re va ile d, w it h s tr ik e a ctiv it y re ach in g h is to ric lo w s.[1 59] " W elf a re c a pit a lis m " m eant th at e m plo ye rs h ad ta ke n th e in it ia tiv e in a ddre ssin g a w id e r a nge of is su es fo r em plo ye es, defu sin g em plo ye e in te re st in in it ia tin g w ork p la ce re fo rm s.[1 60] N ot e ve ry th in g w as p erfe ct; u nem plo ym ent r e m ain ed a c o nce rn fo r m any, r e ach in g e ig ht p erc e nt in m id 1 929.
[ 1 61] N one th ele ss, th e s u cce ss o f s o m any d urin g th e 1 920s r e su lt e d in lit tle d em and fo r ta cklin g h ard to u nders ta nd p ro ble m s lik e s ilic o sis . U nio n s, th e o ne in te re st g ro up th at m ig ht h ave s p urre d p ublic in te re st, w ere p re occu pie d w it h d eclin in g m em bers h ip — a s ym path etic o bse rv e r s a ys th e A m eric a n F edera tio n o f L abor ( A FL) " la nguis h ed in to rp or a nd a path y th ro ughout th e 1 920s"[1 62] — a nd lo sin g g ro und b eca use it h ad n ot y e t c ra cke d th e m ass p ro ductio n in dustr ie s.[1 63] M ost im porta ntly fo r e xp la in in g th e la ck o f s ta te i n te re st in is su es lik e silic o sis , th e A FL u nio ns, u nder S am uel G om pers ' p hil o so phy o f "v o lu nta ris m ," l a rg ely s h unned in vo lv e m ent w it h th e g o ve rn m ent.[1 64] T o th e e xte nt th at th e p re 1 930s re sp onse s to s ilic o sis ( a nd in dustr ia l d is e ase s g enera lly ) s e em s in adequate in r e tr o sp ect, th e in adequacy w as a fa ilu re o f b o th th e m ark e t a nd th e s ta te , fo r n eit h er a ntic ip ate d th e fu ll im pact o f s ilic o sis . F ro m th e v a nta ge p oin t o f to day, th is m ay s e em s u rp ris in g, b ut th e lo ng la te ncy p erio d a nd la ck o f u nders ta ndin g o f th e d is e ase e xp la in s w hy n eit h er s ta te n or m ark e t r e sp onded m ore q uic kly .
4 . T he S ilic o sis C ris is o f t h e 1 930s B eca use m ost o f th e fir s t w ave o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n le gis la tio n h ad e it h er e xp lic it ly e xclu ded o r n ot e xp lic it ly in clu ded in dustr ia l d is e ase ,[1 65] w ork e rs w ho b eca m e ill a s a re su lt o f d ust e xp osu re s o ught r e lie f in th e c o urts . W here s o m e in dustr ia l d is e ase c o ve ra ge w as p ro vid ed, le gis la tu re s a dopte d it a s "a c o nse rv a tiv e a lt e rn ativ e to p la ns fo r s ta te s p onso re d h ealt h in su ra nce ." [1 66] L aw su it s o ve r s ilic o sis fr o m w ork p la ce e xp osu re s b egan to p ro lif e ra te in th e 1 930s.[1 67] T housa nds o f s u ch s u it s c re ate d a lia bilit y c ris is [1 68] a nd m ade s ilic o sis "a n is su e o f n atio nal im port." [1 69] In su re rs re porte d th at th ey fa ce d '" th e m ost s e rio us c la im p ro ble m e ve r e nco unte re d'" a s a r e su lt o f s ilic o sis s u it s .[1 70] M ore th an a b illio n d olla rs o f s ilic o sis s u it s w ere p endin g in 1 934,[1 71] th e e quiv a le nt o f o ve r $ 14 b illio n to day. O ne im porta nt r e aso n t h ese su it s in cre ase d d ra m atic a lly in th e 1 930s w as th at silic a su it s o ff e re d a m eans to su rv iv e th e D epre ssio n, c o nve rtin g th e to rt s yste m in to a ru dim enta ry s o cia l w elf a re s yste m ,[1 72] a nd "a s w ork e rs w on th eir s u it s , it e m bold ened m ore o f th e u nem plo ye d a nd th eir la w ye rs ." [1 73] A v a rie ty o f fa cto rs m ig ht e xp la in th e e xp lo sio n o f s ilic o sis lit ig atio n in th e 1 930s. O ne is u ndoubte dly th at s ilic o sis 's lo ng le ad tim e m eant th at in cid ence o f th e d is e ase la gged th e in tr o ductio n o f d ust p ro ducin g e quip m ent in v a rio us in dustr ie s.[1 74] B oth re se arc h ers a nd th e p ublic u nders to od s ilic o sis le ss w ell th an m any o th er in dustr ia l d is e ase s, a s " re se arc h ers h ad g re at d if f ic u lt y d evis in g e xp erim ents o r o th er k in ds o f i n ve stig atio ns th at p ers u asiv e ly e sta blis h ed th e c h ain o f e ve nts b etw een c o nta ct w it h s ilic a d ust a nd a ctu al s ym pto m s." [1 75] A noth er im porta nt fa cto r, how eve r, is th at th e G re at D epre ssio n cre ate d eco nom ic c o ndit io ns th at le d "w ork e rs to u se th e is su e o f in dustr ia l illn ess a s a m eans o f a ch ie vin g s o cia l w elf a re o bje ctiv e s." [1 76] L aw su it s file d b y " w ork e rs in th e d usty tr a des"[1 77] " b ro ught 's ilic o sis w it h in th e r a nge o f p ra ctic a l p olit ic s.'" [1 78] F ace d w it h a n " a ctu aria l p ote ntia l fo r d is a ste r," [1 79] e m plo ye rs a nd p olit ic a l le aders e xp erie nce d e norm ous p re ssu re to fin d a s o lu tio n. Y et a noth er re aso n is th e fe d era l fu ndin g th at flo w ed f r o m th e n ew S ocia l S ecu rit y A ct to s ta te b oard s o f h ealt h to e sta blis h in dustr ia l h yg ie ne d iv is io ns,[1 80] a gencie s th at th en a sse m ble d in fo rm atio n o n th e s ta te o f o ccu patio nal d is e ase s in v a rio us in dustr ie s. 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 1 5/7 7 F in ally , th e G aule y B rid ge d is a ste r (d is cu sse d in m ore d eta il b elo w ),[1 81] in w hic h h undre ds o f m en lo st t h eir liv e s to a cu te s ilic o sis , s p urre d c o ngre ssio nal h earin gs a nd lit ig atio n in 1 9351 936.
M any o f th ese s u it s , o f c o urs e , in vo lv e d g enuin ely in ju re d in div id uals w ho h ad s u ff e re d r e al d am ages a nd w ho p ro perly s o ught c o m pensa tio n th ro u gh th e to rt s yste m . O th ers , h ow eve r, d id n ot. A ccu ra te d ia gnosis w as d if f ic u lt , y e t s o m e e xp erts fe lt th at to o m any d octo rs w ere w illin g to s u pport d oubtfu l c la im s b ase d o n u nskille d re adin gs o f ra dio gra phs.[1 82] S ilic o sis su it s b ro ught w it h th em b it te r d is p ute s o ve r a lle ged f r a udule nt c la im s s u ch a s th ose d eta ile d in a rtic le s lik e T he D ust H aza rd R acke t[1 8 3] a nd th ose e vid ence d b y fig hts b etw een in su ra nce c o m panie s a nd th eir in su re d o ve r c o ve ra ge.[1 84] A s o ne o bse rv e r in th e 1 930s c o m pla in ed, M issouri is a paradise for this type of racketeering. Under its law 9 jurors out of 12 may decide a case. Though the laws against barratry and champerty are still in existence they are apparently forgotten. Plaintiffs' attorneys have employed runners, or solicitors to comb the state, paying particular attention to the unemployed. As much as $25 a case is paid to solicitors for every signed contract brought in. Cases are taken on a 50 per cent contingent basis and notices under the attorney's lien law are promptly served on the employer. At first the solicitors confined themselves to cases where some disability existed. More lately solicitation has been carried on among workers still engaged in active work, who have no more outward appearance of disability than the dust on their clothes and some outward appearance of age.[185] T his sce na rio p re se n te d a cris is w hen p eople w it h out in ju rie s to ok a dva nta ge o f so m e sta te s' lo ose r s ta ndard s to b rin g fr a udule nt c la im s.
E ve ntu ally th e "c ris is " a bate d w it h th e sh if tin g o f silic o sis su it s to th e w ork e rs ' co m pensa tio n syste m b egin nin g in th e m id 1 930s.[1 86] W hat b ro ught a bout th e c h ange? In s o m e s ta te s, c o urt ru lin gs a dded s ilic o sis o r o th er in dustr ia l d is e ase s to w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n. In C alif o rn ia , fo r e xa m ple , a ru lin g b y th e s ta te s u pre m e c o urt th at th e lim it a tio n p erio d fo r o ccu patio nal d is e ase c la im s w ould b e b ase d o n w hen th e d is e ase w as d is co ve ra ble , n ot w hen th e e xp osu re o ccu rre d,[1 87] le d in su re rs to s e ek s u bsta ntia l ra te i n cre ase s (fr o m $11 fo r eve ry $100 of payro ll to $22.2 5 fo r eve ry $100 of payro ll in th e ca se of u nderg ro und g old m in es, fo r e xa m ple )[1 88] a nd p ro m pte d le gis la tiv e a ctio n. T he w ave o f s u it s , p artia lly s p urre d by th e D ep re ssio n, got em plo ye rs ' atte ntio n, and th eir lia bilit y in su ra nce co m panie s w ere p re su m ably a nxio us to a dd th e w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n in su re rs to th e d efe nse te am .[1 89] L if e in su ra nce c o m panie s w ere w orrie d th at th ey h ad c o ve re d p eople n ow lik e ly to d ie fa r e arlie r th an th e c o m panie s h ad p re dic te d. C ove rin g in dustr ia l d is e ase s fe ll w it h in th e in te re st o f a w id e ra nge o f g ro ups, in clu din g b oth e m plo ye es and em plo ye rs .[1 90] The gro w in g exp erie nce w it h accid ent co ve ra ge th ro ugh w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n in su ra nce in sp ir e d c o nfid e nce th at th e s yste m c o uld a bso rb d is e ase c la im s. A nd, fin ally , th e r e su lt s o f th e in cre ase d e xp osu re s to d ust a nd o th er w ork p la ce d is e ase a gents w as n ow p ro ducin g e nough in ju re d e m plo ye es to a ttr a ct a tte ntio n. In p artic u la r, th e G aule y B rid ge d is a ste r p ut a s p otlig ht o n s ilic o sis .
5 . T he N ew D eal 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 1 6/7 7 T he in it ia l w ave o f N ew D eal la bor le gis la tio n d id n ot a ddre ss o ccu patio nal d is e ase is su es. P re occu pie d w it h a tte m pts to d ea l w it h th e sta ggerin g e co nom ic cris is o f th e G re at D ep re ssio n, a nd w it h out th e g uid ance o f a c o here nt th eory o n h ow to d o s o , th e R oose ve lt A dm in is tr a tio n e m bark e d o n a ra ft o f e co nom ic re fo rm m easu re s. O ne o f th e m ost fa r re ach in g w as th e N atio nal In dustr ia l R eco ve ry A ct a nd t h e a gency it c re ate d, th e N atio nal R eco ve ry A dm in is tr a tio n ( N RA), th e e sse nce o f w hic h w as h ostilit y to t h e id ea o f c o m petit io n.[1 91] L ed b y H ugh J o hnso n, w ho e nvis io ned th e a gency a s " a g ia nt o rg an th ro ugh w hic h he co uld pla y on th e eco nom y of th e co untr y ," [1 92] th e N RA quic kly "m ush ro om ed in to a b ure aucra tic c o lo ssu s" w it h a s ta ff o f 4 ,5 00 o ve rs e ein g " m ore th an s e ve n h undre d [in dustr y ] c o des, m any o f w hic h o ve rla pped , s o m etim es in co nsis te ntly ." [1 93] T hese c o des c a rte liz e d "h u ge s e cto rs o f A m eric a n i n dustr y ." [1 94] T ra de a sso cia tio ns a nd la rg e p ro duce rs d om in ate d th e N RA c o des.[1 95] D esp it e th e v a rie d e ff o rts a nd a lp habet s o up o f a gencie s a nd s ta tu te s, th e N ew D eal w as s p utte rin g b y 1 935. U nem plo ym ent r e m ain ed a t tw enty p erc e nt, a nd o pposit io n o n b oth th e rig ht a nd th e le ft b egan to g ro w .[1 96] 1 935 s a w t h e la u nch of th e "S eco nd N ew D eal, " a new w ave of pro pose d re gula to ry sta tu te s in clu din g "th e E m erg ency R elie f A ppro pria tio n A ct, th e B ankin g A ct, th e W agner N atio nal L abor R ela tio ns A ct, th e P ublic U tilit y H old in g C om panie s A ct, th e S ocia l S ecu rit y A ct, a nd th e W ealt h T a x A ct," w hic h w ere , in p art, d esig ned to h ead o ff th e th re ats fr o m p opulis ts F ath er C harle s C oughlin a nd S enato r H uey L ong.
[ 1 97] O ne ke y e ve nt sp urrin g th e e xp ansio n o f th e w ork e rs ' co m pensa tio n syste m to co ve r in dustr ia l d is e ase w as a p artic u la rly h orrif ic s e rie s o f 5 00 d eath s ( o ut o f 2 ,0 00 e m plo ye es) fr o m a cu te s ilic o sis d urin g t h e 1 929 tu nnel p ro je ct in G aule y B rid g e, W est V ir g in ia . A noth er 1 ,5 00 w ere e ve ntu ally d is a ble d fr o m c h ro nic s ilic o sis .[1 98] T he tu nnel r o ute , u n fo rtu nate ly , r a n th ro ugh a v e in o f a lm ost p ure q uartz , p ro ducin g e xtr e m ely h ig h e xp osu re s.[1 99] T he s to ry b ro ke n atio nally in 1 936.[2 00] A s o ne a cco unt n ote d, '" P opula r i n te re st in s ilic o sis , s tim ula tin g s o cia l a nd le gis la tiv e a ctiv it ie s a nd a ff e ctin g ju dic ia l d ecis io ns, w as n ota bly a cce ntu ate d by th e new sp aper noto rie ty of th e G aule y B rid ge epis o de.'" [2 01] In deed, so m e fe dera l o ff ic ia ls fe lt th at th e G aule y B rid ge d is a ste r a dva nce d o ccu patio nal d is e ase le gis la tio n " a lm ost a d eca de." [ 2 02] C ongre ssio nal h earin gs w ere h eld in 1 936,[2 03] a nd th e fe dera l D epartm ent o f L abor c o nve ned n atio nal c o nfe re nce s o n th e to pic to e nco ura ge le gis la tio n in th e sta te s, b egin nin g ju st th re e w eeks a fte r th e c o ngre ssio nal h earin g s c o nclu ded.[2 04] B y c re atin g a n atio nal d ebate o ve r th e s u bje ct o f s ilic o sis , a nd b rin gin g to g eth er b oth la bor a nd in dustr y r e pre se nta tiv e s in a fo ru m , th e g ove rn m ent a tte m pte d to m ake it p ossib le fo r th e p artie s to b arg ain th eir w ay to a m utu ally a dva nta geous s o lu tio n,[2 05] in k e epin g w it h th e A dm in is tr a tio n's c o rp ora tis t a ppro ach to la bor is su es.[2 06] T he c o m bin atio n o f th e th re at o f s ilic a s u it s a gain st em plo ye rs , am big uit y in m any sta te s' w ork e rs co m pensa tio n la w s on occu patio nal dis e ase c o ve ra ge,[2 07] c a usa tio n is su es fo r p la in tif f s ,[2 08] a nd u nio ns' in te re sts in u sin g th e is su e to e xp and th eir r o le in th e w ork p la ce [2 09] m ade g ain s fr o m c o opera tio n p ossib le : E m plo ye rs c o uld e lim in ate th e th re at o f c iv il s u it s , a nd u nio ns c o uld e xp and th eir in flu ence o ve r th e w ork p la ce [2 10] th ro u gh a n ew fe dera l a gency.
[ 2 11 ] In deed, " [i] n th e m id st o f th e D epre ssio n, s ilic o sis w as fr e quently fr a m ed a s a la bor a nd m anagem ent p ro ble m , n ot s o le ly a s a h ealt h is su e." [2 12] U nio ns in th e m id 1 930s w ere o n th e u psw in g; a fte r d ra m atic d eclin es to fe w er th an th re e m illio n m em bers o ve r th e 1 920s a nd e arly 1 930s, u n io n m em bers h ip r e ach ed n in e m illio n in 1939 .[2 13] H ow eve r, th e dis p ute s betw een th e A FL and th e C ongre ss of In dustr ia l O rg aniz a tio ns ( C IO ) d iv id ed th e u nio ns a nd w eake ned th eir p olit ic a l c lo ut.[2 14] E co nom ic c o ndit io ns w ere a ls o tu rn in g a gain st th e u nio ns. In 1 937 th e re co ve ry c o lla pse d, a nd th e "R oose ve lt R ece ssio n" b egan, e ndin g th e a ctiv e p hase o f th e N ew D eal. [2 15] E m plo ye rs , h ow eve r, re sis te d th e q uasi F austia n b arg ain ; th e m ain im pact o f th e fe dera lly s p onso re d c o nfe re nce s w as to s p ur th e o pposin g s id es to o rg aniz e n atio nally to b attle fo r c o ntr o l o f th e w ork p la ce .
[ 2 16] F ace d w it h th e th re at o f m ove s to c re ate a noth er o f th e N ew D eal " a lp hab et" a gencie s ( th e le adin g c o ngre ssio nal fig ure in th e G aule y B rid ge h earin gs a dvo ca te d fe dera l s o lu tio ns),[2 17] e m plo ye rs o pte d fo r t h e d evil th ey k n ew — w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n. T he c h ange w as e vid ent, in th e s e nse th at " [b ]y th e e nd o f 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 1 7/7 7 1 937, fo rty s ix sta te s had enacte d la w s co ve rin g w ork e rs aff lic te d w it h silic o sis ." [2 18] B y w ay of c o m paris o n, o nly 1 5 s ta te s c o ve re d s o m e o r a ll o ccu patio nal d is e ase s a t th e s ta rt o f 1 936.[2 19] W ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n w as n ot th e o nly a re a in w hic h s ta te in vo lv e m ent in in d ustr ia l d is e ase e xp anded d urin g th e 1930s. T he R oose ve lt A dm in is tr a tio n off e re d sta te s fin ancia l in ce ntiv e s to exp and th eir i n vo lv e m ent: 1 9 sta te s e sta blis h ed in du str ia l h yg ie ne d epartm ents b y 1 936 in re sp onse to a fe dera l i n it ia tiv e th a t m ade S ocia l S ecu rit y fu nd s ava ila ble fo r su ch departm ents th ro ugh th e P ublic H ealt h S erv ic e ; o nly s e ve n h ad h ad s u ch p ro gra m s b efo re 1 935, a nd th ose w ere "o f a lim it e d n atu re ." [2 20] F edera l s p e ndin g o n in dustr ia l h yg ie ne ro se q uic kly , fr o m $ 100,0 00 in 1 936 to a lm ost $ 750,0 00 in 1 938.
[ 2 21] S ta te b udgets r o se to $ 589,0 00 in 1 938, w it h 1 61 e m plo ye es a cro ss 2 6 s ta te s.[2 22] Im porta ntly fo r f u tu re a ctiv it y , th e T e m pora ry C onfe re n ce o f O ff ic ia l In dustr ia l H yg ie nis ts o rg aniz e d in 1 936 a nd w ould s o on b eco m e th e in flu entia l N atio nal C onfe re nce o f G ove rn m enta l In dustr ia l H yg ie nis ts (N CGIH ), a nd in 1 946, th e A m eric a n C onfe re nce o f G ove rn m enta l In dustr ia l H yg ie nis ts (A C GIH ), w hic h c o ntin ues to day.
[ 2 23] 6 . E xp la in in g t h e 'M odera te ' O utc o m e O ne im porta nt re aso n in dustr y w as a ble to h ead o ff re gula tio n w as th at e m plo ye rs o rg aniz e d q uic kly in r e sp onse to th e fe de ra l in te re st in G aule y B rid ge.[2 24] E m plo ye rs sa w unio n eff o rts to co ntr o l th e w ork p la ce a s a s e rio us th re at to th e p ro ductiv it y g ain s o f th e fir s t p art o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry .[2 25] T he o penin g ye ars o f th e N ew D eal h ad m ade cle ar th e sta ke s a nd th e R oose ve lt A dm in is tr a tio n's lik e ly a ppro ach to la bor is su es.[2 26] T he A ir H yg ie ne F oundatio n w as quic kly esta blis h ed to se rv e as a c le arin ghouse a nd e sta blis h v o lu nta ry s ta ndard s.[2 27] It c o nducte d "n early a ll" s ilic o sis re se arc h a fte r it s e sta blis h m ent.[2 28] A nd d esp it e e m plo ye rs ' fe ars o f N ew D eal le gis la tio n, g iv e n R oose ve lt 's s ta tu s a s a " d if f id ent c h am pio n o f la bor, a nd e sp ecia lly o f o rg aniz e d la bor u nio ns," [2 29] th e A dm in is tr a tio n d id n ot s tr o ngly r e sis t e m plo ye r e ff o rts to h ead o ff s tr o nger r e fo rm e ff o rts .
T o th e exte nt th at th ey so ught to use th e G aule y B rid ge in cid ent to cre ate fe dera l auth orit y ove r o ccu patio nal h ealt h , th e u nio ns o ve rre ach ed.[2 30] A nd o rg aniz in g, n ot o ccu patio nal h ealt h , w as th e to p u nio n p rio rit y in 1 93 6 a nd 1 937.[2 31] T he u nio ns w ere a ls o re sis tin g p ro vis io ns o f in dustr ia l d is e ase l e gis la tio n th at m ig ht le ad to a ff lic te d e m plo ye es lo sin g th eir jo bs.[2 32] A lt h ough la bor in te re sts su cce eded in gettin g le gis la tio n in tr o duce d in C ongre ss to im ple m ent th eir a ppro ach in th e la te 1 930s,[2 33] b y th at tim e a c o nse rv a tiv e c o alit io n h ad e m erg ed in C ongre ss w it h th e s tr e ngth to b lo ck th e le gis la tio n,[2 34] a nd th e W hit e H ouse d id n ot p ush th e le gis la tio n th ro ugh.[2 35] M ore ove r, th e S upre m e C ourt had no t ye t "s w it c h ed" to allo w in g th e R oose ve lt re fo rm s,[2 36] and S ecre ta ry o f L abor F ra ncis P erk in s w as w orrie d o ve r th e C ourt's p ossib le a ttit u de to w ard la bor le gis la tio n g enera lly .[2 37] A noth er re aso n w hy m ore ra dic a l s o lu tio ns w ere n ot a dopte d w as th at m any v ie w ed th e p ro ble m a s l a rg ely s o lv e d. P erk in s,[2 38] fo r e xa m ple , to ld th e s e co nd n atio nal c o nfe re nce o n s ilic o sis th at " it s p re se nt h aza rd s [c a n b e] re duce d to a m in im um a nd th e d is e ase it s e lf fin ally e ra dic a te d," [2 39] a nd e m plo ye r r e pre se nta tiv e s c o nfid ently a sse rte d th at v e ntila tio n e quip m ent's d eve lo pm ent h ad re ach ed th e p oin t th at ' " th e e xis te nce o f a d ust h aza rd is a lr e ad y o n it s w ay o ut.'" [2 40] M ore ove r, e xp erts th ought th at o nly tw o p erc e nt o f th e w ork fo rc e w as a t r is k a nd o nly h alf o f th at n um ber w as a t s e rio us r is k.[2 41] T he p ro ble m o f " d ust r a cke ts " g re w o ut o f th e la ggin g m edic a l te ch nolo gy fo r d ete rm in in g c a usa tio n. D ust r e la te d d is e ase s, a nd o ccu patio nal d is e ase s g enera lly , w ere h ard to d ia gnose d e fin it iv e ly .[2 42] W it h out th e d ia gnostic to ols to a ttr ib ute illn ess to e xp osu re , th e to rt s yste m r is ke d b oth u nder a nd o ve rin clu siv e ness.
W here r ig oro us c a usa tio n s ta ndard s a pplie d, e ve n p la in tif f s g enuin ely in ju re d b y a n o ccu patio nal e xp osu re w ere u nlik e ly to p re va il. W hen th e p la in tif f s ' b ar g ain ed r e la xe d p ro of a nd p le adin g s ta ndard s, d e fa cto , if 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 1 8/7 7 n ot d e ju re , fr a udule nt c la im s c o uld p re va il a s w ell a s le git im ate o nes. O f p artic u la r re le va nce fo r o ur d is cu ssio n is th e in stit u tio nal re sp onse to th e s ilic a lit ig atio n: L if e in su ra nce c o m panie s to ok a n in te re st in t h e q uestio n b eca use it a ff e cte d th eir p aym ents o n p olic ie s.[2 43] T he in su ra nce c o m panie s a ls o d eve lo ped t h e d ata th at u nse ate d th e b acte rio lo gic a l th eory .[2 44] S ig nif ic a ntly , o nly a fe w d eca des e arlie r a n a ctu ary w ho a ddre sse d th e 1 893 W orld 's F air "A uxilia ry C ongre ss" "w is tfu lly c o nclu ded [th at], m ost 'h aza rd s o f o ccu patio ns' w ere 'u nkn ow n a nd a lm ost in ca lc u la ble .'" [2 45] In a s h ort tim e, m otiv a te d b y th e d esir e to i n cre ase pro fit s by accu ra te ly cla ssif y in g ris ks, th e in su ra nce in dustr y help ed cre ate a re vo lu tio n in k n ow le dge a bout in dustr ia l d is e ase .
A tte m pts to re so lv e th e fa ilu re o f th e to rt s yste m b y in clu din g s ilic o sis a s a c o m pensa ble o ccu patio nal d is e ase u nd er s ta te w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s ta tu te s b ro ught fin ancia l s tr e sse s a nd d em ands fo r fis ca l r e fo rm s to th ose s yste m s.[2 46] C ausa tio n is su es p la gued b oth c o m mon la w a nd w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s o lu tio ns, a s s ilic o sis a nd tu berc u lo sis o fte n w ent h and in h and.[2 47] M ore ove r, s u sce ptib ilit y to s ilic o sis is r e la te d in p art to c h ara cte ris tic s o f th e e xp ose d in div id ual, in clu din g b oth v o lu nta ry — fo r e xa m ple s m okin g — a nd in vo lu nta ry — fo r e xa m ple g enetic — c h ara cte ris tic s,[2 48] c re atin g a ddit io nal p ro ble m s fo r b oth to rt a nd in su ra nce s o lu tio ns. S uch tr a nsfe rs fa ile d to r e so lv e th e fu ndam enta l p ro ble m o f d ete rm in in g w ho h ad a c o ve re d d is e ase a nd s im ply s h if te d th e p ro ble m fr o m th e to rt s yste m to th e in su ra nce s yste m .
T o s u m mariz e , b y 1 940 th e le gal tr e atm ent o f s ilic a d ust h ad u nderg one s e ve ra l k e y c h anges. A lt h ough t h e m edic a l co m munit y had lo ng re co gniz e d th at bre ath in g dust w as unhealt h y, it w as not until i n dustr ia liz a tio n g re atly in cre ase d d ust e xp osu re s ( a nd o th er h aza rd s) th at A m eric a n ju ris d ic tio ns a dopte d r e gula to ry m easu re s a im ed a t w ork p la ce h aza rd s g enera lly o r s ilic a d ust in p artic u la r. T he in cre ase d in ju ry r a te s o f th e n ew m ech aniz e d fa cto rie s, m in es, a nd o th er w ork p la ce s h elp ed p ro d uce a b ro ad c o alit io n th at d em anded le gis la tio n to s p re ad th e c o sts . In a c o m pro m is e b etw een la bor a nd in dustr ia l in te re sts , b oth s id es a cce pte d w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s yste m s to s p re ad th e c o sts o f a ccid ents . E ve ntu ally , th e in cre ase i n in d ustr ia l dis e ase s, esp ecia lly silic o sis , le d to th eir in clu sio n in th e syste m as w ell. This la tte r d eve lo pm ent d id n ot o ccu r u ntil th e fin ancia l p re ssu re o f s ilic o sis la w su it s p ro duce d a n ew b ro ad c o alit io n i n fa vo r o f a ctio n. In e sse nce , in dustr ia l in te re sts fo und w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n c o ve ra ge le ss o f a th re at t h an th e n um ero us s u it s b ro ught b y a lle ged s ilic o sis v ic tim s a nd th e p ossib ilit y o f fe dera l in te rv e ntio n.
T he in stit u tio nal r e sp onse to s ilic a d ust d urin g th e fir s t p art o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry is th us u nders ta ndable i n th e in te re st g ro up fr a m ew ork . M ech aniz a tio n le d to a g re ate r d em and a m ong th ose in ju re d. In stit u tio nal e ntr e pre neurs re sp o nded to th is d em and b y in nova tin g (th e w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s yste m c o ve ra ge o f a ccid ents , th e 1 930s s ilic o sis la w su it s , a nd th e e xte nsio n o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n to c o ve r s ilic o sis a nd o th er in dustr ia l d is e ase s). F urth er, th e in te rp la y o f in te re st g ro ups p ro duce d c o m pro m is e s a s w ell a s n ew i n stit u tio ns.
T he c a te goriz a tio n p ro ble m a ro se in th e c o nte xt o f th ese d ebate s. S ilic o sis a nd o th er in dustr ia l d is e ase s w ere c o ve re d b y th e n ew in stit u tio ns; tu berc u lo sis a nd o th er "s o cia l" d is e ase s w ere n ot. T his w as n ot a f o re gone c o nclu sio n; la bor a nd le ft w in g in te re sts c a m paig ned e arly fo r a c o m pre hensiv e a ppro ach to p ublic h ealt h ra th er th an a w ork p la ce s p ecif ic a ppro ach .[2 49] T he o utc o m e o f th e d ebate , h ow eve r, i n tr o duce d a le gal d is tin ctio n b etw een th e tw o ty p es o f d is e ase .
I m ple m entin g th e dis tin ctio n pro ve d dif f ic u lt . D ia gnosis w as — and re m ain s — a ch alle nge; early t w entie th c e ntu ry m edic in e w as n ot u p to th e ta sk o f d efin it iv e ly d ete rm in in g w heth er a p artic u la r in div id ual w as s ic k b eca use o f o ccu patio nal e xp osu re s o r b eca use o f o th er fa cto rs . A s a r e su lt , d is tin ctio ns th at la te r c a m e to b e s e en a s a rb it r a ry w ere in tr o duce d, s u ch a s th e re quir e m ent th at ra dio gra phic e vid ence b e u se d to d ia gnose lu ng c o ndit io ns ra th er th an lo ss o f c a pacit y .[2 50] B y a w ard in g b enefit s fo r a s u bse t o f e m plo ye es w it h r e duce d lu ng c a pacit y , th e in stit u tio ns th at g re w o ut o f th e 1 930 s c re ate d in ce ntiv e s b oth 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 1 9/7 7 f o r e m plo ye es to b e d ia gnose d w it h s ilic o sis a nd o th er c o ve re d d is e ase s r a th er th an o th er c o ndit io ns a nd f o r em plo ye rs to se ek dif f e re nt dia gnose s fo r cla im ants , in ord er to elim in ate th e need to pay c o m pensa tio n. T his lin e o f d iv is io n b eca m e p olit ic a lly d ete rm in ed b eca use th e c a te goriz a tio n is su e c o uld n ot b e s e ttle d o bje ctiv e ly .
C . W orld W ar II t o O SH A D urin g th e w ar, la bor beca m e, "in eff e ct, a w ard of th e sta te ." [2 51] T he R oose ve lt A dm in is tr a tio n p ro te cte d u nio ns fr o m d ece rtif ic a tio n b ut d em anded a nd r e ce iv e d a " n o s tr ik e " p le dge a nd w age r e str a in t i n r e tu rn .[2 52] L abor d em ands a fte r th e e nd o f th e w ar c e nte re d o n w ages.[2 53] T he p assa ge o f th e T a ft H artle y A ct in 1 947 m ade u nio n o rg aniz in g m ore d if f ic u lt .[2 54] A fte r th e w ar, " n atio nal la bor le aders in b oth [ th e A FL a n d th e C IO ] c a m e to s e e th e la bor m ove m ent's p olit ic a l g oals a s b ro ad ly c o nce iv e d s u pport fo r l o w er a nd m id dle c la ss A m eric a ns." [2 55] P olit ic a lly , th e u nio n m ove m ent " a lig n[e d] it s e lf s q uare ly w it h th e l a rg er lib era l a genda o f c o unte rc yclic a l p u blic s p endin g a nd g enero us p ro gra m s o f s o cia l p ro te ctio n." [2 56] T his m ore genera l fo cu s to la bor activ is m m eant atte ntio n sh if te d aw ay fr o m w ork p la ce is su es lik e i n dustr ia l d is e ase s. A s in th e 1 920s, th e e xp andin g e co nom y d urin g th e 1 950s a nd e arly 1 960s b ro ught p ro sp erit y th at d ulle d th e u nio n m ove m ent's a ppetit e fo r in stit u tio nal re fo rm .[2 57] M ore ove r, th e p ost w ar i n dustr ia l re la tio ns s yste m c e ntr a liz e d w age a nd b enefit is su es, b ut le ft "m atte rs re la te d to w ork ru le s, d is cip lin e, jo b a ssig nm ent, a nd g rie va nce s" to lo ca l u nio ns to r e so lv e .[2 58] T he m ost im porta nt c h anges in w ork p la ce h ealt h th us c a m e fr o m th e p riv a te s e cto r. In dustr y tu rn ed to th e i n dustr ia l h yg ie nis ts ' tr a de o rg aniz a tio n fo r s ta ndard s. T he A C GIH , w hic h h ad e xp anded it s m em bers h ip c rit e ria to o ff s e t th e d eclin e in g ove rn m en t a ctiv it y a fte r th e w ar,[2 59] b egan to r e ce iv e r e quests fr o m fir m s f o r s ta ndard s g ove rn in g w ork p la ce e xp osu re .[2 60] T he o rg aniz a tio n fo rm ed th e C om mit te e o n In dustr ia l H yg ie ne C odes, a nd it c re ate d a ta ble o f "m axim um a llo w able c o nce ntr a tio ns" (M AC s) a s a fir s t s te p t o w ard a co m pre h ensiv e in dustr ia l hyg ie ne co de in 1946.[2 61] A se para te Te ch nic a l Sta ndard s C om mit te e als o co nsid ere d th e is su es and to ok ove r th e pro je ct.[2 62] T he org aniz a tio n als o to ok a dva nta ge o f in cre ase d in te re st in th e s u bje ct d urin g th e w ar " to o rg aniz e a nd d eve lo p in dustr ia l h yg ie ne a gencie s w here th e y h ad n ot p re vio usly e xis te d. B y th e e nd o f th e w ar a n etw ork o f u nit s h ad b een e sta blis h ed in n early e ve ry s ta te a nd m any la rg e in dustr ia l c it ie s." [2 63] A C GIH th en p ublis h ed it s m axim um a llo w able c o nce ntr a tio ns a s "T hre sh old L im it V alu es" (T LV s).[2 64] T he org aniz a tio n in sis te d th at th e T LV s w ere m ere ly guid es and not "fin e lin es betw een sa fe and d angero us c o nce ntr a tio ns." [2 65] D esp it e r e gula r r e petit io n o f s u ch w arn in gs, h ow eve r, m any s ta te s u se d T LV s a s le gal lim it s in s ta te le ve l w ork p la ce re gula to ry s ch em es,[2 66] a nd th ey c o ntin ue in w id esp re ad u se a ro und th e w orld .[2 67] T he T LV s o ff e re d fir m s a fo ca l p oin t a ro und w hic h to s tr u ctu re th eir w ork p la ce s a fe ty c a m paig ns, w it h out r e quir in g th e fir m s to in ve st in div id ually in th e r e se arc h n ece ssa ry to s e t th em .
A nd fir m s co uld poin t to th eir co m plia nce w it h "in dustr y sta ndard s" if questio ns w ere ra is e d about p artic u la r s u bsta nce s. T he r a nge o f s u bsta nce s to w hic h e m plo ye es w ere e xp ose d g re w w it h th e p ost w ar e xp lo sio n in th e ch em ic a l in dustr y , b ut th ere w as n o in cre ase in d ust e xp osu re s co m para ble to th at i n tr o duce d b y th e in dustr ia l r e vo lu tio n.
T he o n e in dustr y in w hic h d ust e xp osu re s in cre ase d d ra m atic a lly w as c o al m in in g, w hic h th e U nit e d M in e W ork e rs e n co ura ged to m ove to w ard g re ate r m ech aniz a tio n,[2 68] a nd th e in dustr y b eca m e vir tu ally c o m ple te ly m ech aniz e d a fte r th e w ar.[2 6 9] In th is o ne in dustr y , w e d o fin d p ers is te nt e ff o rts to c re ate r e gula to ry m easu re s. C ongre ss in tr o duce d a se rie s of bills durin g th e 19 50s pro posin g fe dera l i n ve stig atio ns o f m in e s a fe ty is su es g enera lly ; s o m e o f th ese s in gle d o ut s ilic o sis fo r s p ecia l m entio n, a nd o th ers d id n ot.[2 70] T he In te rn atio nal U nio n o f M in e, M ill, a nd S m elt e r W ork e rs , w ork in g w it h M onta na D em ocra tic C ongre ss m an L ee M etc a lf , w as a m ajo r fo rc e b ehin d th ese b ills .[2 71] In 1 958, C ongre ss 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 0/7 7 a ppro pria te d $128,0 00 in fu ndin g fo r a P ublic H ealt h S erv ic e stu dy,[2 72] and in 1961, C ongre ss a uth oriz e d a fe dera l s tu dy o f h ealt h a nd s a fe ty h aza rd s in m in es ( e xclu din g c o al m in es) a nd q uarrie s.[2 73] A s w it h s ilic o sis , lu ng in ju rie s fr o m c o al d ust ( re fe rre d to a s b la ck lu ng) w ere w ell k n ow n b ut w ere n ot y e t t h e fo cu s o f g ove rn m ent a ctio n.[2 74] T he p ro ble m o f b la ck lu ng c a m e to th e fo re fr o nt a t th e s a m e tim e a s t h e Jo hnso n A dm in is tr a tio n b egan a p ush fo r g enera l o ccu patio nal sa fe ty a nd h ealt h le gis la tio n.[2 75] R alp h N ade r, fo r e xa m ple , b egan a p ublic c a m paig n in 1 968 to s p ur fe dera l a ctio n o n b la ck lu ng w it h a n a rtic le in T he N ew R epublic a nd a p ublic le tte r to In te rio r S ecre ta ry S te w art U dall. [2 76] C ouple d w it h a h eavily p ublic iz e d W est V ir g in ia c o al m in e e xp lo sio n la te r th at y e ar,[2 77] N ader's c a m paig n p ush ed b la ck l u ng to th e fo re fr o nt o f p ublic a w are ness. T he m in e d is a ste r "b adly ta rn is h ed" th e in dustr y a nd m ade it m ore w illin g to a cce pt re gula tio n.[2 78] T he fo llo w in g ye ar th e n ew N ix o n A dm in is tr a tio n in tr o duce d a f e dera l m in e s a fe ty b ill, w hic h a t le ast s o m e o bse rv e rs te rm ed s tr ic te r th an th e J o hnso n A dm in is tr a tio n's e ff o rts .[2 79] M any c o al c o m panie s, w hic h o il c o m panie s re ce ntly a cq uir e d, a cc e pte d re gula tio n to h elp h ead o ff s tr ik e s.[2 80] D esp it e th e in cre ase d a ctiv it y o f th e A C G IH , fr o m W orld W ar II u ntil th e c re atio n o f O SH A in 1 970, th ere w as lit tle fe dera l o r s ta te a ctio n o n s ilic o sis o r r e la te d d is e ase s. In deed, a fte r th e w ar, g ove rn m ent fu ndin g f o r in dustr ia l h yg ie ne fe ll, [2 81] a nd th e p ro fe ssio n d eclin ed d esp it e th e a ppeara nce o f n ew te ch nolo gie s t h at p ose d n ew d angers in th e w ork p la ce .[2 82] N eve rth ele ss, th e A C GIH w as a ctiv e . B etw een 1 961 a nd 1 970, it is su ed 2 20 T LV s, b rin gin g th e to ta l to 5 00.[2 83] A C GIH , and th e TLV co m mit te es w it h in A C GIH ,[2 84] had co nsid era ble auto nom y. The o rg aniz a tio n re je cte d th e co nse nsu s appro ach of th e A m eric a n S ta ndard s A sso cia tio n beca use it s m em bers a sse rte d th at e xp erts s h ould s e t th e h ealt h s ta ndard s w it h out in te rfe re nce fr o m o uts id ers a nd t h at A C GIH m em bers ' g ove rn m enta l e m plo ym ent fr e ed th em fr o m c o nflic ts o f in te re st.[2 85] B ut, p ublic c h oic e th eory ra is e s th e q uestio n, w hat w ere A C GIH 's a nd o th ers ' in te re sts in th e re gula to ry a doptio n o f t h e T LV s?
F ir s t, th e o rg aniz a tio n d eliv e re d p ro fe ssio nal s ta tu s to it s m em bers , a llo w in g th em to b oth im pro ve th eir s ta tu s w it h in fir m s a nd b ure aucra cie s a nd to ra is e th e p ro fe ssio n a s a w hole .[2 86] T he A C GIH 's ro le in s e ttin g s ta ndard s a dopte d b y s ta te g ove rn m ents , a nd e ve ntu ally th e fe dera l g ove rn m ent, e nhance d th at s ta tu s. S eco nd, th e a doptio ns g ave th e o rg aniz a tio n in flu ence : F ir m s fo llo w ed it s re co m mendatio ns, a nd g ove rn m ent a gencie s a dopte d it s T LV s. S tr o ng e vid ence th at th e o rg aniz a tio n d e riv e d s o m e b enefit fr o m t h eir u se c a n b e fo und in th e fa ct th at th e o rg aniz a tio n a nd it s m em bers to le ra te d s u ch u se s o ve r lo ng p erio ds, u se s th at d ir e ctly c o ntr a dic te d th e s ta te d p urp ose s o f th e T LV s.[2 87] T he A C GIH a ls o p la ye d a n im porta nt r o le fo r la rg e fir m s, w hic h , in tu rn , a ssu m ed k e y r o le s in c re atin g a nd d ete rm in in g th e T LV s. A s o ne s tu dy n ote d, " It is e asy to d ocu m ent th e in flu ence o f in dustr y , a nd o f in dustr y c o nsu lt a nts in A C GIH ," [2 88] e sp ecia lly s in ce u nio ns g enera lly d id n ot p artic ip ate in th e T LV p ro ce ss[2 89] a nd th e A C GIH d eve lo ped T LV s la rg ely in re sp onse to in dustr y re quests .[2 90] L arg e fir m s th us o bta in ed s ta ndard iz e d T LV s a ro und w hic h s ta te r e gula tio ns, a nd e ve ntu ally fe dera l r e gula tio ns, c o ale sce d, h elp in g p re ve nt in co nsis te nt s ta ndard s. T he p ro ce ss g ave th e fir m s in flu ence o ve r b oth th e s u bsta nce s in clu ded a nd th e le ve ls se t — in flu ence th ey w ould fin d m uch h ard er to e xe rc is e o ve r g ove rn m ent re gula to ry b odie s. A C GIH th us p la ye d a la rg er p art th an th e B aptis ts ( to la rg e fir m s' " B ootle ggers ") in a " B ootle ggers a nd B aptis ts " r e gula to ry c o alit io n.[2 91] It w as a p rie stly c a ste in a th eocra cy.
M ore ove r, th e e ve ntu al e xp ansio n o f th e fe dera l ro le in o ccu patio nal h ealt h a nd s a fe ty w as fo re se eable l o ng b efo re 1 970.[2 92] T he ro le o f th e A C GIH T LV s w as a ls o fo re se eable . O ne A C GIH m em ber a nd g ove rn m ent a gency e m plo ye e d escrib ed th e u se o f T LV s b y O SH A to a r e se arc h er a s fo llo w s: 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 1/7 7 I don't think it was accidental. There had been several attempts over the preceding years to promulgate an OSHAct… and it was just a question of time as to when there would be a national occupational health and safety program. The language of the OSHAct specifically provided for the Secretary of Labor to promulgate as interim or start‐up standards, national consensus standards, that had already been promulgated under certain Acts including the Walsh‐Healy Act. Now the people in the Bureau of Labor Standards who were responsible for promulgating those standards were the same people who were going to be responsible under OSHA for setting the interim standards. Many of these people were ACGIH members but that doesn't make it an ACGIH decision. These people knew what was coming down the road and that they would have a job to do. If you had that responsibility, what would you use?[293] A noth er fa cto r in th e exp andin g fe dera l ro le m ay have been th e N ix o n A dm in is tr a tio n's dis tr u st of b ure aucra ts r e la tiv e to p riv a te e nte rp ris e . N ix o n s u pporte d in it ia tiv e s lik e e nvir o nm enta l le gis la tio n, a t le ast i n p art, fo r p olit ic a l a dva nta ge, b ut h e a ls o w ante d to k e ep th ese in it ia tiv e s c a re fu lly c o nstr a in ed to a vo id i n cu rrin g eco nom ic penalt ie s or alie natin g his busin ess su pporte rs .[2 94] Adoptin g th e co nse nsu s s ta ndard s, a lr e ady in u se a t m any la rg e b usin esse s, b oth s a tis fie d h is p olit ic a l n ee d to a ppear to b e d oin g s o m eth in g a nd m in im iz e d th e e co nom ic e ff e cts a nd p ote ntia l d eclin e in su p port fr o m b usin ess. T he e xp ansio n o f A C GIH 's T LV s d urin g th e 1 960s, a nd th eir "in appro pria te " u se in sta te , a nd e ve ntu ally f e dera l, re g ula tio ns, th us se rv e d th e in te re sts o f th e m em bers , th e o rg aniz a tio n, th e la rg e fir m s, a nd p olit ic ia ns.
S eve ra l fa cto rs e xp la in th e d is a ppeara nce o f s ilic o sis a nd in dustr ia l h yg ie ne g enera lly fr o m th e le gis la tiv e a genda u ntil th e la te 1 960s. F ir s t, th e im pro ve m ents in v e ntila tio n a nd o th er s a fe ty m easu re s h ad g re atly r e duce d d u st e xp osu re s, e sp ecia lly o uts id e m in in g. F ollo w u p s tu die s o n V erm ont g ra nit e c u tte rs in th e 1 950s a nd 1 960s, fo r e xa m ple , c o nclu ded th at im pro ve d v e ntila tio n h ad s o lv e d th e s ilic o sis p ro ble m th ere .
[ 2 95] T he o ptim is m e xp re sse d a t th e s ilic o sis c o nfe re nce s e em ed to h ave b een b orn e o ut.[2 96] S eco nd, a lt h ough s o m e m in in g u nio ns c o ntin ued to p ush fo r fe dera l s tu die s a nd s ilic o sis b enefit s , m any u nio ns lo st i n te re st in th e is su e b eca use o f th eir s u cc e ss a t w in nin g h ealt h b enefit s fr o m e m plo ye rs .[2 97] T he 1 950s b ro ught a " p erio d w hen th e is su e o f w ork a nd h ealt h b eca m e s yn onym ous w it h h ealt h in su ra nce p acka ges a nd th ir d p arty c o ve ra ge fo r th e A m eric a n w ork fo rc e . U nio ns b arg ain ed fo r fin ancia l s u pport o f w elf a re f u nds a nd B lu e C ro ss o r p riv a te h ealt h in su ra nce c o ve ra ge ra th er th an fo r p re ve ntio n o f d is e ase a t th e w ork p la ce ." [2 98] T hir d , th ere w ere n o G aule y B rid gelik e fig ure s to fo cu s p ublic a tte ntio n o n th e is su e.
[ 2 99] T he a nti c o m munis m o f th e 1 950s a nd th e g ro w th o f th e c iv il r ig hts m ove m ent in th e 1 960s fo cu se d p ublic a tte ntio n e ls e w here .[3 00] D ue to a la ck o f scie ntif ic b re akth ro ugh, vig oro us e ff o rts b y in te re st g ro ups, o r a s a lie nt p ublic e ve nt, lit tle c h an ged in r e gula tio n. W hen a ctio n d id c o m e w it h th e 1 970 p assa ge o f th e O SH A ct, it c a m e a s p art o f th e c o nte st b etw een th e N ix o n A dm in is tr a tio n a nd th e D em ocra tic P arty f o r b lu e c o lla r v o te rs .[3 01] N ix o n h ad a n "a cu te p olit ic a l s e nsit iv it y " a nd fo llo w ed v ir tu ally e ve ry p olic y d is cu ssio n w it h "a p re sid entia l e xp atia tio n w hic h b e[g an]: 'N ow le t m e ta lk a bout th e p olit ic s o f th is th in g; h ow it w ill ru m o ut in O cto ber a nd N ove m ber; h ow it w ill tr a nsla te in to v o te s.'" [3 02] L abor v o te s w ere c e ntr a l to N ix o n's p la n, e ve n if h e c o uld n o t c o m ple te ly w in o ve r it s le aders h ip .[3 0 3] C harle s C ols o n, a k e y p olit ic a l a dvis o r, to ld N ix o n in 1 970 th at th ey " n eed[e d] to id entif y w it h la bor o n a m ajo r s u bsta ntiv e is su e o th er th an n atio nal s e cu rit y ," [3 04] a nd O SH A p ro vid ed s u ch a n is su e. N ix o n's v ie w o f th e c o nse rv a tiv is m 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 2/7 7 o f th e v o te rs h e s o u ght to w oo in clu ded re co gnit io n th at th ese v o te rs o ppose d s o cia l e ngin eerin g, n ot g ove rn m ent p ro gra m s th ey th ought b en efit e d th em .[3 05] T he str a te gy p aid o ff in th e 1 970 m id te rm e le ctio ns, w it h la rg e g ain s in a re as th at h ad s u pporte d W alla ce in 1 968.[3 06] S enate c o m mit te e h earin gs i n 1 968 a nd 1 970 w ere c rit ic a l in b oth g ettin g is su es b efo re th e p ublic a nd b uild in g s u pport fo r th e O SH A ct.[3 07] T he c re atio n o f O SH A a nd N IO SH in 1 970 is th us c o nsis te nt w it h th e in te re st g ro up p ers p ectiv e .
D . R eg ula tio n U nder O SH A T he p assa ge o f th e O SH A ct d ra m atic a lly c h anged th e in stit u tio nal e nvir o nm ent, c re atin g n ew in ce ntiv e s a nd in te re st g ro ups a nd a lt e rin g e xis tin g o nes.
I . O SH A a n d In cen tiv es T here a re th re e k e y fe atu re s to th e r e gula to ry r e gim e c re ate d b y th e O SH A ct. F ir s t, th e s ta tu te s e para te d s ta ndard s e ttin g a nd e nfo rc e m ent fr o m th e d eve lo pm ent o f te ch nic a l k n ow le dge a bout w ork p la ce h aza rd s, l o ca tin g th e fo rm er in O SH A a nd th e la tte r in N IO SH .[3 08] T his se para tio n o f sta ndard se ttin g a nd e nfo rc e m ent fr o m re se arc h "h as it s ro ots in th e h is to ry o f e arlie r o ccu patio nal s a fe ty a nd h ealt h a ctiv it ie s a nd c o nflic ts b etw een th e D epartm ent o f L abor a nd th e P ublic H ealt h S erv ic e ." [3 09] T he A C GIH h ad to b e c a re fu l in d is p ute s o ve r a gency lo ca tio n in s e ttin g u p O SH A b eca use it h ad m em bers in b oth p ublic h ealt h a nd la bor a gencie s.[3 10] P ro te ctin g th e in te re sts o f e xis tin g b ure aucra cie s th us e xp la in s th e s p lit b etw een O SH A a nd N IO SH , a s p lit th at m ay h ave h in dere d O SH A's a bilit y to s e t s ta ndard s.[3 11 ] S eco nd, th e s ta tu te r e quir e d th e a gencie s to a ct q uic kly to c re ate a b ase o f fe dera l s ta ndard s.[3 12] O SH A h ad o nly tw o y e ars to c o nve rt e xis tin g c o nse nsu s s ta ndard s in to le gally b in din g o nes u nle ss th e a gency f o und th at d oin g s o w ould n ot im pro ve s a fe ty a nd h ealt h .[3 13] T his p ro vis io n le d to O SH A's w hole sa le a doptio n o f th in gs lik e th e A C GIH T LV s a s s ta ndard s. S hortly a fte r C ongre ss e sta blis h ed O SH A in 1 971, t h e a gency is su ed m ore th an 4 ,0 00 g enera l in dustr y s ta ndard s, b ase d o n n atio na l c o nse nsu s s ta ndard s o f t h e A m eric a n N atio na l S ta ndard s In stit u te a nd th e N atio nal F ir e P ro te ctio n A sso cia tio n, a s w ell a s e xis tin g f e dera l m arit im e s a fe ty s ta ndard s.[3 14] In ju st fo ur m onth s, O SH A to ok m ore th an 4 00 p ages o f s ta ndard s f r o m a v a rie ty o f p rio r p ro gra m s a nd v o lu nta ry o rg aniz a tio ns a nd c o nve rte d th em in to re gula tio ns.[3 15] T his c h ange h ad th e e ff e ct o f c o nve rtin g a s e t o f la rg ely d is cre tio nary in dustr y g uid elin es in to m andato ry w ork p la ce d esig n s ta ndard s[3 16] a nd, a s n ote d b elo w , c h anged th e r o le o f o th er a gents in th e m ark e t fo r h ealt h a nd s a fe ty .[3 17] S om e h ave c rit ic iz e d O SH A fo r n ot a tte m ptin g to "s o rt th ro ugh th e e xis tin g s ta ndard s to w eed o ut th ose t h at w ere o bvio usly s illy a nd o utd ate d." [3 18] S alt e r's s tu dy a nd C orn 's in stit u tio nal b io gra phy b oth s u ggest, h ow eve r, th at b eca u se A C GIH m em bers in th eir c a pacit y a s b ure aucra ts w ere in vo lv e d in th e p ro ce ss th e e xp la natio n m ay n ot lie in a la ck o f k n ow le dge a bout w heth er p artic u la r p ro vis io ns w ere " s illy o r o utd ate d" b ut ra th er in a w hole sa le acce pta nce of a bro ader ro le fo r TLV s th an had eve r been off ic ia lly a ckn ow le dged a s a g oal b y A C GIH . R ein fo rc in g th is in te rp re ta tio n is th e re co lle ctio n o f a n A C GIH m em ber, w ho d escrib ed th e s it u atio n to P ro fe sso r S alt e r a s fo llo w s:
A t the time of OSHA's creation, there was a lot of soul searching at ACGIH. We wondered whether we should just fold up our tent and go home. There was a lot of encouragement in that direction coming from NIOSH. NIOSH felt that now it had legal responsibility for establishing criteria for standards, that ACGIH's TLV committee had done its job well, but that now we were in a new era and NIOSH superseded us. There were a lot of people at 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 3/7 7 NIOSH who felt that way and weren't afraid to express it to the TLV committee and ACGIH itself.
I was on the Board of Directors, but I think even more discussion was taking place in the TLV committees. It ended up with a wait and see attitude for a couple of years. By the mid‐1970s, there was a realization that the new system was not going to be responsive to current problems.[319] C onve rtin g th e T LV s in to sta ndard s se rv e d th e in te re sts of th e A C GIH by giv in g it a ra tio nale fo r c o ntin uin g it s w ork a nd s e rv e d th e in te re sts o f O SH A in g ettin g r e gula tio ns o n th e b ook q uic kly .
M ore ove r, O SH A s ta ndard s d id n ot c o m e in to e xis te nce in a v a cu um . B efo re O SH A, th ere w ere s ta te a nd l o ca l r e gula to ry e ff o rts a s w ell a s v o lu nta ry s ta ndard s lik e th e A C GIH T LV s. L arg e fir m s o pera tin g a cro ss j u ris d ic tio ns b enefit e d fr o m n atio naliz in g re gula tio ns, g ettin g rid o f c o nflic tin g lo ca l s ta ndard s, a nd s h if tin g t h e r e gula to ry fo cu s to W ash in gto n w here th ey c o uld a ff o rd to m ain ta in lo bbyis ts a nd la w ye rs . In deed, th e t h re at o f c o nflic tin g s ta te a nd lo ca l r e gula tio n r e m ain s a p ote nt o ne. W hen th e n ew R eagan A dm in is tr a tio n s to pped w ork o n a C arte r A dm in is tr a tio n p ro posa l fo r "rig ht to k n ow " ru le s, fo r e xa m ple , u nio ns b egan l o bbyin g fo r s ta te a n d lo ca l v e rs io ns.[3 20] W orrie d a bout a p atc h w ork o f in co nsis te nt r u le s, in dustr ie s th en s o ught fe dera l r u le s th at w ould p re em pt lo ca l s ta ndard s.[3 21] A doptin g th e A C GIH T LV s, w it h w hic h th ey w ere a lr e ady fa m ilia r, g ave la rg er fir m s a n a dva nta ge a nd fo rc e d th eir sm alle r co m petit o rs to in cu r a ddit io nal c o sts .
T hir d , a fte r th e in it ia l w ave o f s ta ndard s c o pie d fr o m e ls e w here , O SH A h ad to u se it s r u le m akin g p ow ers t o a dopt n ew s ta ndard s o r m odif y e xis tin g o nes. T he "a dve rs a ry lik e p ro ce ss" o f s ta ndard s e ttin g g iv e s t h ose in vo lv e d a n in ce ntiv e to p ro duce a ll a va ila ble e vid ence in s u pport o f a d esir e d o utc o m e.[3 22] "It is p re cis e ly th is p ro ce ss th at c o nfir m s th e d egre e o f u nce rta in ty re gard in g th e q uestio n o f w hat is a 's a fe ' l e ve l o f e xp osu re "[3 23 ] in th e c o nte xt o f h aza rd ous s u bsta nce s. U nlik e th e r e la tiv e ly in fo rm al d eve lo pm ent o f A C GIH T LV s, th e p ro ce ss o f O SH A s ta ndard s e ttin g p ro duce d m ore v ig oro us p artic ip atio n b y u nio ns, w hic h had la rg ely ig nore d th e A C GIH pro ce ss, and by O SH A em plo ye es, a new in te re st gro up e sta blis h ed b y th e c re atio n o f th e a gency. T he s u bse quent h is to ry o f O SH A a nd it s w ork p la ce h ealt h s ta ndard s is th us c o nsis te nt w it h th e in te re st g ro up a naly sis .
2 . O SH A a n d In te re st G ro ups I n dustr ia l h yg ie nis ts a s a g ro up w ere th e fir s t m ajo r b enefic ia rie s o f th e c re atio n o f O SH A a nd N IO SH .
P assa ge o f th e O SH A ct "c re ate d a n in te nse in te re st in s e ttin g s ta ndard s," [3 24] "[j] u st a s s ta te a nd lo ca l i n dustr ia l h yg ie ne p ro gra m s r e ach ed a lo w p oin t a nd th e p ro fe ssio n s e em ed to b e s p lin te rin g, th e fe dera l g ove rn m ent b ro adene d it s r o le in o ccu patio nal s a fe ty a nd h ealt h ." [3 25] T he c re atio n o f N IO SH a nd O SH A l e d to " a n e norm ous g ro w th o f p ro fe ssio n als " in in dustr ia l h yg ie ne: A C GIH m em bers h ip b oom ed, a nd fo r t h e fir s t tim e, a m ajo rit y o f A C GIH e m plo ye es c a m e fr o m fe dera l a gencie s.[3 26] M em bers h ip s o are d fr o m a ppro xim ate ly 1 ,0 00 in 1 968, to o ve r 1 ,5 00 in 1 973, to a lm ost 2 ,5 00 in 1 983.[3 27] A n o rg aniz a tio n th at b egan in 1 938 p rim arily c o nsis tin g o f 7 6 e m plo ye es, a lm ost a ll s ta te a nd lo ca l a gency e m plo ye es, g re w to 3 ,7 20 m em bers , w it h a s u bsta ntia l fe dera l c o ntin gent, b y 1 988.[3 28] C re atin g O SH A b ro ught a n a ddit io nal in te re st g ro up in to e xis te nce : O SH A's e m plo ye es. O SH A's in it ia l l o ose o rg aniz a tio nal str u ctu re g ave th e sta ff a g re at d eal o f a uto nom y, if n ot a n o ve ra bundance o f r e so urc e s.[3 29] A s a re su lt , w hen th e R eagan A dm in is tr a tio n a tte m pte d to im ple m ent (d e)re gula to ry a gendas th at w ere n ot th ose o f th e a gency s ta ff b y e xe rc is in g g re ate r W hit e H ouse c o ntr o l ( v ia th e O ff ic e o f M anagem ent a nd 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 4/7 7 B udget ( O M B)) o ve r th e a gency, th e a gency s ta ff fo und it s e lf fr u str a te d a nd tu rn ed to a llie s o n C apit o l H ill.
F or e xa m ple , a t c o ngre ssio nal h earin gs in 1 988, O SH A s ta ff te stif ie d a bout th e fr u str a tio n o f w ork in g o n s ta ndard s th at w ere u lt im ate ly r e je cte d b y th e a gency o r w hen th ey fe lt p ro fe ssio nal p re ssu re s a s a r e su lt o f a gency p osit io ns. W ork in g a t th e a gency w as, a s o ne s cie ntis t p ut it , " e xtr e m ely fr u str a tin g, a nd y o u a sk y o urs e lf th e q uestio n w hy a re y o u d oin g th is ." [3 30] A s M cG arit y a nd S hapir o c o n clu de fr o m th eir a naly sis o f O SH A in th e 1 980s, L ike any professional, an OSHA health scientist would like to believe that he or she is accomplishing something. But it is very hard to feel a sense of accomplishment when a regulation for which you are responsible sits on the desk of an upper‐level manager or an OMB desk officer for years.[331] A ddit io nal e vid ence o f O SH A s ta ff a ctin g a s a n in te re st g ro up c o m es fr o m it s p ra ctic e in th e 1 970s o f f u ndin g a ctiv is t g ro ups "th at s o ught to e duca te w ork e rs a bout a ctio ns th ey c o uld ta ke in p ublic fo ru m s to b rin g a bout s a fe r w ork p la ce s," [3 32] fu ndin g w hic h c re ate d a d em and fo r O SH A's s e rv ic e s. (T his fu ndin g s to pped u nder P re sid ent R eagan.) [3 33] N ot o n ly w as O SH A's s ta ff n ow a n in te re st g ro up, b ut o uts id e in te re st g ro ups n ow h ad a p ote ntia l a lly .
U nio ns in p artic u la r fo und O SH A — e xc e pt d urin g th e R eagan a nd G eorg e H . W . B ush A dm in is tr a tio ns — to b e a u se fu l a lly in s o m e s it u atio ns. F or e xa m ple , u nio ns o ppose d R eagan A dm in is tr a tio n e ff o rts to a ch ie ve v o lu nta ry c o m plia nce ra th er th an to u se la rg e fin es to m otiv a te e m plo ye rs : "W ork e rs p re fe rre d O SH A to b e th e 't o ugh c o p' r a th er th an a 'h elp fu l c o nsu lt a nt.'" [3 34] T he c re atio n o f O SH A d ra m atic a lly c h a nged th e e nvir o nm ent u nder w hic h s ta n dard s w ere c re ate d. A s o ne o bse rv e r n ote d, A rule of thumb would suffice in the 1950s; it could easily be dislodged by industry and other criticism in the 1970s [under OSHA]. The expectations of the scientific basis for standards had increased considerably in the interim. More important, the relationship of industry to the standards themselves was changed by the introduction of regulatory standards and litigation arising from them.[335] I n s h ort, " [o ]n ce a c o h ere nt ( a lb eit n ot n ece ssa rily a dequate ) b ody o f r e gula to ry s ta ndard s e xis te d, a s th ey d id a fte r 1 970, th e e nvir o nm ent fo r s ta ndard s e ttin g c h anged. A C GIH , o th er s ta ndard s e ttin g b odie s a nd r e gula to ry a gencie s w ere in c o m petit io n." [3 36] O SH A a ls o c h anged th e s ta ndard s e nvir o nm ent b y a llo w in g th ose d is sa tis fie d w it h th e re su lt s to s e ek r e lie f fr o m th e co urts a nd p olit ic a l p ro ce ss. T his a ff e cte d h ow O SH A cre ate d sta ndard s. P ro fe sso rs M cG arit y a nd S hapir o , fo r e xa m ple , c o nclu ded th at ju dic ia l re vie w w as "a p rim ary c a use " o f O SH A's s lo w ness in is su in g s ta ndard s: " T he im pa ct o f h avin g to d ot e ve ry i a nd c ro ss e ve ry t fo r fe ar o f a ju dic ia l r e m and h as h ad a d ra m atic e ff e ct o n O SH A." [3 37] T he h is to ry o f O SH A's e ff o rts to r e gula te " e rg onom ic s" i n ju rie s illu str a te s th e im pact o f th e p olit ic a l p ro ce ss. O SH A is su ed it s fir s t d ir e ctiv e o n th e s u bje ct o f e rg onom ic s in 1 986[3 38] a nd b egan th e r u le m akin g p ro ce ss to d ra ft a n e rg onom ic s s ta ndard in 1 992. T he f in al E rg onom ic s P ro gra m S ta ndard w as n ot is su ed u ntil N ove m ber 4 , 2 000.[3 39] D esp it e ye ars o f d eve lo pm ent, th e s ta ndard w as s till c o ntr o ve rs ia l, a nd C ongre ss p asse d a J o in t R eso lu tio n, s ig ned b y P re sid ent G eorg e W . B ush , re pealin g it o n M arc h 2 0, 2 001.[3 40] C oncu rre nt w it h th e ru le d eve lo pm ent p ro ce ss, O SH A w as b rin gin g e nfo rc e m ent a ctio ns a gain st e m plo ye rs u nder th e "g enera l d uty " c la use o f t h e O SH A ct, w hic h im pose s a g enera l o blig atio n o n e m plo ye rs to p ro te ct w ork e rs fr o m "re co gniz e d 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 5/7 7 h aza rd s" in th e w ork p la ce . Y et, in th e th re e c a se s O SH A lit ig ate d to ju dgm ent, it w as u nable to c o nvin ce t h e c o urts th at (1 ) a re co gniz e d h aza rd e xis te d, (2 ) w ork p la ce a ctiv it y c a use d th e in ju rie s, o r (3 ) O SH A o ff e re d s o lu tio ns to th e h aza rd .[3 41] 3 . T he S ilic a S ta n dard s H ow d id s ilic a fa re u n der th e n ew r e gim e? O SH A's r e gula tio n o f s ilic a b egan w it h O SH A's a doptio n o f th e A C GIH co nse nsu s sta ndard in 1970, w hic h se t m axim um exp osu re le ve ls at 0.1 0 m g/m . [3 42] U nfo rtu nate ly th at s ta ndard w as o bso le te b y th e tim e it w as a dopte d. In 1 968, th ere w as a m ajo r c h ange i n h ow in div id uals e stim ate d q uartz e xp osu re s b ase d o n d ust s a m ple s. T his c h ange le d to th e a doptio n o f a rb it r a ry c o nve rs io n fa cto rs to a cco unt fo r d if f e re nce s b etw een th e o ld a nd n ew m easu re m ent s ta ndard s.
[ 3 43] A ls o in 1 970, th e n ew ly c re ate d N IO SH b egan a s tu dy o f lo w er le ve ls to u nde rs ta nd th e im pact o f th is m eth odolo gic a l c h ange. T he s tu dy c o nclu ded th at th ere w as a s ig nif ic a nt lo ss o f lu ng fu nctio n a nd p erh aps r a dio gra phic c h anges a t th e c u rre nt d ust le ve ls . T his fin din g le d N IO SH in 1 974 to r e co m mend a c h ange t o a n e xp osu re le ve l o f 0 .0 5 m g/m . B eca use th e e pid em io lo gic a l s tu die s o n w hic h N IO SH re lie d w ere " c a lle d in to q uestio n b eca use o f te ch nic a l a nd p ro ce dura l p ro ble m s," th e r e co m mended e xp osu re lim it h as n ot b een a cce pte d b y th e D epartm ent o f L abor.[3 44] I n th e 1 980s, n ew s tu die s fo und c ry sta llin e s ilic a to b e a p ote ntia l c a rc in ogen, tr ig gerin g O SH A's H aza rd C om munic a tio n Sta ndard (H CS or HazC om sta ndard s).[3 45] Under th e HCS, OSH Are gula te d b usin esse s u sin g m ate ria ls w it h 0 .1 p erc e nt o r m ore c ry sta llin e s ilic a m ust fo llo w fe dera l g uid elin es o n h aza rd co m munic a tio ns and w ork e r tr a in in g.[3 46] H CS co ve ra ge did not im media te ly tr ig ger new e xp osu re r e gula tio ns, b ut it d id g et th e a tte ntio n o f th e m in in g in dustr y ( w hic h in vo lv e s a g re at d eal o f s ilic a e xp osu re ), m in in g re gula to rs , a nd sta te le gis la tu re s.[3 47] T he M in e S afe ty a n d H ealt h A dm in is tr a tio n ( M SH A) is s u ed it s o w n H azC om s ta nda rd s in 2 002.[3 48] O SH A h as is su ed s e ve ra l in te rp re tiv e le tte rs c la rif y in g th e sta ndard w it h re sp ect to silic a and denyin g petit io ns fo r exclu sio ns of ce rta in silic a a pplic a tio ns fr o m th e H CS r e quir e m ents .[3 49] I n th e p riv a te se cto r, b oth th e A m eric a n S ocie ty fo r Te stin g a nd M ate ria ls (A STM ) a nd th e B uild in g C onstr u ctio n Tra des D epartm ent of th e A FLC IO have als o deve lo ped re co m mended pra ctic e s fo r p ro te ctin g w ork e rs w ho m ay b e e xp ose d to q uartz d ust.[3 50] R ece ntly , O SH A h as m ove d th e r e gula tio n o f c ry sta llin e s ilic a to th e to p o f it s r e gu la to ry a genda. It is o ne o f fo ur "h ig h p rio rit y re gula tio ns" lis te d in th e D ece m ber 2 004 R egula to ry P la n.[3 51] In O cto ber 2 003, O SH A p ro vid ed fo r r e vie w b y a S m all B usin ess A dvo ca cy R evie w p anel a d ra ft r u le to a ddre ss e xp osu re t o cry sta llin e silic a .[3 52] T he d ra ft in clu d ed th re e a lt e rn ativ e "p erm is sib le e xp osu re lim it s " (P ELs): th e c u rre nt 0 .1 0 m g/m , 0 .0 75 m g/m , o r 0 .0 50 m g/m , a ll m easu re d a s a n 8 h our tim ew eig hte d a ve ra ge ( T W A) c o n ce ntr a tio n o f re sp ir a ble c ry s ta llin e s ilic a .[3 53] In D ece m ber 2 003, th e s m all b usin ess p anel s u bm it te d a r e port to O SH A, c o m mentin g o n O SH A's e va lu atio n o f th e c o sts a n d r is kre ductio n p ote ntia l o f c o m plia nce w it h d if f e re nt s ta ndard s.[3 54] O SH A p la ns to c o m ple te a p eer re vie w o f it s h ealt h e ff e cts a nd ris k a sse ssm en t b y D ece m ber 2 005 a nd to is su e a p ro pose d re gula tio n b y A pril 2 006.[3 55] T he M SH A h as a ls o lis te d s ilic a o n it s r e gula to ry c a le ndar.[3 56] N otin g th at " th e S ecre ta ry o f L abor's A dvis o ry C om mit te e on th e Elim in atio n of Pneum oco nio sis Am ong Coal Min e W ork e rs made se ve ra l r e co m mendatio ns re la te d to re ducin g e xp osu re to s ilic a " a nd th at "N IO SH a nd A C GIH re co m mend a 5 0µg/m e xp osu re lim it fo r re sp ir a ble c ry sta llin e s ilic a ," M SH A s ta te s it "is c o nsid erin g s e ve ra l o ptio ns to r e duce m in ers ' e xp osu re to c ry sta llin e s ilic a ." [3 57] In it s S prin g 2 005 a genda, M SH A p ro pose d a s it s n ext a ctio n a " re quest fo r in fo rm atio n" b ut d id n ot e sta blis h a tim e ta ble fo r a ctio n.[3 58] 4 . In stit u tio nal B ia ses in R eg ula tio n 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 6/7 7 T he m easu re s n ece ssa ry to s to p s ilic a d ust fr o m h arm in g p eople a re c o nce ptu ally s im ple [3 59]: re duce e xp osu re to th e d ust. T here a re fo ur m ain m eth ods o f re ducin g e xp osu re to d ust. F ir s t, jo bs m ig ht b e r e desig ned to e lim in ate e xp osu re to d ust. F or e xa m ple , a s ilic a p ro duct m ig ht b e r e pla ce d w it h a d if f e re nt s u bsta nce in a g rin din g a pplic a tio n.[3 60] T his m eth od h as lim it e d ca pacit y b eca use silic a is b oth so c o m mon a nd s o u se fu l. M ore ove r, re str u ctu rin g th e w ork p la ce is e xa ctly th e s it u atio n in w hic h H aye kia n l o ca l k n ow le dge w ill b e m ost n eeded — m akin g it a ll b ut im possib le to im pose th ro ugh a c e ntr a liz e d r e gula to ry r e gim e w it h out im posin g u nacc e pta ble lo sse s. S uch w elf a re lo sse s fr o m a c e ntr a liz e d a ppro ach m ig ht b e b orn e w it h r e sp ect to a n in fr e quently u se d s u bsta nce , b oth b eca use th e r a nge o f u se s m ig ht b e s m all e nou gh to r e duce th e lo sse s' m agn it u de a nd b eca use th e a m ount o f u se is s m all e nough to r e duce t h e to ta l lo ss to a b eara ble le ve l. W here a s u bsta nce is u se d a s w id ely a s s ilic a , h ow eve r, it is n ot p ossib le .
S eco nd, e ngin eerin g ste ps m ig ht b e ta ke n to re duce e xp osu re .[3 61] F or e xa m ple , d ust su ppre ssio n e quip m ent m ig ht b e d eplo ye d[3 62] o r in cre ase d v e ntila tio n m ig ht r e duce d ust c o nce ntr a tio ns.[3 63] T hese e ngin eerin g ste ps are th e prim ary appro ach ta ke n by O SH A, both w it h re sp ect to silic a and oth er h aza rd ous a ir co nta m in ants . T hey h ave th e re gula to ry vir tu e o f a llo w in g O SH A to sp ecif y a le ve l o f c o nta m in atio n in th e a ir th at g iv e s th e im pre ssio n o f p re cis io n.[3 64] A s n ote d e arlie r, h ow eve r, O SH A's c u rre nt sta ndard (in eff e ct sin ce 1970) is base d on outd ate d m easu re m ent te ch nolo gy.[3 65] M ost i m porta ntly , s u ch s ta ndard s p ro vid e n o in ce ntiv e fo r in cre asin g k n ow le dge a bout th e r e gula te d w ork p la ce h aza rd ; in deed, th ey m ay e ve n d is co ura ge it b y fo cu sin g a tte ntio n o n c o m plia nce w it h th e s ta ndard r a th er t h an o n h arm r e ductio n. G iv e n th e c o sts o f c h angin g a n O SH A r e gula tio n, th ey c e rta in ly d o n ot e nco ura ge i n ve stig atio ns b y p riv a te p artie s in to c a te goriz a tio n is su es.
T hir d , v u ln era ble e m plo ye es m ay b e r e m ove d fr o m th e w ork p la ce .[3 66] U nio ns h ave tr a dit io nally r e sis te d t h is a ppro ach ,[3 67] a nd O SH A h as fo llo w ed th eir le ad a nd g enera lly n ot in clu ded s u ch p ro vis io ns in it s r e gula tio ns. A s m edic a l k n ow le dge in cre a se s, h ow eve r, g enetic lin ks b etw een in div id uals a nd v u ln era bilit y t o p artic u la r s u bsta nce s a re lik e ly to e m erg e.[3 68] F in ally , w ork e rs a t r is k o f e xp osu re c o uld w ear p ers o nal p ro te ctiv e e quip m ent, b u t O SH A g enera lly p re fe rs n ot to u se th is m eth od o f c o ntr o llin g o ccu patio nal e xp osu re to h aza rd ous s u bsta nce s. A s o ne re fe re nce w ork o n th e s u bje ct fir m ly c o nclu ded: "P ers o nal p ro te ctiv e e quip m ent, a nd in th e c a se o f d ust e xp osu re , s p ecif ic a lly re sp ir a to ry p ro te ctio n, s h ould o nly b e c o nsid ere d fo r o pera tio ns w he re it is n ot p ossib le to c o ntr o l e xp osu re b y o th er m eans. T hey sh ould n eve r b e co nsid ere d a s a n a lt e rn ativ e to e ngin eerin g c o ntr o ls ." [3 69] W hy n ot? O ccu patio nal d is e ase c o ntr o l s p ecia lis ts h ave th re e m ain o bje ctio ns: ( 1 ) th e g ear i s n ot "fo olp ro of;" (2 ) it d epends o n w ork e rs ' "v o lu nta ry c o m plia nce " w it h th e p ro gra m fo r th eir u se , a nd w ork e rs w ill not fo llo w in str u ctio ns on usin g pers o nal equip m ent; and (3 ) it re quir e s an ongoin g m ain te nance p ro gra m .[3 70] T he fir s t a nd th ir d o f th ese a re n ot se rio us o bje ctio ns — n o m eth od o f e xp osu re c o ntr o l is fo olp ro of, a nd a ll e qu ip m ent re quir e s m ain te nance .[3 71] T he p ro ble m atic o bje ctio n is t h us th at w ork e rs w il l n ot p ro perly u se th e e quip m ent in te nded to p ro te ct th em . T his o bje ctio n h as a lo ng h is to ry .[3 72] In e sse nce , it a m ounts to a c la im th at w ork e rs m ake in appro pria te tr a deoff s o f im media te c o m fo rt a n d lo ngte rm h ealt h ( b y r e m ovin g u nco m fo rta ble r e sp ir a to rs ) a nd/o r d o n ot p ro perly u nders ta nd t h e r is ks p ose d b y th e s u bsta nce s fr o m w hic h th e r e sp ir a to rs a re in te nded to p ro te ct th em .[3 73] S o lo ng a s o ccu patio nal h ealt h re gula tio ns fo rb id re lia nce o n re sp ir a to rs , o f co urs e , th e in ce ntiv e to d eve lo p m ore e ff e ctiv e , lo w er c o st, a nd m ore c o m fo rta ble e quip m ent is e lim in ate d. W e o bse rv e a q uit e d if f e re nt ra te o f te ch nic a l p ro gre ss in o th er, s im ila r a re as o f e quip m ent. S cu ba g ear, fo r e xa m ple , h as p ro gre sse d fr o m heavy, re la tiv e ly fa ilu re p ro ne, su rp lu s m ilit a ry gear to lig ht w eig ht, erg onom ic , c o m fo rta ble , fa il s a fe , co nsu m erfr ie ndly gear. As a re su lt , scu ba gear is in w id esp re ad use in e nvir o nm ents w here th e p ote ntia l fo r im media te in ju ry a nd d eath fr o m e quip m ent fa ilu re is m ore s e ve re 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 7/7 7 t h an th at fo und in m ost w ork p la ce s. A gain , w e s e e th e in flu ence o f r e gula tio n d is to rtin g th e d eve lo pm ent o f n ew k n ow le dge th at c o uld p ro vid e s u perio r p ro te ctio n fo r e m plo ye es b eca use o f in stit u tio nal b ia se s.
E . E xp la in in g R eg ula tio ns T here a re a n um ber o f r e aso ns w hy r e gula tin g s ilic a o ught to b e a r e aso nably e a sy m atte r. A h aza rd ous s u bsta nce , v is ib le to th e n ake d e ye , w it h a d ocu m ente d h is to ry o f c a usin g o ccu patio nal d is e ase p ro ble m s s h ould b e a s tr a ig ht fo rw ard c a se fo r re gula to rs . In deed, s o m e o ptim is tic s o urc e s h ave e ve n s u ggeste d t h at s ilic o sis c a n b e p re ve nte d e ntir e ly b y p ro per re gula tio n.[3 74] W hen th e IA R C id entif ie d s ilic a a s a " p ro bable h um an c a rc in ogen," re gula tin g it s h ould h ave b een s tr a ig htfo rw ard — s ta ndard s n eeded to b e t ig hte ned in lig ht o f th e n ew ly r e co gniz e d r is k. W hat to d o to p re ve nt s ilic a e xp osu re a ls o o ught to b e c le ar.
T he g enera l p rin cip le in o ccu patio nal d is e ase p re ve ntio n is to p re ve nt e xp osu re .[3 75] P re ve ntin g d ust e xp osu re is n eit h er d if f ic u lt n or n ove l; p re ve ntio n r e quir e s a c o m bin atio n o f v e ntila tio n a nd d ust r e ductio n o r r e m ova l. [3 76] U nfo rtu nate ly , re gula tin g silic a is not str a ig htfo rw ard .[3 77] R ela tiv e ly obvio u s pro ble m s in clu de th e p re se nce o f o th er m in era ls in d usts , w hic h m ake in te rp re tin g d ata a bout e xp osu re s m ore d if f ic u lt .[3 78] E quip m ent a nd te ch niq ues m ay n ot b e c o m pete nt to u nderta ke th e ta sk o f m easu rin g a t le ve ls r e quir e d b y r e gula tio ns.[3 79] H ealt h a nd e xp osu re re co rd s a re in co m ple te , c a usin g d if f ic u lt ie s in lin kin g in div id uals ' c o ndit io ns w it h w ork p la ce e xp osu re s a nd th ere by co m plic a tin g e ff o rts a t se ttin g e xp osu re le ve ls .[3 80] T here a re a ls o m ore c o m ple x p ro ble m s r e la te d to th e p artic u la r fo rm o f s ilic a d ust to w hic h in div id uals a re e xp ose d.[3 81] M ore ove r, th ere a re s e rio us p ro ble m s in id entif y in g th e c a use o f lu ng d am age fr o m s ilic a e xp osu re . T he s u cce ssfu l e ff o rt to re duce e xp osu re s it s e lf co m plic a te s a tte m pts to id entif y th e re m ain in g h arm s b y e lim in atin g th e m ost o bvio us e vid ence o f e xp osu re a nd m akin g th e h ealt h e ff e cts h ard er to s p ot.[3 82] I n deed, e ve n w it h a sb esto s, w here lu ng d am age w as ( a t le ast th eore tic a lly ) m ore r e adily id entif ia ble , th ere h ave b een s e rio us p ro ble m s lin kin g h arm to th e in hale d d ust. F or e xa m ple , a s p a rt o f th e M anville T ru st's d is tr ib utio n o f fu nds to a sb esto s c la im ants , th e T ru st im ple m ente d a n a udit p ro gra m . U sin g o nly p ers o nnel s e le cte d in c o nsu lt a tio n w it h th e p la in tif f s ' b ar, n one o f w hom h ad e ve r te stif ie d o n b ehalf o f a d efe ndant in a n a sb esto s c a se , a nd a lib era l ru le fo r in clu sio n o f c la im s,[3 83] th e a udit n oneth ele ss d is co ve re d th at a ppro xim ate ly h alf o f th e c la im ants ' r a dio gra phs h ad n o in dic a tio n o f " e ve n lo w le ve l, s u bd ia gnostic X ra y e vid ence o f in te rs tit ia l fib ro sis ." [3 84] B eca use o f th e d if f ic u lt ie s in d eve lo pin g a dequate e xp osu re a nd h ealt h re co rd s, d ata a va ila bilit y o fte n d riv e s re g ula tio ns. In th e c a se o f s ilic a , fo r e xa m ple , th e tw o p rim ary s e ts o f h e alt h d ata c o m e fr o m a s e rie s o f s tu die s o f V erm ont g ra nit e w ork e rs [3 85] a nd w hit e S outh A fr ic a n g old m in ers .[3 86] In deed, th e h is to ry of m edic a l kn ow le dge about silic o sis co m es prim arily fr o m stu die s of in div id uals w ho had e xtr a ord in arily h ig h le ve ls o f e xp osu re , s u ch a s N eva da m ill w ork e rs , V erm ont g ra nit e c u tte rs , a nd th e w ork e rs a t th e G aule y B rid ge, W est V ir g in ia tu nnel in cid ent.[3 87] T he hig hest qualit y m edic a l evid ence , th ere fo re , co m es fr o m extr e m ely lim it e d so urc e s. G iv e n th e v a ria bilit y in ty p es o f silic a , w e th ere fo re co nfr o nt th e p ro ble m o f h ow to a cco unt fo r th is lim it a tio n.
C onsid er, fo r e xa m ple , th e V erm ont g ra nit e c u tte rs . T he V erm ont s tu die s c a m e a bout b eca use o f a n i n cre ase in s ilic a d ust re la te d tu berc u lo sis in V erm ont a fte r th e in tr o ductio n in 1 900 o f p neum atic c h is e ls a nd s u rfa cin g m ach in es.[3 88] T he h ig h d egre e o f v a ria nce in e xp osu re a cro ss jo b c a te gorie s e nable d c re atio n o f a d ose re sp onse r e la tio nsh ip fo r g ra nit e d ust.[3 89] T he s ta te th en c o nducte d fo llo w u p s tu die s t h ro ugh 1 96 5, w hic h "d ete rm in ed th at n o c a se s o f s ilic o sis h ad a ppeare d in w ork e rs fir s t e m plo ye d a fte r 1 938." [3 90] 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 8/7 7 T here a re n ot o nly th e u su al d ose re sp onse q uestio ns a bout e xtr a pola tin g fr o m h ig he xp osu re s tu die s to l o w e xp osu re s, b ut th e g ra nit e w ork e rs w ere e xp ose d to s ilic a o f p artic u la r ty p es, w hic h m ay o r m ay n ot b e r e p re se nta tiv e o f s ilic a fo und e ls e w here .[3 91] T o u se th e la nguage o f o ur e arlie r h yp oth etic a l, w e th us d o n ot k n ow w heth er th e V erm ont s tu die s c o nce rn ed α k ry p to nit e o r β k ry p to nit e . M ore ove r, th e V erm ont g ra nit e c u tte rs w ere e xp ose d to fr e sh ly c u t s ilic a , a nd s o m e s ilic a e xp osu re s to day a re to a ged s ilic a .
A gain , tu rn in g to o ur e arlie r h yp oth etic a l's la nguage, w e m ust d ecid e if th e d is tin ctio n b etw een α k ry p to nit e a nd α ' k ry p to nit e is r e le va nt a s w ell.
B ut, th ese a re n ot m ere ly h yp oth etic a l d is cu ssio ns. S cie ntis ts w ork in g fo r th e S orp tiv e M in era ls In stit u te h ave o bta in ed s a m ple s o f th e o re u se d in th e s tu dy o f S outh A fr ic a n m in ers a n d e xa m in ed th e fo rm o f s ilic a p re se nt.[3 92] T hey d ete rm in ed th at th ere is a d if f e re nce b etw een it a nd th e a ged s ilic a p re se nt in m any a bso rb ent p ro ducts m anufa ctu re d w it h m in ed s ilic a a nd re la te d m in era ls . W hat a re re gula to rs to m ake o f s u ch e vid ence ? If th e S outh A fr ic a n s tu die s a re th e b asis fo r a n ew re gula to ry e ff o rt, a re fir m s u sin g n onc o m para b le fo rm s o f s ilic a to b e e xe m pte d fr o m th e n ew re gula tio n? O r m ust th ey u nderta ke t h e fa r m ore c o m ple x a nd lik e ly im possib le ta sk o f p ro vin g th at th e d is tin ctio n re nders th eir m ate ria ls " s a fe "?
I n a d dit io n to th e ch em ic a l, b io lo gic a l, m in era l, o r o th er ch ara cte riz a tio n o f th e re gula te d su bsta nce , t e ch nolo gic a l c h ange a ls o p la ys a c rit ic a l r o le in r e gula tio n b y p ro vid in g m ore s o phis tic a te d m easu re m ent t e ch niq ues. O ur a bilit y to m easu re d ust le ve ls to day, fo r e xa m ple , is fa r m ore s o p his tic a te d th an e ve n th ir ty y e ars ago. F urth er, our abilit y to dia gn ose healt h eff e cts has ta ke n a m ajo r ste p fo rw ard w it h th e d eve lo pm ent o f C T sca n te ch nolo gy, w hic h re ve al e ve n sm alle r im pacts o n lu ngs, ra is in g im porta nt q uestio ns a bout a n um ber o f a sp ects o f r e gula tio n:
T he large increase in sensitivity afforded by CT scans raises the question of whether tiny opacities, hitherto not discernible on plain chest radiographs, will become the standard for making the diagnosis of work‐related lung disease. The implications are manifold, including the question of whether future radiographie surveys of industries should include CT, whether the more sensitive detection of abnormalities will be important in litigation or disability evaluations, and whether arguments can be made that at least part of the responsibility for these changes rests with the general exposure to environmental particles, and is not therefore strictly related to employment.[393] T he fu tu re d eve lo pm ent o f in stit u tio ns d ealin g w it h o ccu patio nal h aza rd s s u ch a s s ilic a e xp osu re n eed to t a ke in to acco unt th ese unce rta in tie s and te ch nolo gie s. T hese deve lo pm ents w ill in cre ase both th e f in eness w it h w hic h w e c a n d is tin guis h o ne fo rm o f a p ote ntia lly h arm fu l s u bsta nce fr o m a noth er a nd a dva nce th e p oin t a t w hic h w e c a n id entif y s m all c h anges in h um an h ealt h fr o m e xp osu re s. It is a ls o v ir tu ally c e rta in th at th ese a dva nce s w ill o ccu r fa ste r th an w e c a n lin k th e d is tin ctio ns to th e h ealt h e ff e cts , i n cre asin g th e p ro ble m o f c a te goriz a tio n fo r fu tu re r e gula to rs .
B eca use in div id uals s ta ff O SH A, it s r e gu la tio ns r e fle ct th eir m otiv e s a nd s e lf in te re st. B ein g s e lf in te re ste d d oes n ot m ean th at b ure aucra ts d o n ot h ave a lt r u is tic g oals ; ra th er, it m eans th at e ve n p ublic s p ir it e d O SH A s ta ff a re m otiv a te d b y a d esir e to m axim iz e w hat th ey th in k is th e p ublic g o od. T his in nate b ia s m ay n ot a lw ays c o in cid e w it h o th ers ' v ie w s o f th e p ublic g ood. In a ddit io n, th ey m ay h ave o th er m otiv e s: 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 2 9/7 7 B ureaucrats normally have several private motives. One is, of course, simply not to work too hard…. Another is to expand the size of one's own department and in the process of so doing, being willing to go along with the expansion of all the rest. A third is to improve the "perks" that accompany the particular position….[394] I n g enera l, b ure aucra ts h ave in ce ntiv e s to c a ll fo r a ddit io nal re gula tio ns a nd s p endin g in s u pport o f th e i n te re sts th at ju stif y th eir p ro gra m s' e xis te nce s.[3 95] O SH A h as h ad le ss s u cce ss a t e xp andin g it s a uth orit y a nd r e so urc e s c o m pare d to m any o th er r e gula to ry a gencie s. A lt h ough s ta ff in g a nd s p endin g to d eve lo p, a dm in is te r, a nd e nfo rc e O SH A re gula tio ns h ave g enera lly b een in cre asin g in re al te rm s s in ce C ongre ss e sta blis h ed th e a gency in 1 970,[3 96] O SH A's g ro w th h a s b een le ss ra pid th an th e g ro w th o f o th er a gencie s, p artic u la rly th e E nvir o nm enta l P ro te ctio n A gency (E PA ) a nd, m ore re ce ntly , th e D epartm ent o f H om ela nd S ecu rit y .[3 97] O SH A a ls o la gs b ehin d o th er a gencie s in r e gula to ry v o lu m e: O SH A g enera lly is su es fa r fe w er r e gula tio ns th an d oes th e E PA . In 2 004, fo r e xa m ple , O SH A is su ed (in p ro pose d o r fin al fo rm ) n in e re gula tio ns, o nly o ne o f w hic h w as c o nsid ere d e co nom ic a lly s ig nif ic a nt,[3 98] c o m pare d to th e E PA 's 6 5 p ro pose d o r fin al re gula tio ns, 1 1 o f w hic h w ere e co nom ic a lly s ig nif ic a nt.[3 99] In th e fir s t fo ur y e ars o f th e B ush A dm in is tr a tio n, O SH A is su ed t h re e fin al e co nom ic a lly s ig nif ic a nt re gula tio ns. S im ila rly , d urin g th e p re vio us e ig ht y e ars o f th e C lin to n A dm in is tr a tio n, O SH A is su ed o nly s e ve n e co nom ic a lly s ig nif ic a nt r u le s — le ss th an o ne p er y e ar.[4 00] D esp it e it s r e la tiv e in activ it y , O SH A p ro m ulg ate s r e gula tio ns th at a re c o stly fo r th e e co nom y. A cco rd in g to r e ce nt e stim ate s, O SH A ct re gula tio ns co nstit u te n early o neh alf o f th e to ta l d ir e ct co st o f w ork p la ce r e gula tio ns — a ro und $ 41 b illio n p er y e ar in 2 000.[4 01] M SH A r e gula tio ns c o st a n oth er $ 7.4 b illio n.[4 02] It i s u ncle ar w heth er th e se c o sts p ro duce c o m mensu ra te b enefit s . E co nom etr ic s tu d ie s h ave g enera lly fa ile d t o fin d e vid ence th at O SH A r e gula tio ns h ave h ad a s ig nif ic a nt im pact o n jo b s a fe ty .[4 03] W hat e xp la in s O SH A's re la tiv e la ck o f su cce ss a t g ain in g re so urc e s a nd a uth orit y ? T hre e im porta nt f a cto rs s ta n d o ut. F ir s t, th e p rim ary o uts id e in te re st g ro up b ehin d O SH A re gu la tio n is o rg aniz e d la bor.
U nio ns g enera lly s u pport O SH A re gula tio ns fo r th re e re aso ns: (1 ) th e re gula tio ns ra is e c o sts fo r b oth u nio n a nd n onu nio n e m plo ye rs , e ve nin g th e p la yin g fie ld ; ( 2 ) th e r e gula tio ns g iv e u nio ns a to ol to u se in n egotia tio ns (O SH A co m pla in ts b y u nio n m em bers ca n re duce p ro ductiv it y ); a nd (3 ) th e re gula tio ns, t h ro ugh th eir p artic ip atio n in th e re gula to ry p ro ce ss, g iv e o rg aniz e d e m plo ye es a c o m para tiv e ly g re ate r v o ic e in w ork p la ce o rg aniz a tio n th an u norg aniz e d e m plo ye es, th us p ro vid in g a b enefit to e m plo ye es w ho j o in u nio ns.[4 04] O th ers in te re ste d in e xp andin g s ta te p ow er a ls o fin d th e is su e a ttr a ctiv e .[4 05] S in ce 1 970, u nio n p olit ic a l p ow er h as d eclin ed, a s u nio n m em bers h ip h as fa lle n fr o m 2 4 p erc e nt o f th e p riv a te l a bor fo rc e in 1 973 to le ss th an e ig ht p erc e nt in 2 004.[4 06] M ore ove r, s in ce 1 970, R epublic a ns, g enera lly u nsym path etic to u nio ns, h ave c o ntr o lle d th e e xe cu tiv e b ra nch fo r 2 4 o f th e p ast 3 6 y e ars . E ve n th e 1 2 y e ars o f D em ocra tic c o ntr o l c a m e u nder P re sid ents C arte r a nd C lin to n, b oth o f w hom m ay b e d escrib ed a s le ss th an s ym path etic to u nio ns a nd a ro se fr o m th e m ore c o nse rv a tiv e w in g o f th e D em ocra tic P arty .
O SH A th us h as la cke d a n e ff e ctiv e o uts id e a lly in s e ekin g to e xp and it s a uth orit y a nd r e so urc e s.
S eco nd, O SH A la cks th e polit ic a l ca pit a l of oth er re gula to ry agencie s. E arly m is ste ps, partic u la rly c o nnecte d to it s tr a nsfo rm atio n o f v o lu nta ry c o nse nsu s s ta ndard s in to m andato ry re gula to ry s ta ndard s, g ave th e a gency a b ad r e puta tio n b oth o n C apit o l H ill a nd a m ong th e p ublic . T he la ck o f h ig hly p ublic iz e d e ve nts th at s p ur p ublic d em and fo r re gula tio n a ls o h am pers th e a gency's q uest fo r a ddit io nal re so urc e s a nd a uth orit y . C om pare O SH A's re co rd to th e c re atio n o f s ta te a nd fe dera l p ro gra m s fo r b la ck lu ng, a d is e ase am ong co al m in ers sim ila r to silic o sis . Lik e silic o sis , dia gnosis of bla ck lu ng w as hig hly c o ntr o ve rs ia l. M in ers p oin te d to th e h ig h le ve ls o f d ust v is ib le in m in es; m in e o w ners a nd m any m edic a l 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 0/7 7 p ro fe ssio nals in sis te d o n o bje ctiv e ly v e rif ia ble d ia gnose s, s u ch a s r a dio gra phie e vid ence .[4 07] N ot u ntil th e c o m bin atio n o f s e ve ra l u nre la te d h is to ric a l e ve nts — in dustr y c o ndit io ns th at w eake ned th e u nio n W elf a re a nd R etir e m ent F und's fin ance s, th e ris e o f a d is sid ent U nit e d M in e W ork e rs g ro up th at s e iz e d o n th e b la ck lu ng is su e a s a v e hic le fo r c h alle ngin g th e e sta blis h ed u nio n le aders h ip , a nd a d is a str o us m in e e xp lo sio n a ttr ib ute d to h ig h d ust le ve ls — h ow eve r, d id a c o alit io n c a pable o f o bta in in g re gula to ry a ctio n c o ale sce .[4 08] T he re su lt w as b oth s ta te a nd fe dera l le gis la tio n. A s tw o p ro m in ent c o m menta to rs h ave n ote d, "W hat a ppeare d to b e ra dic a l d em ands o f a v o ca l m in orit y [o f m in ers ] b eca m e F edera l p olic y b eca use m em bers o f C ongre ss c o ale sce d a ro und th eir in te re st in re ele ctio n a nd th eir n eed to a lly w it h c o lle agues." [4 09] T hir d , O SH A re gula tio ns g re atly a ff e ct th e in dustr ie s it re gula te s. T he th re at o f O SH A re gula tio n s p urs t h ese fir m s to o rg aniz e c o lle ctiv e re sis ta nce to O SH A a ctiv it y . A s a re su lt , O SH A is a re la tiv e ly w eak i n stit u tio nal a cto r c o m pare d to o th er fe dera l re gula to ry a gencie s. O SH A h as b een u nable to e xp and it s a uth orit y a n d re so urc e s a s ra pid ly a s o th er a gencie s h ave b een a ble to d o, in p art b eca use it h as b een h am pere d b y a la ck o f p olit ic a l ca pit a l, o ppose d b y h ig hly m otiv a te d in te re st g ro ups, a nd la ckin g in e ff e ctiv e o uts id e in te re st g ro up a llie s.[4 10 ] S ilic a v ir tu ally d is a pp eare d a s a s u bje ct o f r e gula to ry in te re st in th e p erio d b etw een W orld W ar II a nd th e c re atio n of O SH A. The co m bin atio n of vo lu nta ry eff o rts th ro ugh th e A C GIH TLV s and w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n co ve ra ge "s o lv e d" th e silic o sis p ro ble m b y cre atin g a m ech anis m to co m pensa te th ose i n ju re d th at, in tu rn , p ro vid ed e m plo ye rs w it h a n in ce ntiv e to im pro ve w ork p la ce co ndit io ns (to lo w er p re m iu m s). T he T LV s p ro vid ed a b ench m ark , a llo w in g e m plo ye es to c o m pare th eir e m plo ye r's p ra ctic e s w it h an in dustr y sta ndard and fa cilit a tin g m ark e t pre ssu re s fo r im pro vin g healt h and sa fe ty . That e xp osu re s d id n ot co ntin ue to fa ll d urin g th is p erio d m ay re fle ct th e p re fe re nce s o f e m plo ye es a nd e m plo ye rs to m ain ta in silic a d ust e xp osu re a t a le ve l a bove ze ro b eca use th e m arg in al co st o f th e r e ductio ns to z e ro w ere to o h ig h fo r e it h er g ro up to a cce pt.
T his re gim e a ppears to h ave b een s u cce ssfu l e nough th at w e c o uld d ro p th e q uota tio n m ark s fr o m th e w ord s o lv e d in th e p re ce din g p ara gra ph. S ilic o sis d eclin ed in th e U nit e d S ta te s a fte r W orld W ar II, a s b est w e c a n te ll, a nd re m ain ed a p ro ble m p rim arily in a fe w h ig h e xp osu re in dustr ie s.[4 11 ] T he p rim ary fla w w as n ot e m plo ye rs ig norin g h ealt h e ff e cts , b ut th e fla w r e ste d in ste ad w it h u nio ns d ecid in g n ot to e ngage i n th e A C GIH p ro ce ss, w hic h le ft it to th e in te re sts o f la rg e fir m s a nd b ure aucra ts . U nio n p artic ip atio n w ould h ave in tr o duce d a n in te re st g ro up to ch alle nge th eir d ata a nd co nclu sio ns, th us im pro vin g th e A C GIH p ro ce ss. U nio ns, h ow eve r, h ad o th er fis h to fr y .
K now le dge o f s ilic a 's h ealt h e ff e cts g re w a fte r W orld W ar II, la rg ely th ro ugh a c o m bin atio n o f p ublic a nd p riv a te in ve stm ent. N IO SH a nd IA R C b oth p ulle d to geth er a g re at d eal o f re se arc h o n s ilic a , b ut th at r e se arc h c a m e fr o m a m ix tu re o f p riv a te , n onpro fit , a nd p ublic s e cto rfu nded re se arc h ers .[4 12] P ost w ar p ro ble m s w it h s ilic a s te m la rg ely fr o m O SH A's in vo lv e m ent. B y o ssif y in g th e A C GIH s ta ndard , O SH A e lim in ate d th e fle xib ilit y o f th e A C GIH p ro ce ss w it h out a ddin g a ny c o m pensa tin g b enefit s (s u ch a s m ore c o m pre hensiv e a na ly sis ) to th e n ear u niv e rs a l a cce pta nce o f th e T LV . O SH A's fa ilu re to re sp ond to N IO SH a nd IA R C s in ce N IO SH fir s t w arn ed o f th e e xis tin g s ta ndard in 1 974 is a te xtb ook e xa m ple o f g ove rn m ent fa ilu re .
T he in abilit y o f re gula to rs to k e ep p ace w it h th e g ro w in g k n ow le dge o f s ilic a e xp osu re ris ks c re ate d a n o pportu nit y fo r th e is su e to b e a ddre sse d th ro ugh a noth er v e nue: th e c o urts . T he ro le o f th e c o urts a nd i n te re st g ro ups th at p artic ip ate in th e r e su lt in g lit ig atio n a re d is cu sse d in th e n ext S ectio n.
I II. R EG ULA TIO N B Y L IT IG ATIO N 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 1/7 7 I n a ddit io n to th e r e gula to ry in te re st g ro ups d escrib ed a bove , th ere is a n a ddit io nal in te re st g ro up th at c a n p la y, a nd a lr e ady h as p la ye d, a m ajo r r o le in r e gula to ry d ebate s: th e p la in tif f s ' b ar. S uit s o ve r s ilic a re la te d d is e ase s h ave a lo ng h is to ry .[4 13] W hile w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n c o ve rs o ccu pa tio nal e xp osu re to s ilic a , s ilic a 's u se is s o w id esp re ad th at s u it s a gain st p ro duct m anufa ctu re rs a re n ot im pla usib le .[4 14] In th is S ectio n, w e c o nsid er th e h is to ry o f a sb esto s lit ig atio n a s a p ote ntia l m odel fo r p re dic tin g h ow to rt la w m ig ht im plic it ly r e gula te s ilic a .
T he m ass to n lit ig atio n o ve r a sb esto s d ate s to th e F if th C ir c u it 's 1 973 d ecis io n in B ore l v . F ib re board C orp .
[ 4 15] In th at c a se , th e c o urt r e co gniz e d a p ro ducts lia bilit y th eory th at e nable d in ju re d e m plo ye es to a vo id t h e exclu siv e re m edy pro vis io ns of w ork e rs ' co m pensa tio n sch em es and su e th e m anufa ctu re rs of a sb esto s p ro ducts u se d in th e w ork p la ce .[4 16] W ork e rs ' co m pensa tio n syste m s h ad tr o uble h andlin g o ccu patio nal d is e ase c la im s fo r d is e ase s w it h lo ng la te ncy p erio ds a nd w hose c a use la y in e m plo ye es' e xp osu re s to m ult ip le s o urc e s o f a sb esto s a t a v a rie ty o f e m plo ye rs o ve r d eca des.[4 17] T hus, a llo w in g s u it s a gain st th e m anufa ctu re rs o f th e p ro duct w as a n im porta nt d octr in al in n ova tio n in c o m pensa tin g i n div id uals w ho h ad s u ff e re d s e rio us h a rm s,[4 18] s u ch a s m eso th elio m a, a fo rm o f lu ng c a nce r c lo se ly l in ke d to a sb esto s e xp osu re .[4 19] A s o ne c o m menta to r n ote d, " M odem a sb esto s lit ig atio n w as b orn w hen c o urts , h avin g lo st c o nfid ence in w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s ch em es, d eve lo ped d octr in es o f p ro ducts lia bilit y t o p ro vid e to rt r e m edie s to in ju re d w ork e rs a s a s u bstit u te fo r w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n b enefit s ." [4 20] A sb esto s lit ig atio n s o on b eca m e s o m eth in g q uit e d if f e re nt th an w hat th e e arly c o m menta to rs a ntic ip ate d.
I t is n ow "th e lo ngest ru nnin g m ass to rt in U .S . h is to ry ." [4 21] S om e h ave c o m pare d it to "a m assiv e , u nendin g riv e r," [4 22 ] o r "a m alig nant e nte rp ris e ." [4 23] It h as s p re ad fa r b eyo nd th e o rig in al s u it s a gain st t h e m anufa ctu re rs of asb esto s pro ducts to "v ir tu ally all parts of th e U .S . eco nom y," [4 24] in vo lv in g d efe ndants in 7 5 o f th e 8 3 tw od ig it S ta ndard In dustr ia l C la ssif ic a tio n c o des.[4 2 5] Its s ca le d w arfs e ve n m ajo r re g ula to ry im pacts , n atu ra l d is a ste rs , a nd te rro ris t a tta cks; fo rm er A tto rn ey G enera l G rif f in B ell c o nte nds th at a sb esto s lit ig atio n's e stim ate d c o sts to th e e co nom y a re g re ate r th an th e e stim ate d c o sts o f " a ll S uperfu nd c le anup s it e s c o m bin ed, H urric a ne A ndre w , o r th e S epte m ber 1 1 te rro ris t a tta cks." [4 26] A sb esto s li t ig atio n's e vo lu tio n is r e le va nt b eca use it illu str a te s h ow a n in te re st g ro up c o m es in to b ein g a nd i n flu ence s s u bse que nt e ve nts .[4 27] In deed, s o m e h ave a rg ued th at th e a sb esto s b ar is a tte m ptin g to e xp and in to s ilic a s u it s , a nd th e g oal o f th e a sb esto s p la in tif f s ' b ar is " to k e ep th e a sb esto slit ig atio n g ra vy t r a in a liv e ." [4 28] T he s ca le o f a sb esto s lit ig atio n a nd th e a m ount o f m oney in vo lv e d h as c o ntin ued to g ro w a t a p ace e ve n th e m ost p essim is tic a naly sts d id n ot a ntic ip ate . A R AN D C orp ora tio n s tu dy o f th e lit ig atio n i n 1 983 m ade th e "s h ockin g" p re dic tio n th at th e lit ig atio n a nd s u bse quent c o m pen sa tio n e xp ense s w ould t o ta l $ 1 b illio n th ro ugh 2 001, w it h m ore th an 2 1,0 00 la w su it s a nd th re e m ajo r c o rp ora tio ns in C hapte r 1 1 b ankru ptc y.[4 29] O th er a naly sts p re dic te d th at th e to ta l c o sts c o uld u lt im ate ly r e ach a s m uch a s $ 38 b illio n.
[ 4 30] T hese estim ate s pro ve d w ild ly off th e m ark . B y 2000, m ore th an 600,0 00 people had file d cla im s, g enera lly a g ain st m ult ip le d efe ndants ,[4 31] o ve r 6 ,0 00 e ntit ie s h ad b een s u ed,[4 32] a nd $ 54 b illio n h ad b een s p en t o n c o m pensa tio n a nd lit ig atio n c o sts .[4 33] A noth er m easu re o f th e u nexp ecte d s iz e o f a w ard s f o r a sb esto s is th e r a pid e xh austio n o f th e $ 5 b illio n M anville T ru st, s e t u p to fu nd p aym ents to c la im ants a gain st th e J o hns M anville C om pany; le ss th an tw o y e ars a fte r it w as c re ate d in 1 988, th e tr u st w as e ff e ctiv e ly in so lv e nt.[4 34] R easo nable e stim ate s o f to ta l c o sts n ow ra nge fr o m $ 200 to $ 265 b illio n, a n o ve r fiv e fo ld in cre ase in tw enty y e ars .[4 35] A sb esto s lit ig atio n h as c h anged m ark e dly in c h ara cte r a s w ell. T he lit ig atio n h a s s p re ad fr o m s u it s b y p la in tif f s w ho h ad co ntr a cte d a ra re fo rm o f ca nce r clo se ly lin ke d to a sb esto s e xp osu re a gain st th e m anufa ctu re rs o f a sb esto s p ro ducts to n ow " to uch a lm ost e ve ry ty p e o f e co nom ic a ctiv it y in th e U .S ." [4 36] 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 2/7 7 a nd in clu de p la in tif f s w it h out a ny s ym pto m s. P la in tif f s w it h c a nce r n o lo nger b rin g m ost o f th e c la im s: 6 5 p erc e nt o f c o m pensa tio n h as g one to n onm alig nant c la im ants .[4 37] T he n um be r o f d efe ndants s u ed b y e ach p la in tif f s o are d fr o m 2 0 in th e 1 980s to b etw een 6 0 a nd 7 0 in th e 1 990s.[4 38] A sb esto s lit ig atio n h as g ro w n fr o m a p ro ble m o f la rg e a sb esto s m anufa ctu re rs in to a p ro ble m fo r e ve n fir m s "w it h a s fe w a s 2 0 e m plo ye es and ju st a fe w m illio n dolla rs in annual re ve nues." [4 39] B y th e 1990s, "n ontr a dit io nal" d efe ndants a cco unte d fo r o ve r 6 0 p erc e nt o f a sb esto s e xp endit u re s.[4 40] S om e o f th ese d eve lo pm ents m ay have been th e re su lt of a co urt im pose d exp ansio n of in su ra nce polic ie s to pro vid e unlim it e d c o ve ra ge fo r a sb esto s c la im s, w hic h h ad th e e ff e ct o f m akin g " a llie s" o f th e p la in tif f s ' b ar a nd th e a sb esto s d efe ndants : T o a vo id b ankru ptc y, a sb esto s d efe ndants a gre ed to m ass s e ttle m en ts a nd d efa ult ju dgm ents a nd th en m ade in su ra nce c la im s, w it h out s u bje ctin g th e c la im s to a g re at d eal o f s cru tin y, re su lt in g in s o m e m erit le ss c la im s.[4 41] R ela tiv e ly fe w a sb esto s c a se s a ctu ally w ent to tr ia l. [4 42] In th e 1 980s a nd 1 990s, th e lit ig atio n " m atu re d" i n to q u asi a dm in is tr a tiv e p ro ce edin gs th at h andle d c la im s in b ulk .[4 43] A s o ne o bse rv e r h as d escrib ed th e f lo od o f lit ig atio n, T he leading asbestos manufacturers had been sued in tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands of cases and had evolved strategies for managing the litigation. A large fraction of the cases were being filed by a small number of plaintiff law firms. Over time, the litigation became more and more concentrated in a small number of firms. By 1992, ten firms represented half the annual filings against the defendants who provided data to us. By 1995, ten firms (many, but not all, of the same firms that had been in the 1992 'top ten') represented three‐quarters of the annual filings against these defendants, which had themselves grown by a third. The leading firms had standing settlement agreements with the major defendants. Virtually all the cases settled.[444] T his p ro ce ss g enera te d e norm ous g ain s fo r th e la w fir m s in vo lv e d: T he D alla s la w fir m B aro n & B udd h ad r e porte dly g ro sse d m ore th an $ 800 m illi o n fr o m a sb esto s c a se s b y 1 998.[4 45] T ra nsa ctio ns c o sts h ave c o nsu m ed m ore th an h alf o f th e s p endin g o n a sb esto s c la im s, w it h th e m ajo rit y g oin g to p la in tif f s ' la w f ir m s.[4 46] In a s ig n o f th eir p ow er, th e s h are o f s p endin g g oin g to p la in tif f s ' fir m s h eld s te ady, w hile d efe nse fir m s' s h are fe ll o ve r tim e ( w it h th e s a vin gs g oin g to th e p la in tif f s ).[4 47] In th e c a se o f th e M anville T ru st, in w hic h th e c la im s " w ere p aid o ut u nder a b ankru ptc y p la n w hic h w as la rg ely d esig ned b y p la in tif f l a w ye rs ," p la in tif f s ' c la im s "g enera te d a ppro xim ate ly $ 250 m illio n in fe es a t a n e ff e ctiv e h ourly ra te o f $ 5,0 00 p er h our fo r la rg ely a dm in is tr a tiv e c la im in g." [4 48] T he p ro ce ss c re ate d a p ow erfu l e co nom ic in te re st: th e a sb esto s p la in tif f s ' b ar.[4 49] R alp h N ader, la udin g t h eir e ff o rts , n ote d, "P ers o nal in ju ry la w ye rs m ust k n ow th at th ey c o uld s o on b e d efe ate d a s a g ro up p re cis e ly b e ca use o f th e c o rp ora te re actio n to th eir ju dic ia l s u cce sse s a s in div id uals . D efe ate d, th at is , u nle ss th ey o rg aniz e a s a g ro up to p re se rv e a nd e xp and th e e m erg in g le gal o rd er re gard in g th e a re a o f t o xic tr a ged ie s." [4 50] T hese fir m s, w hic h in ve ste d c o nsid era ble s u m s in d eve lo pin g e xp ertis e in a sb esto s r e la te d m atte rs , w ill n atu ra lly s e ek to in cre ase th e re tu rn o n th eir in ve stm ent b y e xp andin g th e ra nge o f c la im s, c la im ants , a nd d efe ndants .[4 51] T his d yn am ic c a n b e s e en in th e e xp ansio n o f c la im s to in clu de n onm alig nancy and asym pto m atic cla im s,[4 52] th e aggre ssiv e se arc h fo r cla im ants ,[4 53] and th e e xtr a ord in ary e xp ansio n o f d efe ndants in a sb esto s lit ig atio n.[4 54] 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 3/7 7 V ie w in g th e h is to ry o f a sb esto s lit ig atio n in re tr o sp ect, it b eco m es c le ar th at th e p la in tif f s ' b ar h ad a n i n ce ntiv e to in ve st in d eve lo pin g e vid e nce [4 55] a nd le gal th eorie s,[4 56] sin ce b oth co uld b e u se d in m ult ip le c a se s. T hey h ad th e in ce ntiv e to s e arc h fo r th e m ost fa vo ra ble ju ris d ic tio ns fo r a sb esto s s u it s [4 57] a nd fo r ju ris d ic tio ns w it h ru le s th at e ase d p ro ce dura l p ro ble m s[4 58] — e xa ctly w hat w e h ave o bse rv e d.
D urin g th e 1 990s, a sb esto s c a se s m ig ra te d to M is sis sip pi, N ew Y ork , W est V ir g in ia , O hio , a nd T e xa s fr o m C alif o rn ia , N ew J e rs e y, P ennsylv a nia , a nd Illin ois , w here th e m ajo rit y o f c la im s h a d b een file d in th e 1 970s a nd e a rly 1 980s. T he la tte r g ro up o f s ta te s' m ark e t s h are fe ll fr o m 6 0 p erc e nt o f a ll c a se s in th e p erio d b etw een 1 970 a nd 1 987, to s e ve n p erc e nt b etw een 1 998 a nd 2 000, w hile th e fo rm er g ro up's m ark e t s h are r o se fr o m n in e p erc e nt to 6 6 p erc e nt d urin g th e s a m e p erio ds.[4 59] T he s h eer v o lu m e o f a sb esto s lit ig atio n g iv e s th e p la in tif f s ' b ar s e ve ra l s ig nif ic a nt a dva nta ges. F ir s t, b y o ve rw helm in g th e co urts , p la in tif f s ' a tto rn eys a re fr e ed fr o m th e clo se su perv is io n o f th eir fe es a nd s e ttle m ent p ra ctic e s, w hic h a re n orm ally a va ila ble to c o urts to c o ntr o l p ote ntia lly a busiv e p ra ctic e s.[4 60] A s S eve nth C ir c u it J u dge R ic h ard P osn er n ote d, th e v o lu m e " e xe rt[e d] a w ell n ig h ir re sis tib le p re ssu re to b end th e n orm al r u le s." [4 61] S eco nd, th e v o lu m e c re ate s a d em and b y th e c o urts fo r in nova tiv e m eans o f p ro ce ssin g c a se s to re duce c o sts . T he lo w er "p ric e " o f lit ig atio n, in tu rn , a ttr a cts a ddit io nal c a se s.[4 62] T hir d , th e d efe nse b ar is u nable to a dop t v ig oro us d efe nse s tr a te gie s b eca use it is o ve rw helm ed. F ourth , t h e s m all n um ber o f m ajo r a sb esto s fir m s o n th e p la in tif f s ' s id e o f th e lit ig atio n h a ve a cq uir e d a n e norm ous a m ount o f r e so urc e s, w hic h c a n b e d eplo ye d to in flu ence c o urts a nd le gis la to rs to p ro te ct th e g ra vy tr a in .
[ 4 63] F if th , b eca use o f th e m assiv e n um bers a nd in defin it e n atu re o f m any o f th e cla im s, in div id ual p la in tif f s h ave lit tle c o ntr o l o ve r th eir a tto rn eys.[4 64]F in ally , "[i] n p ra ctic e … m ass to rt lit ig atio n is re duce d t o b attle s b etw een re peat p la ye rs w ho h ave lit ig ate d a nd n egotia te d s e ttle m ents in s im ila r c a se s m any t im es in th e p ast." [4 65] C onve rtin g th e p ro ce ss in to a re peat p la ye r g am e w eake ned th e ch eck o n p la in tif f s ' c o unse l p ro vid ed b y th e a dve rs a ria l s yste m .[4 66] T he a sb esto s b ar tu rn ed to s ilic a c a se s, u sin g s o m e o f th e s a m e te ch niq ues.[4 67] P erh aps b eca use th ey l e arn ed fr o m th e a sb esto s e xp erie nce , s ilic a d efe ndants h ave p ro ve n m ore re sis ta nt.[4 68] In e arly 2 005, t h e a sb esto slik e a ppro ach o f s e ve ra l p ro m in ent p la in tif f s ' fir m s r a n in to tr o uble in a m ult i d is tr ic t lit ig atio n p ro ce edin g in fr o nt o f a m edic a lly s o phis tic a te d fe dera l d is tr ic t c o urt ju dge, J u dge J a nis G ra ham J a ck.[4 69] I n th e c o urs e o f re so lv in g p re tr ia l m otio ns, J u dge J a ck u nco ve re d a p atte rn o f im pro per d ia gnose s o f s ilic o sis b ase d o n in adequate m edic a l e vid ence . A m ong th e p ro ble m s w ere m ult ip le p la in tif f s d ia gnose d w it h b oth silic o sis a n d a sb esto sis (s o m etim es b y th e sa m e p hysic ia n, in d if f e re nt ca se s),[4 70] ra pid d ia gnosis (m easu re d in m in ute s) and ra dio gra ph re adin gs,[4 71] fa ilu re to fo llo w th e docto r's ow n p ro ce dure s a s d ocu m ente d in a ca dem ic w rit in gs a uth ore d b y th e d octo r,[4 72] a nd im pro per fin ancia l i n ce ntiv e s (d octo rs a nd s cre enin g c o m panie s p aid o nly fo r p osit iv e d ia gnose s).[ 4 73] M ore ove r, a s J u dge J a ck n ote d, th e p atte rn o f s ilic o sis c la im s in th e 1 11 c a se s w it h m ore th an 1 0,0 00 in div id ual p la in tif f s [4 74] b efo re h er w as a nom alo us w hen p opula tio n a nd re gio nal v a ria tio ns in s ilic a e xp osu re w ere c o nsid ere d.
[ 4 75] M ore o ve r, th e a sto nis h in g ra te o f s ilic o sis in M is sis sip pi re pre se nte d b y th ese c a se s a ttr a cte d n o p re ss o r r e gula to ry a tte ntio n.[4 76] T he c o urt c o nclu ded th at t he clear motivation for [plaintiff's attorney, the O'Quinn firm's] micromanagement of the diagnostic process was to inflate the number of Plaintiffs and claims in order to overwhelm the Defendants and the judicial system. This is apparently done in hopes of extracting mass nuisance‐value settlements because the Defendants and the judicial system are financially incapable of examining the merits of each individual claim in the usual manner. T he Court finds that filing and then persisting in the prosecution of 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 4/7 7 silicosis claims while recklessly disregarding the fact that there is no reliable basis for believing that every Plaintiff has silicosis constitutes an unreasonable multiplication of the proceedings. When factoring in the obvious motivation‐overwhelming the system to prevent examination of each individual claim and to extract mass settlements‐the behavior becomes vexatious as well.
J u dge Ja ck's opin io n ca ught th e atte ntio n of m em bers of th e House Energ y and Com merc e S ubco m mit te e o n O ve rs ig ht a nd In ve stig atio ns, w ho s e nt le tte rs a nd s u bpoenas to p hysic ia ns a nd m edic a l s cre enin g co m panie s id entif ie d in h er o pin io n, a skin g fo r re co rd s a nd in fo rm atio n a bout th eir ro le s in d ia gnosin g p atie nts w it h s ilic o sis .[4 78] A t a M arc h 2 005 h earin g, th re e d octo rs w ho w ere re sp onsib le fo r a lm ost 2 ,0 00 d ia gnose d silic o sis cla im s in vo ke d th eir co nstit u tio nal rig ht a gain st se lf in crim in atio n a nd r e fu se d to a nsw er th e C om mit te e's q uestio ns.[4 79] A lt h ough n ot p art o f th e c o urt's a naly sis o f th e v a lid it y o f th e e xp ert te stim ony, th e c o urt d id n ote th at [ i]f searching for an explanation in the legal field, one might focus on the fact that most of the cases were filed just prior to the effective dates of a series of recent legislative "tort reform" measures in Mississippi. One might also focus on the decline in asbestosis lawsuits, leaving a network of plaintiffs' lawyers and screening companies scouting for a new means of support.[480] S eekin g addit io nal in fo rm atio n fr o m sta te healt h off ic e rs in 13 sta te s w it h "lit ig atio n hot sp ots ," th e C ongre ssm en e xp re sse d c o nce rn th at th e h ealt h b enefit s o f s cre enin g fo r s ilic o sis a re u nderm in ed w hen the screening process identifies serious medical conditions but the medical professionals involved disavow responsibility for informing the patient of the finding, explaining its significance, and discussing follow‐up and treatment options. It is hard to imagine circumstances where leaving such tasks to lawyers could be considered acceptable medical practice or serving the interests of public health. The health benefit of even a competent screening may well be negated by the lack of medical follow‐up.[481] T hus, w hile a c o m mon la w a ppro ach to p ro ble m s lik e s ilic a o r a sb esto s e xp osu re , w hen in ju re d p artie s c a n c la im c o m pensa tio n fr o m r e sp onsib le p artie s, m ig ht a ppear to p ro vid e in ce ntiv e s fo r o ptim al e ff o rts to r e duce exp osu re s, th e his to ry of asb esto s lit ig atio n and th is in it ia l fo ra y in to silic a lit ig atio n su ggest o th erw is e . T he c o urt s yste m d oes n ot a pp ear to b e th e b est w ay to e nsu re th at s ilic a e xp osu re is n eit h er o ve r n or u nderre gula te d.
I V . W HAT T O D o?
I f w e s te p b ack a nd ta ke a lo ng v ie w o f th e h is to ry o f s ilic a in th e w ork p la ce a nd w ork p la ce h aza rd s m ore g enera lly , w e ca n se e a p atte rn e m erg e. G ove rn m ents p ay a tte ntio n o nly w hen e ve nts fa cilit a te th e f o rm atio n o f a c o alit io n s e ekin g a ctio n. A t th e tu rn o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry , th e g ro w th o f to rt s u it s s p urre d b oth e m plo ye rs a nd e m plo ye es to s e ek a c o m pro m is e in th e fo rm o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n le gis la tio n, i n it ia lly d ealin g o nly w it h a ccid ents — th e is su e o f g re ate st p ublic a ppeal. A lt h ough th e s a m e te ch nolo gic a l c h ange th at in cre ase d a ccid ent ra te s a ls o in cre ase d s ilic a e xp osu re s, s ilic a a nd d ust d is e ase s d id n ot b eco m e a n is su e u ntil th e lia bilit y c ris is o f th e 1 930s. E ve n a cco untin g fo r th e la g d ue to s ilic o sis 's lo ng l a te ncy p erio d, th e tim in g o f th at c ris is a ppears m ore re la te d to th e o nse t o f th e D epre ssio n th an to a ny a ctu al in cre ase in silic o sis . A gain , em plo ye rs and em plo ye es co m pro m is e d, exte ndin g th e w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n syste m to co ve r a t le ast so m e in dustr ia l d is e ase s, in clu din g silic o sis . T he is su e a gain 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 5/7 7 s lip ped o ff th e re gula to ry ra dar s cre en, e m erg in g a gain o nly w it h th e b egin nin gs o f th e p ost a sb esto s w ave o f s ilic o sis s u it s in th is c e ntu ry .
T he r e gula to ry h is to ry o f s ilic a te ach es th re e im porta nt le sso ns. F ir s t, th e m ost c o m pellin g a cco unt o f th e c ycle o f a ctio n a nd in actio n o n th e p art o f re gula to rs is th e o ne b ase d o n in te re st g ro ups. S eco nd, k n ow le dge a bout h aza rd s is e ndogenous — it a ris e s in re sp onse to o uts id e e ve nts , re gula tio ns, a nd i n te re st g ro ups. A cce ptin g p artic u la r s ta te s o f k n ow le dge a s d efin it iv e is th us a m is ta ke , a s is fa ilin g to c o nsid er th e in ce ntiv e s fo r k n ow le dge p ro ductio n c re ate d b y re gula to ry m easu re s. T hir d , th e ris e o f th e t r ia l b ar a s a n in te re st g ro up a nd th e a sb esto s lit ig atio n e xp erie nce m eans th at th e p ro ble m s o f s ilic a e xp osu re a nd s im ila r o ccu patio nal h aza rd s c a nnot s im ply b e le ft to th e c u rre nt le gal s yste m fo r r e so lu tio n t h ro ugh in div id ual a ctio n.
M any O SH Are fo rm p ro posa ls fo cu s o n u nblo ckin g O SH A's re gula to ry p ro ce ss a nd sp eedin g u p th e i s su ance o f n ew s ta n dard s.[4 82] O ur a cco unt s u ggests th at r e gula to ry s p eed a nd v o lu m e a re n ot th e o nly p ro ble m s th at n eed to b e a ddre sse d. A fa ste r O SH A th at d id n ot a ccu ra te ly id entif y th e s u bsta nce s th at c a use h arm w ould s im ply b e im posin g c o sts m ore q uic kly .
W e s u ggest a th re e p ro nged a ppro ach to s ilic a a nd o ccu patio nal h ealt h is su es g enera lly . F ir s t, b efo re i s su in g n ew r e gula tio ns, O SH A s h ould c le arly d efin e w hat m ark e t fa ilu re s, if a ny, im pede e ff ic ie nt s o lu tio ns t o a ddre ss h ealt h r is ks. B oth e m plo ye rs a nd e m plo ye es h ave in ce ntiv e s to p ro te ct h ealt h a nd s a fe ty in th e w ork p la ce .[4 83] T he la ck o f in fo rm atio n, p artic u la rly d ue to th e lo ng la te ncy p e rio d fo r s ilic o sis a nd lu ng c a nce r, m ay d am pen th ese in ce ntiv e s. If th e p ro ble m is a la ck o f in fo rm atio n o n ris ks a nd re m edie s, O SH A a nd it s r e se arc h c o unte rp art N IO SH s h ould fo cu s o n g enera tin g a nd d is p ers in g b ette r in fo rm atio n.
A lt h ough o ccu patio nal h ealt h is n ot a fie ld in w hic h m ark e t fo rc e s a re tr u ste d,[4 8 4] th e s e rio us p ro ble m s w it h th e c u rre nt s yste m c a nnot b e s o lv e d w it h out r e co gnit io n o f th e im porta nt r o le p la ye d b y th e H aye kia n k n ow le dge p ro ble m .
T he fe dera l g ove rn m ent c a n p la y tw o im porta nt r o le s in th is in fo rm atio n m ark e t p la ce . It c a n b e a s u pplie r.
T hro ugh e ntit ie s lik e N IO SH , th e g ove rn m ent ca n sp onso r a nd co nduct re se arc h th at w ill in flu ence s ta ndard s. It c a n a ls o b e a c o nsu m er. J u st a s it d id u nder th e W als h H eale y A ct b efo re O SH A's c re atio n i n 1 970,[4 85] th e g ove rn m ent c a n d em and th at it s in fo rm atio n s u pplie rs m eet s ta ndard s th e g ove rn m ent b elie ve s a re e ff e ctiv e .
S eco nd, a ny re gula to ry a ctio n m ust re co gniz e th e d iv e rs it y in e xp osu re a nd re sp onse a cro ss th e v a rie d w ork p la ce s. G iv e n th e v a ry in g fo rm s o f s ilic a to w hic h w ork e rs m ay b e e xp ose d, a nd th e p ro ble m s o f c h ara cte riz in g th ose fo rm s a nd th eir a sso cia te d h ealt h r is k, a u nif o rm n atio nal s ta ndard w ould u nlik e ly b e o ptim al in a ll s it u atio n s. H eedin g th e le sso ns w e h ave le arn ed fr o m th e h is to ry o f s ilic a in th e w ork p la ce , it i s im porta nt to c o ntr a st th e in te re st g ro up in ce ntiv e s p ro vid ed b y a r e gula to ry e ff o rt a im ed a t d eve lo pin g a u nif o rm s ta ndard w it h th ose o f a p olic y a im ed a t g enera tin g a nd d is se m in atin g in fo rm atio n. T he u nif o rm s ta ndard p ro vid es in ce ntiv e s to in te re st g ro ups to in ve st re so urc e s in in flu encin g th e sta ndard to su it p riv a te g oals ( fo r e xa m ple , g ain a dva nta ge o ve r c o m petit o rs ). In c o ntr a st, a fo cu s o n in fo rm atio n p ro vid es i n ce ntiv e s fo r in te re st g ro ups to c o m pete to d eve lo p a nd p ro vid e b ette r in fo rm atio n in s u pport o f th eir v ie w s o f th e r is ks a nd r e m edie s.
T he "m ark e t" fo r s ta ndard s th at e xis te d b efo re O SH A c o nsis te d o f g ro ups lik e th e A C GIH , u nio ns, tr a de a sso cia tio ns, a nd o th ers .[4 86] N IO SH 's e ntr y in to th is m ark e t c h anged th e d yn am ic s, p rim arily b eca use o f t h e in flu ence o f N IO SH c rit e ria d ocu m ents in in it ia tin g O SH A s ta ndard s. E nco ura gin g th e d eve lo pm ent o f c o m petin g sta ndard s fo r o ccu patio nal h ealt h w ould cre ate m ark e t p re ssu re fo r in cre asin g kn ow le dge a bout h arm s. If a s ta ndard s e ttin g o rg aniz a tio n c o uld id entif y a d is tin ctio n lik e th e α / β k ry p to nit e e xa m ple d is cu sse d e arlie r a nd s h ow th at th e d is tin ctio n m atte re d, it c o uld is su e a m ore e ff e ctiv e a nd le ss c o stly 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 6/7 7 s ta ndard . C om petit iv e s ta ndard s h ave o pera te d s u cce ssfu lly in a n um ber o f a re as, in clu din g o rg anic fo od c e rtif ic a tio n a nd k o sh er la belin g,[4 87] a nd h ave s u cce ssfu lly im pro ve d q ualit y in a n um ber o f a re as.[4 88] I n c o ntr a st to fle xib le s ta ndard s th at re sp ond to d if f e re nt in fo rm atio n, a u nif o rm s ta ndard p ro ve s h ard to a dju st a s n ew in fo rm atio n b eco m es a va ila ble , a s is e vid ence d b y th e c u rre nt O SH A e xp osu re lim it o f 0 .1 0 m g/m ³.[4 89] K now le d ge is d yn am ic , a nd u nif o rm s ta ndard s n ece ssa rily lo ck in e xp ecta tio ns b ase d o n th e l e ve l o f k n ow le dge a va ila ble a t a g iv e n tim e. In p artic u la r, re gula tio ns th at s p ecif y w hic h re m edie s a re a cce pta ble o r u nacce pta ble d is co ura ge in nova tio n in to b ette r s o lu tio ns.[4 90] F in ally , th e to rt s yste m n eeds to b e c o ntr o lle d. J u dge J a ck's e ff o rts a re a g ood s ta rt, b ut a dequate le gal p ro ce ss m ust d epend o n m ore th an th e fo rtu nate a ccid ent o f th e ju dge in c h arg e o f m ass to rt lit ig atio n h avin g a m edic a l b a ckg ro und. W e d o n ot p re te nd to k n ow th e a nsw ers to th e m any q uestio ns ra is e d b y t o rt r e fo rm , fr o m fe dera lis m to fe es h if tin g, b ut w e c o nte nd th at th e a sb esto s e xp erie nce m ake s c le ar th e i n adequacy o f m odern to rt la w to th e ta sk o f p ro vid in g a ppro pria te in ce ntiv e s fo r in dustr ia l h ealt h . D efin in g w hat to re gula te is crit ic a l to a vo id in g b oth o ve r a nd u nderre gula tio n. If th e h is to ry o f silic a in th e w ork p la ce te ach es a nyth in g, it is th at o ur k n ow le dge o f e ve n o bvio us h aza rd s is h ig hly d ependent o n m edic a l k n ow le dge, a va ila ble te ch nolo gy, a nd a h ost o f o th er fa cto rs . In cre asin g th at k n ow le dge d epends o n th e in ce ntiv e s fo r k n ow le dge c re atio n. U nfo rtu nate ly , lo ckin g c u rre nt k n ow le dg e in to a r e gula tio n d oes n ot pro vid e adequate in ce ntiv e s fo r im pro vin g unders ta ndin g of w ork p la ce haza rd s. M ark e t b ase d m eth ods c re ate s u perio r in ce ntiv e s to d eve lo p k n ow le dge a bout w hat is re gula te d, a p ow erfu l to ol fo r i m pro vin g th e q ualit y o f r e gula to ry e ff o rts .
T he a u th ors th ank C haya C om pto n a nd O liv ia O dell fo r r e se arc h a ssis ta nce ; th e a tte ndees a t th e S orp tiv e M in era ls In stit u te S prin g F oru m 2005, th e U niv e rs it y of Te xa s Law and E co nom ic s W ork sh op, and H arris o n C oult e r fo r c o m ments o n v a rio us v e rs io ns o f th is A rtic le ; a nd C ase S ch ool o f L aw D ean G era ld K om gold fo r r e se arc h fu ndin g.
1 . E dit o ria l, T he S ilic o sis S herif f , W ALL S T. J., Ju ly 1 4, 2 005, a t A 10; In re S ilic a P ro ducts L ia bilit y L it ig atio n, 3 98 F . S upp. 2 d 5 63, 6 76 (S .D . T e x. 2 005); s e e a ls o E dit o ria l, C ase o f th e V anis h in g X R ays, W ALL S T. J ., A ug. 3 1, 2 005, a t A 8; L este r B ric km an, W hat D id T hose A sb esto s X R ays R eally S how ?, W ALL S T. J ., N ov. 5 , 2 005, a t A 9.
2 . S ee P re ss R ele ase , E nerg y a nd C om merc e C om mit te e, U .S . H ouse o f R epre se nta tiv e s, D octo rs R efu se to T e stif y a t S ilic o sis H earin g; O th ers R eco unt D ia gnose s 'M anufa ctu re d fo r M oney' (M ar. 9 , 2 005), ava ila ble at http ://e nerg yco m merc e .h ouse .g ov/1 08/N ew s/0 3092006_1810.h tm (a nnouncin g th e r e fu sa l o f th re e p hysic ia ns to te stif y a t le ngth a bout th e c ir c u m sta nce s b ehin d th eir s ilic o sis d ia gnose s d esp it e a s u bpoena o rd erin g th em to d o s o ).
3 . S ee T e e L am ent G uid otti, A S m all C om mit te e w it h a B ig A genda: T he IL O /W HO G lo bal C am paig n fo r t h e E lim in atio n of S ilic o sis and th e IC OH S cie ntif ic C om mit te e on R esp ir a to ry D is o rd ers , IC OH Q .
N EW SL. (A ug. 1999), http ://e nve pi. m ed.u oehu .a c.jp /ic o h/IC OH% 20Q uarte rly N esle tte r.h tm (d escrib in g t h e e lim in atio n c a m paig n a nd a tte m pts to in vo lv e th e w orld w id e c o m munit y ).
4 . In te rn atio nal A gency fo r R ese arc h o n C ance r, S ilic a , 6 8 IA R C M ONOGRAPH 4 1 (1 997), a va ila ble a t h ttp ://m onogra phs.ia rc .fr /h td ocs/m onogra phs/v o l6 8/s ilic a .h tm [h ere in afte r IA R C, S ilic a ] (c o nclu din g th at t h ere is s u ff ic ie nt e vid ence th at s ilic a is c a rc in ogenic to h um ans w hen in hale d).
5 . See W illia m G .B . G ra ham , Q uartz and Silic o sis , in O CCUPAT IO NAL LU NG D IS EASE: AN I N TE R NAT IO NAL P ER SPEC TIV E 1 91, 1 91 ( D anie l E . B anks & J o hn E . P ark e r e ds., 1 998) ( "S ilic o sis is t h e te rm u se d to d esig nate th e o ccu patio nal lu ng d is e ase c a use d b y in halin g c ry sta llin e s ilic a ( a lp haq uartz o r S iO or it s poly m orp hs, tr id ym it e or cris to b alit e ." ); se e als o W illia m Jo nes et al. , D ust P artic le s: O ccu patio nal C onsid era tio ns, in H AN DBO OK O F H AZA R DOUS M AT E R IA LS 2 13, 2 13 (M orto n C orn 2 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 7/7 7 e d., 1 993) ("P neum oco nio sis is th e re actio n o f th e lu ngs to in sp ir e d d ust." ). T he a uth ors a dded th at " [ s ]ilic o sis is a fib ro tic dis e ase pro duce d by in hala tio n of silic a c o nta in in g dusts . H ig h exp osu re s to c ry sta llin e s ilic a c a n re su lt in a cu te s ilic o sis . A cu te s ilic o sis d eve lo ps ra pid ly (1 3 y r) a nd is c h ara cte riz e d b y la bo re d b re ath in g (d ysp nea), fa tig ue , c o ugh, a nd w eig ht lo ss." Id . a t 2 15; s e e a ls o P aul S ta rk e t a l. , S ta ndard Im agin g in S ilic o sis a nd C oal W ork e r's P neum oco nio sis , in 3 0 T H E R AD IO LO GIC AL C LIN IC S O F N ORTH A M ER IC A: O CCUPAT IO NAL L U NG D IS EASE 1 1 47, 1 1 474 8 (T here sa C . M cC lo ud, M D e d., 1 992) ( d escrib in g a cu te , c h ro nic , a nd a cce le ra te d fo rm s o f s ilic a d ust e xp osu re ).
6 . O CCUPAT IO NAL S AFE TY & H EALT H A D M IN . (O SH A), U .S . D EP'T O F LA BO R, U NIF IE D A G EN DA O F FE D ER AL R EG ULA TO RY A N D D ER EG ULA TO RY A C TIO N S (2 005), ava ila ble at h ttp ://c iir .c s.u m ass.e du/u a/S prin g2005/a ge nda/D EPA R TM EN T_O F_LA BO O R_(D OL).h tm l.
7 . S ee D epartm ent o f L abor 2 004 R egula to ry P la n, 6 9 F ed. R eg. 7 2,7 81 (D ec. 1 3, 2 004) (lis tin g a nd d escrib in g w ork e r e xp osu re to c ry sta llin e s ilic a a m ong th e fo ur h ig hprio rit y in it ia tiv e s).
8 . S ee in fr a n ote s 4 698 1 a nd a cco m panyin g te xt.
9 . S ee B R AN CH O F IN DUS. M IN ER ALS , U .S . D EP'T O F T H E IN TE R IO R, C RYSTA LLIN E S IL IC A P R IM ER 5 ( 1 992) [h ere in afte r P R IM ER ] ( "A ll s o ils c o nta in a t le ast tr a ce a m ounts o f c ry sta llin e s ilic a in th e f o rm o f q uartz ." ). T he P rim er a dds th at "th e a ve ra ge q uartz c o nte nt o f ig neous ro cks is 1 2% " a nd th at " [ b ]e ca use o f it s a bund ance in th e e arth , s ilic a , in b oth it s c ry sta llin e a nd n oncry sta llin e s ta te s, is p re se nt in n early a ll m in in g o pe ra tio ns." Id . a t 5 , 6 . In a ddit io n, " q uartz is … th e m ajo r c o m ponent o f s a nd a nd o f d ust i n th e a ir ." Id . a t 5 .
1 0. S ee G ra ham , su pra note 5, at 191. G ra ham note s th at people w ho exp erie nce "d usty non o ccu patio nal exp osu re s, as in villa ges in th e hig h H im ala ya s or in dese rt co m munit ie s," als o sh ow a bnorm al c h est ra dio gra phs a nd o th er in dic a tio ns o f s ilic a e xp osu re a nd th at e ve n w ork e rs in v e ry lo w e xp osu re jo bs a ls o s h ow a bnorm alit ie s in c e lls a nd p ro te in s:
W hether these findings represent the presence of a disease process (alveolitis) is almost a subject for philosophical discussion, akin to asking whether tanning of the skin is a pathologic process or a normal response to an imposed stimulus. This analogy is not too far‐fetched, since exposure to both quartz and sunlight have been constant companions in the evolution of biologic systems.
I d .; s e e a ls o M ei lin W ang & D anie l E . B anks, A ir w ays O bstr u ctio n a nd O ccu patio nal In org anic D ust E xp osu re , in O CCUPAT IO NAL L U NG D IS EASE, s u pra n ote 5 , a t 6 9, 6 9 ( n otin g th at " C hro nic o bstr u ctiv e p ulm onary d is e ase ( C OPD )" is a " p hysio lo gic p ara m ete r r a th er th an a n e tio lo gic a lly d efin ed d is e ase " a nd s o "th e c a use e xp la in in g th ese a bnorm al p ulm onary p ara m ete rs in a ny s in gle in div id ual c a nnot b e m ade w it h out a c lin ic a l e va lu atio n").
1 1 . IN DUS. A C CID EN T P R EVEN TIO N A SS'N , S IL IC A IN T H E W ORKPLA C E 2 (2 003) [h ere in afte r I A PA , W ORKPLA C E], a va ila ble a t h ttp ://w ww.ia pa.c a /p df/S ilic a in th ew ork p la ce F E B03.p df.
1 2. S ee id . ( e xp la in in g th at o nly d usts w it h m ore th an 1 % fr e e s ilic a b y w eig ht p ose a n e xp osu re h aza rd ).
1 3. T here a re tw o sta te s o f silic a : a m orp hous a nd cry sta llin e, w hic h a re "q uit e d if f e re nt p hysic a lly ." P R IM ER , s u pra n ote 9 , a t 3 . O f th e tw o s ta te s, "[o ]n ly th e c ry sta llin e s tr u ctu re s a re h ig hly to xic a nd f ib ro genic ." M arle ne Absh er, Silic a an d Lung In fla m matio n, in HAN DBO OK OF HAZA R DOUS M AT E R IA LS , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 6 61,6 62. A lt h ough th ere a re s e ve n fo rm s, o r p oly m orp hs, o f c ry sta llin e s ilic a , fo ur a re c o nsid ere d "e xtr e m ely ra re ." P R IM ER , s u pra n ote 9 , a t 5 . T he th re e m ajo r fo rm s a re q uartz , c ris to balit e , a nd tr id ym it e . Id .
1 4. S ee G ra ham , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 1 91 ( "A m orp hous s ilic a , w hic h la cks a c ry sta llin e s tr u ctu re , is e sse ntia lly b enig n. C ry sta llin e s ilic a in a ny fo rm is p ote ntia lly to xic w hen a bso rb ed o r in hale d in s u ff ic ie nt q uantit ie s." ).
1 5. S ee P R IM ER , s u pra n ote 9 , a t 1 6. T here a re s e ve ra l d if f ic u lt ie s in here nt in d ete rm in in g th e c o nte nt o f a s a m ple : 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 8/7 7 T he crystallinity of silica from different deposits, even from slightly different locations within the same deposits is not necessarily the same. This raises two problems. First, a single standard (that is, the reference material to which the silica in the sample is compared) may not be appropriate. Using a standard that matches the particle size and crystallinity of the silica in the sample is essential for an accurate analysis. Second, obtaining a representative sample, when the sample size is so small and the deposit is so large, is nearly impossible.
I d .; se e als o Jo hn E . C ra ig head, In org anic M in era l P artic u la te s in th e Lung, in H AN DBO OK O F H AZA R DOUS M AT E R IA LS , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 3 99, 4 05 ("[T ]h e S iO c ris to balit e is fa r m ore to xic a nd p ath ogenic th an th e m in era lo gic a lly s im ila r a lp ha q uartz … . S in ce d if f e re nt d usts c a use d is e ase b y d if f e rin g p ath ogenetic m ech anis m s, th e is su es are exce ptio nally co m ple x." ); A bsh er, su pra note 13, at 663 ( "F acto rs w hic h d ete rm in e w heth er a n e xp ose d in div id ual d eve lo ps p ulm onary p ath olo gy in clu de th e d ose a nd d ura tio n o f e xp osu re , th e n atu re o f th e d ust (q uartz , c ris to balit e , o r a v a rie ty o f s ilic a te s a nd s ilic a b earin g m in era ls ) a nd th e c o nte nt o f c ry sta llin e s ilic a in th e e xp osu re m ate ria l. " ).
1 6. S ee E le na F agotto & A rc h on F ung, Im pro vin g W ork p la ce H aza rd C om munic a tio n, 1 9 IS SU ES IN S C I. & T E C H. 63, 64 (W in te r 20022 003), ava ila ble at http ://w ww.is su cs.o rg /is su es/1 9.2 /fa gotto .h tm ( n otin g O SH A e stim ate s th at e m plo ye es a re e xp ose d to 6 50,0 00 h aza rd ous p ro ducts in th e w ork p la ce a nd describ in g pro ble m s w it h gettin g su ff ic ie nt in fo rm atio n to eva lu ate th ose exp osu re s); G EN .
A C COUNTIN G O FFIC E (G AO ), D ELA Y S IN S ETTIN G W ORKPLA C E S TA N DAR DS F O R C AN CER C AU SIN G A N D O TH ER D AN GER OUS S U BSTA N CES 9 (1 977) ("S eve ra l s o urc e s s a y th at a bout 2 m illio n ch e m ic a l co m pounds e xis t to day; in fo rm atio n o n to xic it y m ay b e a va ila ble fo r 1 00,0 00; a bout 1 3,0 00 k n ow n to xic c h em ic a ls a re c o m monly u se d; a nd a bout 5 00 n ew s u bsta nce s a re in tr o duce d e ach y e ar." ).
1 7. T he lit e ra tu re o n th e p re ca utio nary p rin cip le is v a st b ut g enera lly d ocs n ot a ss e ss th e p ote ntia l p erils o f t h e prin cip le . For nota ble exce ptio ns to th is , se e genera lly IN DUR M. GOKLA N Y, TH E P R EC AU TIO NAR Y PR IN CIP LE : A CRIT IC AL APPR AIS AL OF EN VIR ONM EN TA L RIS K A SSESSM EN T (2 00 1), w hic h a rg ues th at th e p re ca utio nary p rin cip le h as to o g re at a re ach . S ee a ls o J o nath an H . A dle r, T he C arta gena P ro to co l a nd B io lo gic a l D iv e rs it y : B io sa fe o r B io so rry ? , 1 2 G EO . IN T'L E N VTL. L . R EV. 7 61, 7 77 (2 000) (a rg uin g th at te ch nolo gic a l a dva nce s a re im porta nt to b io div e rs it y p ro te ctio n); F ra nk B . C ro ss, P ara doxic a l P erils o f th e P re ca utio nary P rin cip le , 5 3 W ASH . & L E E L . R EV.
8 51, 9 242 5 (1 996) (s u ggestin g th at in m any in sta nce s c o unte rv a ilin g ris ks fr o m w ell in te nded re gula to ry p ro gra m s p ro duce h arm s a s g re at o r g re ate r th an th ose th e r e gula tio ns a re in te nded to p re ve nt) .
1 8. U nce rta in ty is d is cu sse d m ost e xte nsiv e ly in c o nnectio n w it h e nvir o nm enta l is su es, r a th er th an is su es c o nnecte d to w ork p la ce h ealt h a nd s a fe ty , b ut th e c o nce rn s a re s im ila r. F or c o ncis e s u m marie s o f is su es c a use d b y s cie ntif ic u nce rta in ty , s e e D anie l A . F arb er, P ro babilit ie s B ehavin g B adly : C om ple xit y T heory a nd E nvir o nm enta l U nce rta in ty , 3 7 U .C . D AV IS L . R EV. 1 45 (2 003), w hic h a ddre sse s th e p ro ble m s o f u nce rta in ty in e nvir o nm enta l r e gula tio ns a nd e xp lo re s s ta tis tic a l p ow er la w s to a lle via te th e p ro ble m s. S ee a ls o J .B . R uhl, T hin kin g o f E nvir o nm enta l L aw a s a C om ple x A daptiv e S yste m : H ow to C le an U p th e E nvir o nm ent B y M akin g a M ess o f E nvir o nm enta l L aw , 3 4 H OUS. L . R EV. 9 33 (1 997) (d is cu ssin g th e i n here ntly u nce rta in n atu re o f th e e nvir o nm ent a nd d if f e re nt a ppro ach es to d ealin g w it h th e e nvir o nm enta l i s su es).
1 9. C f. J o nes e t a l. , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 2 18 ( e xp la in in g th at, fo r s ilic a d ust, " 'r e sp ir a ble ' s a m ple rs a re u se d").
A cco rd in g to J o nes, T hese are samplers that preferentially sample that fraction of the dust that enters the alveolar region of the lung. In this country the most common means for making this measurement is to use a small 2 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 3 9/7 7 battery‐operated pump to first draw air through a miniature cyclone to remove the nonrespirable particles and then through a filter to capture the respirable portion.
I d .
2 0. S ee O lu fu nm ila yo A re w a, B re akin g T hro ugh th e In ta ngib le s H aze : B usin ess P ara dig m s a nd C hangin g B usin ess Dis co urs e 89 (W ork in g Paper No. 41 4, 2004), ava ila ble at h ttp ://p apers .s srn .c o m /s o l3 /p apers .c fm ?abstr a ct_ id = 589205 ( "W it h th e r is e o f in ta ngib le s h as th us c o m e a c e rta in le ve l o f c o nfu sio n a s to h ow e xis tin g c a te gorie s, ru le s a nd re gula tio ns in it ia lly d ra w n u p in th e c o nte xt o f a ta ngib le p ara dig m s h ould a pply u nder a n in ta ngib le s p ara dig m ." ). T he g enera l n atu re o f th e p ro ble m c a n b e s e en b y e xa m in in g th e a tte m pts to d efin e th e te rm " h edge fu nd," a bout w hic h o ne a uth or r e ce ntly c o m mente d, " [t]o o ve rs im plif y s lig htly , a h edge fu nd is lik e a m utu al fu nd th at h as b een d esig ned t o a vo id fo ur fe dera l la w s th at g enera lly r e quir e in ve stm ent fu nds a nd th eir a dvis e rs to id entif y fu nd o ff ic e rs a nd h old in gs a nd to s u bm it to S ecu rit ie s a nd E xch ange C om mis sio n o ve rs ig ht." D avid S ke el, B ehin d th e H edge, L E G AL A FF., N ov. D ec. 2 005, a t 2 8, 3 0, a va ila ble a t h ttp ://w ww.le gala ff a ir s .o rg /is su es/N ove m ber D ece m ber2 005/fe atu re _sk k e el_ novd ec0 5.m sp .
2 1. If α k ry p to nit e is u nif o rm ly d is tr ib ute d in k ry p to nit e , a r e gula tio n th at d oes n ot d is tin guis h th e tw o fo rm s m ay n ot o ve rre gula te s in ce th e a m ount o f α k ry p to nit e is s im ply a fix e d p erc e nta ge o f th e a m ount o f th e t o ta l k ry p to n it e . S o lo ng a s th e re gula tio n ta ke s in to a cco unt th at th e e xp osu re s s h ould b e b ase d o n th e i m pact o f th e p ro portio n th at is α k ry p to nit e , a r e gula tio n th at d ocs n ot d is tin guis h b etw een th e tw o fo rm s w ill n ot o ve rre gula te .
2 2. R em em ber, w e s p ecif ie d th at w e d o n ot k n ow if β k ry p to nit e is h arm fu l. W e n oneth ele ss c a ll r e gula tio n o f β k ry p to nit e o ve r re gula tio n b eca use th e ju stif ic a tio n o f r e gula tio n r e sts o n th e s tu die s lin kin g th e h arm t o α k ry p to nit e .
2 3. S ee, e .g ., S H EIL A J A SAN OFF, S C IE N CE A T T H E B AR : L A W , S C IE N CE, A N D T E C HNOLO GY IN A M ER IC A 1 202 1 (1 995) (n otin g th e p ote ntia l fo r m eth odolo gic a l d efe cts in e pid em io lo gic a l stu die s); P ETE R S. BAR TH , W ORKER S' COM PEN SAT IO N AN D W ORKR ELA T E D IL LN ESSES AN D D IS EASES 2 82 9 ( 1 980) ( c it in g fu rth er in adequacie s in e pid em io lo gic a l s tu die s).
2 4. S ee B ern ard D . G old ste in & M ary S ue H enif in , R efe re nce G uid e o n T o xic o lo gy, in R EFE R EN CE M AN UAL O N S C IE N TIF IC E VID EN CE 4 01, 4 060 9 (F ed. J u dic ia l C tr . e d., 2 d c d . 2 000), a va ila ble a t h ttp ://w ww.fjc .g ov/lib ra ry /fjc _ ca ta lo g.n sf (s e arc h b y tit le fo r "R efe re nce M anual o n S cie ntif ic E vid ence ," s e le ct "R efe re nce M anual o n S cie ntif ic E vid ence , S eco nd E dit io n," fo llo w "L in k o r d ow nlo ad" h yp erlin k, t h en s e le ct a ppro pria te a uth or h yp erlin k) (d escrib in g th e a ssu m ptio ns in e xtr a pola tin g d ata fr o m a nim al s tu die s to a sse ss h u m an h ealt h ris ks); M ic h ael D . G re en e t a l. , R efe re nce G uid e o n E pid em io lo gy, in R EFE R EN CE M AN UAL O N S C IE N TIF IC E VID EN CE, s u pra , a t 3 33, 3 46 ( d is cu ssin g th e d is a dva nta ges o f a nim al to xic it y s tu d ie s fo r a sse ssin g h um an h ealt h ris ks). F or a s o m ew hat d ate d e va lu atio n o f s im ila r i s su es, s e e g enera lly B ert P . K ra ges II, R ats in th e C ourtr o om : T he A dm is sib ilit y o f A nim al S tu die s in T o xic T o rt C ase s, 2 J . E N VTL. L . & L IT IG . 2 29 ( 1 987), w hic h p ro vid es a th oro ugh a naly sis o f p ote ntia l r e lia bilit y p ro ble m s w it h a nim al s tu die s u se d in to xic to rt lit ig atio n.
2 5. T he c o sts o f a nim al s tu die s, fo r e xa m ple , a re m easu re d in th e h undre ds o f th ousa nds o f d olla rs . S ee K ra ges II, s u pra n ote 2 4, a t 2 34 n .2 5 ( p ro vid in g s e ve ra l e xa m ple s o f c o stly a nim al s tu die s).
2 6. T his p rin cip le c a n a ls o b e o bse rv e d in th e r e gula tio n o f d ru gs. S ee N ata lie M . D erz ko , T he Im pact o f R ece nt R efo rm s o f th e H atc h W axm an S ch em e o n O ra nge B ook S tr a te gic B ehavio r a nd P harm ace utic a l I n nova tio n, 4 5 ID EA 1 65, 2 161 7 ( 2 005) ( d is cu ssin g th e is su e o f s a m eness in P D A r e gula tio ns).
2 7. S ee IA PA , W ORKPLA C E, s u pra n ote 1 1 , a t 2 ( d escrib in g th e p ro ble m a s e xis tin g o nly w it h fr e e s ilic a ).
2 8. S ee G ilb ert H art, T he N om encla tu re o f S ilic a , 1 2 A M . M IN ER ALO GIS T 3 83, 3 839 5 ( 1 927), a va ila ble a t http ://w ww.m in so ca m .o rg /M SA/c o ll e cto rs _ co rn er/a rc /s ilic a nom .h tm (illu str a tin g th e va rio us c la ssif ic a tio ns o f s ilic a ). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 0/7 7 2 9. S ee IA R C, S ilic a , su pra note 4, at 41 (id entif y in g th e dangero us, cry sta llin e fo rm s of silic a as C ris to balit e , Q uartz , T rip oli, a nd T rid ym it e ).
3 0. S ee. e .g ., R . K . H er, T he S urfa ce C hem is tr y o f A m orp hous S yn th etic S ilic a — In te ra ctio n w it h O rg anic Mole cu le s in an Aqueous Mediu m , in HEALT H EFFE C TS OF SYN TH ETIC SIL IC A P A R TIC IP AT E S 3 , 3 ( D .D . D unnom e d., 1 981). A cco rd in g to H er, F or many years it was supposed that the [health] effects were due to soluble silica dissolved from the fine particles by body fluids, but now it is generally conceded that they are due to the surface of crystalline quartz particles that adsorbs and interacts with certain molecular compounds of the living cells.
I d .
3 1. N AT 'L IN ST. O F O CCUPAT IO NAL S AFE TY & H EALT H (N IO SH ), U .S . D EP'T O F H EALT H & H UM AN SER VS., HEALT H EFFE C TS OF OCCUPAT IO NAL EXPO SU RE TO RESPIR ABLE C RYSTA LLIN E S IL IC A, a t v ii ( 2 002) [h ere in afte r N IO SH H AZA R D R EVIE W ].
3 2. S ee IA PA , W OR KPLA C E, s u pra n ote 1 1 , a t 6 ( lis tin g th e r e le va nt in div id ual fa cto rs , in clu din g " a m ount a nd k in d o f d ust in hale d, c o nte nt o f c ry sta llin e fr e e s ilic a in th e d ust, fo rm o f th e s ilic a , r e la tiv e s iz e o f th e i n hale d p artic le s, le ngth o f e xp osu re , in d iv id ual re sis ta nce , s m okin g h abit s , d is e ase s ta tu s, [a nd] a ge o f w ork e r").
3 3. N IO SH H AZA R D R EVIE W , s u pra n ote 3 1, a t v v i ( q uotin g A m eric a n T hora cic S ocie ty fin din gs).
3 4. S ee IA PA , W ORKPLA C E, su pra n ote 11 , a t 4 (e m phasiz in g th e e ff ic ie ncy o f th e h um an b ody's f ilt r a tio n s yste m ).
3 5. S ee E m ail fr o m V in ce nt C astr a nova , P h.D ., N IO SH , to A ndre w M orris s, P ro fe sso r o f B usin ess L aw & R egula tio n, C ase S ch ool o f L aw (A ug. 3 , 2 005) (o n file w it h a uth ors ) ("F re sh ly fr a ctu re d s ilic a h as a g re ate r a bilit y to g enera te r a dic a ls , a ctiv a te r e activ e s p ecie s p ro ductio n fr o m a lv e ola r m acro phages, c a use i n v it r o to xic it y , a nd is m ore in fla m mato ry in v iv o ." ). D r. C astr a nova c it e d th e fo llo w in g s tu die s to s u pport h is c o nclu sio n: V in ce nt C astr a nova e t a l. , E nhance d P ulm onary R esp onse to th e In hala tio n o f F re sh ly F ra ctu re d S ilic a as C om pare d to A ged D ust E xp osu re , 11 A PPLIE D O CC UPAT IO NAL & E N VTL.
H YG IE N E 9 37 ( 1 996); V in ce nt C astr a no va e t a l. , R ole o f S urfa ce F re e in th e P ath ogenic it y o f S ilic o sis , in S IL IC A A N D S IL IC AIN DUCED L U NG D IS EASES 9 1 ( V in ce nt C astr a nova , V al V ally a th an & W illia m E .
W alla ce e ds., 1 996); V al V ally a th an e t a l. , F re sh ly F ra ctu re d Q uartz In hala tio n L eads to E nhance d L ung I n ju ry and In fla m matio n, 152 A M . J. C RIT IC AL C AR E M ED . 1003 (1 995); Vin ce nt C astr a nova , G enera tio n of Oxyg en Radic a ls and M ech anis m s of In ju ry Pre ve ntio n, 102 EN VTL. HEALT H P ER SPEC TIV ES 6 5 (S upp. 1 0 1 994); V al V ally a th an e t a l. , G enera tio n o f F re e R adic a ls F ro m F re sh ly F ra ctu re d S ilic a D ust: P ote ntia l R ole in A cu te S ilic a in duce d L ung In ju ry , 1 38 A M . R EV. R ESPIR ATO RY D IS EASE 1 213(1 988).
3 6. T his s ta te m ent is b ase d o n d is cu ssio ns b etw een th e a uth ors a nd m em bers o f th e S orp tiv e M in era ls I n stit u te ( S M I) a t th e M ay 2 005 S M I S prin g F oru m .
3 7. S ee s u pra n ote 5 a nd a cco m panyin g te xt.
3 8. IA PA , W ORKPLA C E, s u pra n ote 1 1 , a t 6 .
3 9. N IO SH H AZA R D R EVIE W , s u pra n ote 3 1, a t 1 .
4 0. I A R C, S ilic a , s u pra n ote 4 , a t 4 1.
4 1. T here is g enera lly c o nsid era ble u nce rta in ty a bout o ccu patio nal d is e ase . S ee, e .g ., B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 1 52 7 ( re co untin g p ro ble m s o bta in in g r e lia ble d ata o n o ccu patio nal h ealt h a nd d eath s).
4 2. S ee g enera lly F rie dric h A . v o n H aye k, T he U se o f K now le dge in S ocie ty , 3 5 A M . E C ON. R EV. 5 19 ( 1 945) (d is cu ssin g pro ble m s w it h eco nom ic th eory and th e re fin em ents needed to re so lv e th ose p ro ble m s); B ru ce A . A cke rm an & R ic h ard B . S te w art, R efo rm in g E nvir o nm enta l L aw , 3 7 S TA N . L . R EV.
1 333, 1 337 (1 9848 5) ("S uch [r e gula to ry ] d ete rm in atio ns im pose m assiv e in fo rm atio ng ath erin g b urd ens o n a dm in is tr a to rs … ." ). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 1/7 7 4 3. O f c o urs e , e m plo ye rs m ay a ls o h ave m ora l re aso ns to w is h to p ro vid e a s a fe w ork e nvir o nm ent.
C urio usly , th ose w ho re adily a ttr ib ute b enevo le nce to g ove rn m ents a nd re co il fr o m p ublic c h oic e th eory 's a ssu m ptio n th at se lf in te re st guid es polit ic ia ns and bure aucra ts ra re ly co nce de eve n an enlig hte ned v e rs io n o f s e lf in te re st to th ose in vo lv e d in p riv a te e nte rp ris e .
4 4. S ee genera lly G AR Y S . B EC KE R , H UM AN C APIT A L: A TH EO RETIC AL A N D E M PIR IC AL A N ALY SIS W IT H S PEC IA L R EFE R EN CE T O E D UCAT IO N 1 54 4 ( 2 d e d. 1 97 5) ( p ro vid in g a n o ve rv ie w o f in ve stm ent in h um an c a pit a l's p ote ntia l e ff e cts o n e m plo ye r e arn in gs).
4 5. P ro fe sso r C hris to pher S elle rs , n o a polo gis t fo r c o rp ora te A m eric a , n ote d th at c o rp ora te in te re st in i n dustr ia l m edic in e s o are d d urin g la bor s h orta ges a fte r W orld W ar 1 a s a m eans o f re ducin g tu rn ove r.
C HRIS TO PH ER C . SELLE R S, H AZA R DS O F TH E JO B: FR OM IN DUSTR IA L D IS EASE TO E N VIR ONM EN TA L H EALT H S C IE N CE 1 45 ( 1 997).
4 6. S ee A D AM S M IT H , A N IN QUIR Y IN TO T H E N AT U RE A N D C AU SES O F T H E W EALT H O F N AT IO NS 1 1 71 8 ( R .H . C am pbell & A .S . S kin ner e ds., O xfo rd U niv . P re ss 1 976) ( 1 776) ( o ff e rin g a w age c o m paris o n o f o ccu patio ns w it h va rio us le ve ls o f ris k). S ee g enera lly Jo ni H ers ch & W . K ip V is cu si, C ig are tte S m okin g, S eatb elt U se , a nd D if f e re nce s in W ageR is k T ra deo ff s , 2 5 J . H UM . R ES. 2 02 ( 1 990) ( u sin g S m it h 's d octr in e to s tu dy w ageris k a sse ssm ents m ade b y s m oke rs a nd n ons m oke rs a s w ell a s s e atb elt u se rs a nd n onu se rs ).
4 7. S ee, e .g ., C hris to pher C . S elle rs , "A P re ju dic e W hic h M ay C lo ud th e M enta lit y :" A n O ve rv ie w o f th e B ir th of th e M odern Scie nce of O ccu patio nal D is e ase , in TO XIC C IR CLE S: EN VIR ONM EN TA L H AZA R DS F R OM T H E W ORKPLA C E IN TO T H E C OM MUNIT Y 2 33,2 35 ( H ele n E . S hce han & R ic h ard P . W ed een e ds., 1 993 ) ( "[M ]in in g a nd r a ilr o ad c o m panie s r e co gniz e d p artic u la r h ealt h h aza rd s a sso cia te d w it h th eir in dustr ie s m any y e ars b efo re th e tu rn o f th e [tw entie th ] c e ntu ry a nd b egan h ir in g th eir o w n p hysic ia ns to tr e at e m plo ye es." ) ( c it a tio n o m it te d).
4 8. Id . a t 2 373 8. U nio ns o fte n r e sis te d p hysic a l e xa m s. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 1 1 9. P ro te sts o ve r e xa m s w ere "p ro nounce d" b y 1 915, a nd th enP re sid ent o f th e A m eric a n F edera tio n o f L abor, S am uel G om pers , d enounce d th em a s a " m enace fo r th e fr e edom o f w ork e rs ." Id .
4 9. S ee, e .g ., B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 5 3 ( q uotin g w ork e rs in A naco nda, M onta na w ho, w hen in fo rm ed o f th e ris k o f a rs e nic p ois o nin g fr o m co pper sm elt e r w ork , co ntin ued to w ork th ere b eca use o f th e p hilo so phy th at "w hat b oth ers m e is n o t w hat h appens tw enty y e ars fr o m n ow , b ut h ow I fe ed m y k id s t o m orro w "); JO HN FA BIA N W IT T, TH E AC CID EN TA L R EPU BLIC : C RIP P LE D W ORKW OM EN , D ESTIT U TE W ID OW S, A N D T H E R EM AKIN G O F A M ER IC AN L A W 3 2 (2 004) (a sse rtin g th at "a n i m porta nt o bsta cle to w ork p la ce s a fe ty [in th e e arly tw entie th c e ntu ry ] w as th e p ers is te nt a nd u su ally i r ra tio nal o ptim is m th at w ork in gm en s e em ed to b rin g to e stim atio ns o f th e r is ks th ey fa ce d").
5 0. S ee, e .g ., T H OM AS O . M cG AR IT Y & S ID NEY A . S H APIR O, W ORKER S A T R IS K: T H E F A IL E D P R OM IS E O F T O E O CCUPAT IO NAL S AFE TY A N D H EALT H A D M IN IS TR AT IO N 1 7 ( 1 993) ( d escrib in g h ow in lig ht o f e m plo ye es' a tte m pts to im pro ve th eir w ork in g c o ndit io ns " th e h is to ry o f o ccu patio nal s a fe ty a nd h ealt h r e gula tio n is a s m uch a s to ry a bout w ork e rs s e ekin g g ove rn m ent h elp in a dju stin g th e b ala nce o f p o w er in th e e m plo ye re m plo ye e re la tio nsh ip a s it is a c h ro nolo gy o f s cie ntif ic d is co ve rie s c o nce rn in g t h e c a use a nd p re ve ntio n o f w ork p la ce in ju rie s a nd d is e ase s").
5 1. S ee, e .g ., M in e S afe ty a nd H ealt h A dm in is tr a tio n, F in al H aza rd C om munic a tio n (H azC om ) R ule , 6 7 F ed. R eg. 4 2,3 14 ( J u ne 2 1, 2 002) ( p re m is in g h aza rd c o m munic a tio n s ta ndard s o n a c o nce rn th at, in th e a bse nce o f re gula tio n, "m any o pera to rs a nd m in ers a re n ot a s a w are o f th e p re se nce a nd n atu re o f h aza rd ous c h em ic a ls a s th ey s h ould b e").
5 2. S ee W . K IP V IS C USI E T A L., E C ONOM IC S O F R EG ULA T IO N A N D A N TIT R UST 7 94 (3 d e d.
2 001) (re co untin g b rie fly a re ce nt h is to ry o f th ose in ce ntiv e s); s e e a ls o S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 1 1 4 ( "T he c o m pensa tio n s yste m s n ot o nly h elp ed s p ur th e n ew ro und o f c o rp ora te m edic a l h ir in g, th ey a ls o a ttu ned m any m ore m anagers a nd o w ners to w hat so m e o f th eir n um ber h ad a lr e ady re aliz e d: th at c o rp ora te d octo rs , if p ro perly e m plo ye d, c o uld h ave a m easu ra ble e ff e ct o n th e b otto m lin e." ). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 2/7 7 5 3. S ee V IS C USI E T A L., s u pra n ote 5 2, a t 7 94 (d is cu ssin g th e p ow erfu l e ff e ct o f th e in ce ntiv e s o n i n dustr y s a fe ty ); B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 6 1 ( n otin g th at th ere is w id esp re ad a gre em ent th at a k e y a im o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n is to e nco ura ge " th e m ain te nance o f a s a fe a nd h ealt h fu l w ork p la ce ").
5 4. V IS C USI E T A L., s u pra n ote 5 2, a t 7 94.
5 5. Id . T he e vid ence o n th e im pact o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n o n in ju rie s is w eake r a nd in flu ence d b y " m ora l h aza rd " b eca u se in su ra nce p ro vid es in ce ntiv e s to r e port, o r e ve n m is re pre se nt, a ccid ents in o rd er t o c o lle ct in su ra nce b enefit s . Id .
5 6. S ee K enneth S . A bra ham , P ro ducts L ia bilit y L aw a nd In su ra nce P ro fit a bilit y , 1 9 J . L E G . S TU D. 8 37, 8 38 ( 1 990) ( d is cu ssin g th e s ig nif ic a nce o f lo ss r a tio s to in su ra nce p ro fit s ).
5 7. T his co m petit io n e xis ts in a ll sta te s e xce pt N orth D ako ta , O hio , W ash in gto n, W est V ir g in ia , a nd W yo m in g, w here th e s ta te o pera te s a m onopoly in su re r. A LLIS O N D EM ER IT T, W ASH IN GTO N P O LIC Y C EN TE R , R EFO RM IN G W ASH IN GTO N'S W ORKER S' C OM PEN SAT IO N S YSTE M (2 004), a va ila ble a t http ://w ww.w ash in gto npolic y.o rg /la borp olic y/P BD em erit tL aborR efo rm in gW ork k e rs C om pensa tio n2004.h tm .
5 8. S ee g enera lly N EIL K . K O M ESAR , IM PER FE C T A LT E R NAT IV ES: C HOOSIN G IN STIT U TIO NS IN L A W , E C O NOM IC S A N D P U BLIC P O LIC Y 2 1 ( 1 997) ( p osit in g th at th e " q uestio n is n ot w heth er m ark e t p erfo rm ance im pro ve s o r d ete rio ra te s w it h la rg er n um ber o f p artie s, b ut r a th er w heth er th e m ark e t w ork s b ette r o r w ors e th an th e c o urts ").
5 9. S ee g enera lly A R TH UR C . P IG OU, T H E E C ONOM IC S O F W ELF A R E ( 4 th e d. 1 932).
6 0. V iS C USi E T A L., s u pra n ote 5 2, a t 3 141 7 (s u ggestin g th e th eory th at g ove rn m ent in te rfe re nce to c o rre ct m ark e t fa ilu re s m ay b e in th e p ublic 's b est in te re st) .
6 1. R ic h ard A . P osn er, T heorie s o f E co no m ic R egula tio n, 5 B ELL J . E C ON. & M GM T. S C I. 3 35(1 974).
6 2. S ee V IS C USI E T A L., s u pra n ote 5 2, a t 3 131 7 (e xp la in in g th at in dustr y o fte n p ro fit s ra th er th an g enera l s o cia l w elf a re ). S ee g enera lly W illia m A . J o rd an, P ro duce r P ro te ctio n, P rio r M ark e t S tr u ctu re a nd t h e E ff e cts o f G ove rn m ent R egula tio n, 1 5 J .L . & E C ON. 1 51 ( 1 972) ( a naly zin g e m pir ic a l s tu die s s h ow in g t h at e co nom ic r e gula tio n w as m ore lik e ly to in cre ase c o sts to th e c o nsu m er th an to p ro te ct th e c o nsu m er).
6 3. S ee V iS C USi E T A L., s u pra n ote 5 2 , a t 7 899 0 ( d is cu ssin g e m pir ic a l e vid ence th at th e d eclin in g tr e nd i n jo bre la te d a ccid ents d id n ot a cce le ra te a fte r th e c re atio n o f O SH A a nd n otin g th e im plic a tio n th at th e " in ju ry d eclin e m ay h ave o ccu rre d in th e a bse nce o f th e a gency"). T here is e vid ence o f a t le ast a d if f e re nce in e m phasis in e nfo rc in g r e gula tio ns. P ro fe sso r A lis o n M ora ntz fo und th at fe dera l e nfo rc e m ent a ctio ns o n co nstr u ctio n sa fe ty re gula tio ns w ere sig nif ic a ntly m ore a ggre ssiv e th an sta te e nfo rc e m ent a ctio ns in th e le ve l o f fin es im pose d a nd in im pact o n fir m s' b ehavio r. A lis o n D . M ora ntz , H as R egula to ry D evo lu tio n In ju re d A m eric a n W ork e rs ? A C om paris o n o f S ta te a nd F edera l E nfo rc e m ent o f C onstr u ctio n S afe ty R egula tio ns (S ta nfo rd Law and Eco nom ic s, W ork in g Paper N o. 308, 2005), ava ila ble at h ttp ://s srn .c o m /a bstr a ct= 755026.
6 4. S ee G eorg e S tig le r, T he T heory o f E co nom ic R egula tio n, 2 B ELL J . E C ON. & M GM T. S C I. 3 ,4 7 ( 1 971) ( c o nsid erin g th e v a rio us b enefit s th at a s ta te c a n p ro vid e a n in dustr y ).
6 5. S ee id . ( e m phasiz in g th e in te re st g ro ups' in te nt to u se th e r e gula tio n to r e str ic t e ntr y in to th eir m ark e t) .
6 6. S ee g enera lly J A M ES M . B U CHAN AN & G ORDON T U LLO CK, T H E C ALC ULU S O F C ONSEN T ( 1 962) ( s e ttin g o ut th e b asic s o f th e th eory ).
6 7. G ORD ON T U LLO CK E T A L., G O VER NM EN T F A IL U RE: A P R IM ER IN P U BLIC C HOIC E 1 6 ( 2 002).
6 8. N ic h ola s B agle y a nd N YU L aw S ch o ol D ean R ic h ard R eve sz ta ke is su e w it h b oth S tig le r's c a ptu re t h eory a nd p ublic c h oic e th eory in a re ce nt p aper, a rg uin g in ste ad th at th e re gula to ry p ro ce ss is b ia se d a gain st re g ula to ry a ctio n b y in te re st g ro up p re ssu re s. S ee N ic h ola s B agle y & R ic h ard L . R eve sz, O M B a nd th e C entr a liz e d R evie w o f R egula tio n ( N YU L aw a nd E co nom ic s R ese arc h , W ork in g P aper N o. 0 5 1 6, 2 0 05), a va ila ble a t h ttp ://s srn .c o m /a bstr a ct= 786486. B agle y a nd R eve sz c o nte nd th at th e im pact o f O M B re vie w is to m ake a gencie s c h oose to re gula te in w ays to a vo id c o nflic t w it h O M B. Id . W hile w e 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 3/7 7 d is a gre e w it h th eir a naly sis o f th e r e gula to ry in ce ntiv e s tr u ctu re , th eir a rg um ents a re c o m patib le w it h o urs i n s o m e r e sp ects . M ost im porta ntly , e ve n u nder B agle y a nd R eve sz's a naly sis , it w ill b e im porta nt to d efin e t h e s u bje ct o f r e gula tio n, a nd a gency d ecis io ns o n th at p oin t w ill b e s u bje ct to p olit ic a l p re ssu re s.
6 9. S ee genera lly M cG AR IT Y & S H APIR O, su pra note 50 (p ro vid in g an exa m ple of th is la ck of c o nsid era tio n o f in te re st g ro ups in a th o ro ugh a cco unt o f O SH A's d eve lo pm ent th ro ugh 1 990). A lt h ough P ro fe sso rs M cG arit y a nd S hapir o a re k e enly a ttu ned to th e in te re sts o f b usin esse s s e ekin g p artic u la r a ctio ns fr o m O SH A, th ey g enera lly d o n ot c o nsid er a ny m otiv a tio n b eyo nd d is in te re ste d c o nce rn fo r th e b est in te re sts o f th e p ublic fo r n onpro fit a cto rs . T hus, fo r e xa m ple , in th eir a cco un t o f O SH A's r e gula tio n o f e th yle ne o xid e, th ey a cce pt a t fa ce v a lu e th e p artic ip atio n o f th e N ader o rg aniz a tio n, P ublic C it iz e n H ealt h R ese arc h G ro up. S ee id . a t 8 38 7 ( m entio nin g b rie fly th e o rg aniz a tio n's p etit io n b ut m ovin g q uic kly to th e p ro m ulg atio n o f th e e th yle ne o xid e ru le ). Y et th e P ublic C it iz e n H ealt h R ese a rc h G ro up h ad in te re sts b eyo nd s e ekin g to im ple m ent it s v is io n o f th e p ublic g ood. F or e xa m ple , th e g ro u p n eeded to b e a ble to r a is e m oney to su pport it s activ it ie s. S im ila rly , M cG arit y and S hapir o acce pt th e cla im s of O SH A e m plo ye es w ho re sig ned durin g th e R eagan Adm in is tr a tio n th at th ey re sig ned beca use polit ic a l i n te rfe re nce fr o m th e A dm in is tr a tio n w as ke epin g th e a gency fr o m so und scie nce . Id . a t 9 29 3. A n a lt e rn ativ e h yp oth esis is th at th ese O SH A e m plo ye es d is a gre ed w it h th e c h anges in p olic y in stit u te d b y t h e R eaga n A dm in is tr a tio n a nd s o ught to u se th eir d epartu re s to e m barra ss th e A dm in is tr a tio n. F or a t h oro ugh d is cu ssio n o f th e ro le s o f "p ublic in te re st" g ro ups in va rio us e nvir o n m enta l re gula tio ns, se e J o nath an H . A dle r, R ent S eekin g B ehin d th e G re en C urta in , 1 9 R EG ULA T IO N 2 6 (1 996), a va ila ble a t h ttp ://w ww.c a to .o rg /p ubs/r e gula tio n/r e g19 n4b.h tm l. S ee g enera lly J o nath an H . A dle r, C le an P olit ic s, D ir ty P ro fit s , in P O LIT IC AL E N VIR ONM EN TA LIS M : G OIN G B EH IN D T H E G REEN C URTA IN 1 (T e rry L .
A nders e n e d., 2 000).
7 0. P R IM ER , s u pra n ote 9 , a t 4 . T he m ost c o m mon fo rm o f s ilic a ( S iO ) in n atu re is q uartz . Id . a t 2 3 . 7 1. For a brie f acco unt of Bauer's lif e , se e Georg iu s Agric o la (1 4941 555), h ttp ://w ww.u cm p.b erk e le y.e du/h is to ry /a g ric o la .h tm l (la st v is it e d M ar. 2 9, 2 006). B auer n ote d, "T he c rit ic s s a y fu rth er th at m in in g is a p erilo us o ccu patio n to p urs u e, b eca use th e m in ers a re s o m etim es k ille d b y th e p estile ntia l a ir w hic h th ey b re ath e; s o m etim es th eir lu ngs ro t a w ay." D anie l E . B anks, T he W orld W id e P ro ble m of O ccu patio nal Lung D is e ase , in O CCUPAT IO NAL LU NG D IS EA SE, su pra note 5, at 3 ( q uotin g B auer); se e a ls o M arv in R . B ala an & D anie l E . B anks, S ilic o sis , in E N VIR ONM EN TA L & O CCUPAT IO NAL M ED IC IN E 4 35, 4 35 (W illia m N . R om e d., 3 d e d. 1 998) ("[S ilic o sis is a ] m anm ade d is e ase , it is p ro bably a s o ld a s h um an h is to ry a nd w as k n ow n to th e a ncie nt E gyp tia ns a nd G re eks … .
A lt h ough th e p re va le nce o f silic o sis a ppare ntly p eake d in th e la te 1 9th a nd e arly 2 0th ce ntu ry w hen m ech aniz e d in dustr y w as ju st b egin nin g … ." ); F re deric k L . H off m an, T he M orta lit y fr o m C onsu m ptio n in D usty T ra des, in F R OM C ONSU M PTIO N T O T U BER CULO SIS : A D OCUM EN TA R Y H IS TO RY 5 24, 5 24 (B arb ara G utm ann R ose nkra ntz e d., 1 994) ("T he im porta nce o f d ust a s a fa cto r in o ccu patio n m orta lit y h a s a ttr a cte d th e a tte ntio n o f e ve ry a uth orit y o n o ccu patio n d is e ase s fr o m R am azzin i to T hom as O liv e r." ); B ala an & B anks, su pra , a t 4 35 (n otin g th at H ip pocra te s re porte d o n m in ers su ff e rin g fr o m s ilic o sis ); G EO RGE R OSEN , T H E H IS TO RY O F M IN ER S' D IS EASES: A M ED IC AL A N D S O CIA L I N TE R PR ETA T IO N 3 (1 943) ("T he e arlie st e vid ence s o f o ccu patio nal d is e ase s in m in ers re ach fa r b ack i n to p re his to ric tim es." ); A bsh er, s u pra n o te 1 3, a t 6 61 ("S ilic o sis is a d is e ase o f a ncie nt o rig in ." ); S ta rk , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 11 47 ("S ilic o sis is a ch ro nic fib ro sin g d is e ase o f th e lu ngs p ro duce d b y p ro lo nged e xte nsiv e e xp osu re to fr e e c ry sta llin e s ilic a . It w as fir s t d escrib ed in th e s ix te e nth c e ntu ry ." ); M AR TIN C HER NIA C K, T H E H AW K'S N EST IN CID EN T: A M ER IC A'S W ORST IN DU STR IA L D IS ASTE R 3 7 ( 1 986) ("T he p atr ia rc h s o f o ccu patio nal m edic in e, A gric o la in th e s ix te enth c e ntu ry a nd R am azzin i in th e e ig hte enth , a sso cia te d th e d is e ase [s ilic o sis ] w it h th e d usts c re ate d in to ol m anufa ctu re , a s w ell a s in m in es a nd q uarrie s." ).
7 2. S ee S ta rk , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 1 1 47 ( n otin g th at " [t]h e s p ecif ic n am e s ilic o sis w as in tr o duce d in 1 870 b y V is co nti" a nd th us d em onstr a tin g th at k n ow le dge o f th e p ro ble m o f s ilic a d usts h as e xis te d fo r o ve r 1 25 2 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 4/7 7 y e ars ). G en era l k n ow le dge o f d usts a s a s o urc e o f o ccu patio nal d is e ase w as a ls o p re va le nt. F or e xa m ple , a 1 902 a ddre ss o n "th e D ust P ro ble m " to a S anit a ry C ongre ss in M anch este r, E ngla nd b y S ir J a m es C ric h to nB ro w ne in clu ded th e s ta te m ent th at '" [t]h e m orta lit y o f th e p rin cip al d ust p ro ducin g o ccu patio ns, c o m pare d w it h th at o f a gric u lt u ra lis ts , w ho liv e a nd w ork in w hat is p ra ctic a lly d ustle ss a tm osp here , is e xce ssiv e to a s ta rtli n g d egre e.'" H uff m an, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 5 25 ( q uotin g S ir C ric h to nB ro w ne's a ddre ss).
S im ila rly , a n 1 879 a rtic le in "B uck's H yg ie ne a nd P ublic H ealt h " b y D r. R oger S . T ra cy c o nsid ere d d ust i s su es a t le ngth , in clu din g n otin g p ro ble m s o f c h ro nic a nd p ro gre ssiv e d is e ase . S ee id . a t 5 272 8 ( q uotin g t h e a rtic le a nd n otin g it s d eta ile d d is cu ssio n o f th e s ym pto m s o f th e d is e ase ).
7 3. S ee G ra ham , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 1 91 (im ply in g th at s ilic o sis w as a w ell d ocu m ente d p ro ble m in th e 1 700s, a lt h ough th e te rm " s ilic o sis " o nly d ate s to 1 870).
7 4. S ee E liz a beth B . C ooper, S ocia l R is k a nd th e T ra nsfo rm atio n o f P ublic H ealt h L aw : L esso ns fr o m th e P la gue Y ea rs , 8 6 IO W A L . R EV. 8 69, 8 8 18 3 (2 001) (d is cu ssin g c h anges in th eorie s a s to th e c a use o f d is e ase ).
7 5. W IT T, s u pra n ote 4 9, a t 2 2 ("B y v ir tu ally a ll a cco unts — c o nte m pora ry a cco unts a s w ell a s th ose o f h is to ria ns w rit in g a c e ntu ry la te r — th e U nit e d S ta te s w it n esse d a n in dustr ia l a ccid ent c ris is o f w orld h is to ric a l im porta nce ." ).
7 6. Id . a t 3 7 ("[A ]r o und th e tu rn o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry , th e in dustr ia l a ccid en t e m erg ed in th e U nit e d S ta te s a s a m ong th e m ost v is ib le o f s o cia l ills ." ).
7 7. Id . a t 5 9.
7 8. S ee id . a t 6 2 ( q uotin g S la p a t R oose ve lt in B arn es R eply , N .Y . T IM ES, O ct. 6 , 1 913, a t 5 ).
7 9. D AV ID R OSN ER & G ER ALD M AR KO W IT Z, D EAD LY D UST: S IL IC OSIS A N D T H E P O LIT IC S O F O CCUPAT IO NAL D IS EASE IN T W EN TIE TH C EN TU RY A M ER IC A 3 8 ( 1 991) ( "In th e fir s t tw o d eca des o f th e tw entie th ce ntu ry , ste am d riv e n e quip m ent re pla ce d h and d rills a nd sle dgeham mers in g ra nit e q uarrie s th ro ughout th e n atio n." ); s e e a ls o id . a t 4 1 ( d escrib in g th e h ig her r is k fr o m p ow er to ols b eca use o f t h e g re ate r a m ounts o f d ust th ey c re ate ).
8 0. P R IM ER , s u pra n ote 9 , a t 1 2; s e e a ls o A LA N D ER IC KSO N, W ORKER S' H EALT H , W ORKER S' D EM OCRAC Y: T H E W ESTE R N M IN ER S' S TR UGGLE , 1 8911 925, a t 4 0 ( 1 988) ( d escrib in g th e s p re ad o f p ow er to ols in m in in g a nd th e r e su lt in g in cre ase in s ilic o sis ).
8 1. S ee D ER IC KSO N, s u pra n ote 8 0, a t 4 1 (e xp la in in g th at e nhance d d rillin g te ch niq ues re su lt e d in g re ate r a m ounts o f d ust p artic le s th at w ere s m alle r in s iz e a nd th ere fo re b ette r c a pable o f p enetr a tin g th e a lv e oli o f th e lu ngs).
8 2. M at 4 2.
8 3. S ee S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 3 8 (o bse rv in g th at th e la w s la cke d th e s p ecif ic it y n ece ssa ry to e nsu re a dequate p ro te ctio n fo r th e w ork e rs ).
8 4. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, su pra note 79, at 32 (p ro vid in g ane cd ota l evid ence of th e d eve lo pm ent o f th e X ra y m ach in e a nd it s im pact o n th e a naly sis o f p artic le s w it h in th e lu ngs).
8 5. C f. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 1 1 4 1 5 (d escrib in g th e im pact o f n ew m edic a l a dva nce s). E liz a beth F ee a ttr ib ute s s o m e o f th e g ro w th o f m edic a l k n ow le dge to th e in cre ase d c ro w din g in u rb an a re as th at a cco m panie d in dustr ia liz a tio n:
T he [prior] belief that epidemic diseases posed only occasional threats to an otherwise healthy social order was shaken by the industrial transformation of the late nineteenth century. The burgeoning social problems of the industrial cities could not be ignored: the overwhelming influx of immigrants crowded into narrow alleys and tenement housing, the terrifying death and disease rates of working‐class slums, the total inadequacy of water supplies and sewage systems for the rapidly growing population, the spread of 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 5/7 7 endemic and epidemic diseases from the slums to the homes of the wealthy, the escalating squalor and violence of the streets.
E LIZ A BETH F E E, D IS EASE A N D D IS C OVER Y: A H IS TO RY O F T H E J O HNS H OPKIN S S C HOOL O F H YG IE N E A N D P U BLIC H EALT H 19 163 9, at 12 (1 987). S olv in g th ese so cia l pro ble m s re quir e d u nders ta ndin g th em , th us p ro ducin g a d em and fo r m edic a l kn ow le dge th at sp ille d o ve r in to in dustr ia l c o nte xts . T his re su lt e d in a tr a nsfo rm atio n in p ublic h ealt h a gencie s, s h if tin g p ers o nnel fr o m th ose h ir e d d ue to " p atr o nage o r p olit ic a l c o nsid era tio ns" to e xp erts , p art o f th e g enera l P ro gre ssiv e E ra tr e nd to w ard e xp ert a gencie s. Id . a t 1 6. P ublic h ealt h a nd m edic in e h ad d ir e ct b enefit s fo r th e m ilit a ry , a m ong o th ers , a llo w in g th e c o nstr u ctio n o f th e P anam a C anal a fte r th e d efe at o f y e llo w fe ve r a nd m ala ria . S ee id . a t 1 6 1 7 (to utin g th e tr iu m ph o f im pro ve d p ublic h ealt h o ve r th e h ig h d eath to ll th at h ad p re vio usly h in dere d c o m ple tio n o f th e C anal) . T hese le sso ns w ere b ro ught h om e a nd a pplie d in th e p ublic h ealt h a nd in dustr ia l c o nte xts . Id . a t 1 71 8. T he r e su lt in g a gen cie s a nd p ro je cts d em anded tr a in ed p ers o nnel, h elp in g to s p ark p ro fe ssio nal s ch ools in th e fie ld . S ee id . a t 1 8 ( n otin g th e n cw fo und s tr e ss o n th e n eed fo r fu ll tim e h ealt h p ro fe ssio nals ). T he e m phasis r e m ain ed o n p ublic h ealt h r a th er th an in dustr ia l h ea lt h , h ow eve r. T he 1 915 M anual fa r H ealt h O ff ic e rs , th e fir s t h andbook fo r p ublic h ealt h o ff ic e rs , d evo te d o nly fo ur p ages to i n dustr ia l c o nce rn s, c o m pare d to th re e h undre d o n c o nta gio us d is e ase s. Id . a t 2 1. F ee s u ggests th at th e p ro fe ssio n to ok a w ro ng tu rn b y fo cu sin g o n in div id ual d is e ase c a usin g a gents ra th er th an la rg er s o cia l c o nte xts . S ee id . a t 2 12 2 ( d ecry in g th e la ck o f m ajo rit y c o m mit m ent to s tu dy m ore th an ju st th e im media te p hysic a l im pact o f th e v a rio us "d is e ase c a usin g o rg anis m s"). H ow eve r, w e b elie ve th at th e m arg in al n et v a lu e fr o m a ddre ssin g in div id ual d is e ase s w as s o la rg e th at th e p ro fe ssio n's d ir e ctio n w as m ore th e r e su lt o f p ic kin g " lo w h angin g fr u it " th an s im ply b ad in te lle ctu al c h oic e s.
8 6. See genera lly Am . Lung Ass'n , In te rs tit ia l Lung Dis e ase , h ttp ://w ww.c h esh ir e m ed.c o m /p ro gra m s/p u lr e hab/ip f.h tm l (la st vis it e d M ar. 29, 2006) (d is cu ssin g th e v a rio us c a use s o f th e d is e ase a nd n otin g th e la ck o f u nders ta ndin g o f a ll o f th e o rig in s a nd tr e atm ent o f t h e d is e ase ); B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 8 7 ( n otin g th at " th ere a re n o p ulm onary fu nctio n te sts s p ecif ic to s ilic o sis ").
8 7. S ee B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 8 7 ( a d din g th at, d esp it e th e in abilit y o f th e te sts to id entif y c o nclu siv e ly t h e c a use o f th e d is e ase , w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n a cts s till b ase d ecis io ns o n X ra y a naly sis ).
8 8. S ee S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 2 8 ( d escrib in g th e r e actio n o f e m plo ye rs w ho a ssu m ed th at w ork e rs w ho b eca m e ill d esp it e th e e xis tin g s a fe ty p re ca utio ns w ere s o m ehow m ore s u sce ptib le to th e d is e ase , l e adin g to th e c o nclu sio n th at n o g re ate r s a fe ty e ff o rts w ere n ece ssa ry ).
8 9. S ee J O EL D . H OW ELL, T E C HNOLO G Y IN T H E H OSPIT A L: T R AN SFO RM IN G P A T IE N T C AR E IN T H E E AR LY T W EN TIE TH C EN TU RY 3 (1 995) ("[T ]h e e ntir e h osp it a l h ad b eco m e, b y 1 925, q uit e a ctiv e ly a nd s e lf c o nscio usly b ase d o n s cie nce ." ); id . a t 5 ( n otin g th e in cre ase d u se o f m ach in ery , in clu din g X ra y e quip m ent) .
9 0. S ee id . a t 4 04 2 (tr a ckin g th e e arly h is to ry o f ca lc u la tin g te ch nolo gy). T he u se o f su ch m eth ods r e fle cte d m ore th an te ch nolo gic a l ch ange — th ey als o re fle cte d th e gro w th of th e sa m e scie ntif ic m anagem ent te ch niq ues fo r re org aniz in g fa cto rie s. S ee id . a t 4 2, 5 5 (illu str a tin g th e s im ila rit ie s b etw een t h e re co rd ke epin g of hosp it a ls and genera l busin esse s, in clu din g th e m eth o ds co m mon in fa cto ry s e ttin gs).
9 1. S ee id . a t 1 03 ( s u m mariz in g th e fin din gs o f W ilh elm C onra d R ontg en, th e G erm an p hysic s p ro fe sso r w ho in ve nte d th e fir s t X ra y m ach in e); s e e a ls o R UTH B R EC HER & E D W AR D B R EC HER , T H E R AY S:
A H IS TO RY O F R AD IO LO GY IN T H E U NIT E D S TA T E S A N D C AN AD A 3 9 (1 969) (d escrib in g th e d is co ve ry o f X ra y te ch nolo gy).
9 2. S ee, e .g ., L aw re nce O . G ostin , T he R esu rg ent T uberc u lo sis E pid em ic in th e E ra o f A ID S: R efle ctio ns o n P ublic H ealt h . L aw , a nd S ocie ty , 5 4 M D. L . R EV. 1 , 4 7 ( 1 995) ( d escrib in g th e im pact o f c h anges a s a r e su lt o f th e d is co ve ry o f th e b acte rio lo gic a l b asis fo r tu berc u lo sis ). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 6/7 7 9 3. H OW ELL, s u pra n ote 8 9, a t 1 04. T he fir s t d uplic a tio n o f th e re su lt in th e U nit e d S ta te s to ok p la ce in J a nuary 1 896. B R EC HER & B R EC HER , su pra n ote 9 1, a t 11 1 2. T he A m eric a n X R ay Jo urn al, a m onth ly p u blic a tio n d evo te d to "p ra ctic a l X ra y w ork a nd a llie d a rts a nd s cie nce s" b egan p ublic a tio n in M ay 1 897. Id . a t 3 01.
9 4. S ee H OW ELL, s u pra n ote 8 9, a t 1 08 0 9 ( n otin g th at it to ok " d eca des" fo r th e te ch nolo gy to s p re ad to g eogra phic lo ca tio ns n ear " m ost A m eric a ns").
9 5. S ee id . a t 1 08 (q u otin g a m edic a l p ap er's a sse rtio n th at '" n o o ne w ill fo r a m om ent s u ppose th at th e v a cu um tu be a nd in ductio nc o il … w ill, o r e ve r c a n, d is p la ce th e s e nse o f to uch g uid ed b y a w ell b ala nce d a nd exp erie nce d m in d'" ). T his se ntim ent ca n als o be se en in th e le ngth y dela ys betw een hosp it a l a dm is sio n a nd r a dio gra phic e xa m in atio n fo r p atie nts in th e h osp it a l r e co rd s s tu die d b y H ow ell u ntil a t le ast t h e 1 920s. S ee id . a t 11 01 1 , 11 92 0 (c o nfir m in g th e ra th er in fr e quent u se o f X ra ys th ro ughout th e t e ch nolo gy's e arly e xis te nce ). A s H ow ell n ote s, "T he m ere e xis te nce o f a d ia gnostic te ch nolo gy d id n ot d ic ta te h ow o r w here it w ould b e u se d; b oth h osp it a l a nd m ach in e h ad to c h ange b efo re th e x r a y o r a ny o th er m ach in e c o uld s ig nif ic a ntly in flu ence h osp it a l c a re ." Id . a t 1 32.
9 6. S ee id . a t 1 1 81 9 ( re m ark in g th at th e w ar c re ate d a s h if t fr o m g la ss p la te s to film , s p urre d th e c re atio n o f p orta ble u nit s , a nd le d to th e d eve lo pm ent o f fa ste r film ).
9 7. F E E, s u pra n ote 8 5, a t 2 . A s F ee n ote s, B efore the twentieth century, there were few formal requirements for public health positions, no established career structures, no job security for public health officials, and no formalized ways of producing new knowledge. Public health positions were usually part‐time appointments at nominal salary; those who devoted much effort to public health typically did so on a voluntary basis.
I d . at 9. Sin ce in dustr ia l m edic in e la gged behin d public healt h , one m ay fa ir ly attr ib ute sim ila r c h ara cte ris tic s to th ose fe w in te re ste d in th e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een w ork a nd illn ess.
9 8. F or e xa m ple , th e R usse ll S age F ou ndatio n c o nducte d th e fir s t s yste m atic in ve stig atio ns o f a ccid ents a s a p art o f it s P it ts b urg h S urv e y. J A C Q UELIN E K AR NELL C ORN, P R OTE C TIN G T H E H EALT H O F W ORKER S: T H E A M ER IC AN C ONFE R EN CE O F G OVER NM EN TA L IN DUSTR IA L H YG IE N IS TS 1 9381 988, a t 2 (1 989). T he Illin ois O ccu patio nal D is e ase C om mis sio n p erfo rm ed th e fir s t su rv e y o f i n dustr ia l d is e ase in th e U nit e d S ta te s in 1 910. Id . a t 3 .
9 9. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 2 1.
1 00. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 3 1 (e xp la in in g th e im pact o f th is a rtic le o n th e r e co gnit io n in th e U nit e d S ta te s th at s ilic o sis w as a d is tin ct c o ndit io n).
1 01. W illia m W in th ro p B etts , C halic o sis P ulm onum o r C hro nic In te rs tit ia l P neu m onia In duce d b y S to ne D ust, 3 4 J . A M . M ED . A ss'N 7 0 (1 900); s e e a ls o C HER NIA C K, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 3 8 ("A n a ggre ssiv e , o fte n fa ta l fo rm o f s ilic o sis , c a use d b y m illin g o f th e q uartz d ust, w as id entif ie d in N eva da in th e 1 890s." ).
1 02. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 3 13 2 (d is cu ssin g th e s u cce ss o f th e s tu die s in b rin gin g th e d eva sta tin g e ff e cts o f in dustr ia l d usts to lig ht) .
1 03. Id . a t 3 3; s e e a ls o S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 6 06 1 (re la tin g th e in it ia tiv e ta ke n b y F re deric k H uff m an to in it ia te th e m ost c o m pre hensiv e s tu die s a t th e tim e); B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 6 ( n otin g th e e nd o f s a le s o f in su ra nce to a sb esto s w ork e rs in 1 918 a s p ro of o f th e in su ra nce in dustr y 's k n ow le dge o f t h e h aza rd s).
1 04. D ER IC KSO N, s u pra n ote 8 0, a t 5 2.
1 05. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 2 5.
1 06. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 4 8. A D epartm ent o f L abor re port a ddre sse d "T he P ro ble m o f D ust P hth is is in th e G ra nit e S to ne In dustr y " in M ay 1 922. C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 7 . 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 7/7 7 1 07. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 4 8.
1 08. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 2 .
1 09. S ee S ELLE R S, su pra n ote 4 5, a t 1 09 ("T he e arly 1 910s w ere a tim e o f in te nse ch ange a nd u pheava l in th e work p la ce . Restr u ctu rin g atte m pts by scie ntif ic managers help ed pro vo ke an u npre ce dente d str ik e w ave as exp ert appro ach es to th e th re ate ned w ork e r body co ntin ued to p ro lif e ra te ." ). B ut n ot a ll te ch nolo gic a l c h ange in cre ase s h aza rd s. S ee B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 5 15 2 ( lis tin g te ch nolo gic a l c h anges th at h ave re duce d h aza rd s); id . a t 5 4 (d is cu ssin g s o m e im pro ve m ents in o ccu patio nal h ealt h fr o m te ch nolo gic a l c h ange).
1 1 0. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 5 4 ("T he n in ete enth c e ntu ry m old ers s a w th em se lv e s a s a rtis ts a s w ell a s a rtis a ns." ).
1 11 . S ee id . a t 5 05 1.
1 1 2. Id . a t 5 2.
1 1 3. S ee D AV ID M ONTG OM ER Y, W ORKER S' C ONTR OL IN A M ER IC A: S TU D IE S IN T H E H IS TO RY O F W ORK, TE C HNOLO GY, A N D LA B O R S TR UGGLE S 161 7 (1 979) (d is cu ssin g cra ft w ork e rs ' r e sis ta nce to atte m pts to lim it th eir auto nom y th ro ugh "d aily se lf a sse rtio n on th e jo b" ra th er th an o rg aniz e d s tr ik e s); id . a t 2 3 ( d escrib in g th e b attle b etw een s to ve c o m panie s a nd th e m old ers ' u nio n); id . a t 2 6 ("M ost im porta nt o f a ll, n ew m eth ods o f in dustr ia l m anagem ent u nderm in ed th e v e ry fo undatio n o f c ra fts m en's fu nctio nal a uto nom y." ).
1 1 4. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 2 6 ( fo otn ote s o m it te d).
1 1 5. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 5 2 ( n otin g, h ow eve r, th e r e su lt in g in cre ase in th e a m ount o f d angero us d ust p artic le s th ese n ew m ach in es th re w in to th e a ir ).
1 1 6. S ee id . a t 5 6 ( e xp la in in g th e lin k b etw een th e m ech aniz a tio n o f th e m old in g p ro ce ss a nd th e d eclin in g a uto nom y o f s kille d m old ers ).
1 1 7. Id . a t 6 2.
1 1 8. S ee id . a t 6 0 (o utlin in g th e u nio n's a rg um ent th at it s h ould n ot h ave to b ear th e fin ancia l b urd en o f p oor w ork e r h ealt h d ue to m ech aniz a tio n); id . a t 6 3 ( n otin g u nio n a rg um ents a ga in st a llo w in g m ech aniz e d p ro ce sse s); id . a t 7 3 ("L abor a nd m anag em ent d efin ed s ilic o sis in te rm s in cre asin gly re m ove d fr o m th e d is co urs e o f p ublic h ealt h a nd m edic in e." ); D ER IC KSO N, s u pra n ote 8 0, a t 1 62 ( d escrib in g th e m ajo r r o le p la ye d b y m in in g u nio ns in silic o sis is su es). In te re stin gly , th e u nio ns u se d th e h ealt h is su e in p art to e lim in ate c o m petit io n fr o m w om en, b y a rg uin g th at fe m ale w ork e rs s h ould b e e xclu ded fr o m jo bs w it h d ust e xp osu re s to p ro te ct th eir h ealt h . F or e xa m ple , "[a ]t it s a nnual c o nve ntio n in 1 9 12, th e [m ould m ake rs ] u nio n r e so lv e d 't o u se e ve ry e ff o rt to b rin g a bout th e e lim in atio n' o f th e e m plo ym ent o f w om en in fo undrie s b eca use 't w entie th c e ntu ry c iv iliz a tio n is n ot in fa vo r o f th e d ra ggin g d ow n o f A m eric a n w om anhood s o t h at th e fo undry m en c a n in cre ase th eir p ro fit s .'" R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 6 1 ( q uotin g N EW YO RK STA T E , 3 SEC OND R EP. O F TH E FA C TO RY IN VESTIG AT IO NS C OM MIS SIO N 8 13(1 913)).
1 1 9. S ee W IT T, s u p ra n ote 4 9, a t 3 2 (e xp la in in g e m plo ye e re sis ta nce to th e im ple m enta tio n o f s a fe ty m easu re s).
1 20. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 6 4.
1 21. Id . a t 6 46 5.
1 22. S ee R OBER T H . Z IE G ER , A M ER IC AN W ORKER S, A M ER IC AN U N IO NS 3 2 (2 d e d. 1 994) ( d is cu ssin g th e p hysic a l b re aku ps o f s h ops a s w ork e rs w ere s u m moned to v a rio us u nio ns).
1 23. C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 5 .
1 24. Id . a t 5 6 .
1 25. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 6 1.
1 26. Id . a t 5 0.
1 27. S ee id . a t 5 2 ( d escrib in g E ly 's a sse rtio n th at th e o rg aniz a tio n w ould u se " s cie ntif ic s tu dy" to c o nvin ce l a w m ake rs to b ette r p ro te ct e m plo ye es). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 8/7 7 1 28. Id . a t 5 3.
1 29. Id . a t 6 0.
1 30. D avid R osn er & G era ld M ark o w it z , T he E arly M ove m ent fo r O ccu patio nal S afe ty a nd H ealt h , 1 900 1 917, in S IC KN ESS A N D H EALT H IN A M ER IC A: R EAD IN GS IN T H E H IS TO RY O F M ED IC IN E A N D P U BLIC H EALT H 4 67, 4 69 (J u dit h W alz e r L eavit t & R onald L . N um bers e ds., 3 d e d. re v. 1 997) ("T he p ublis h ers o f th ese m agazin es a nd b ooks w ere n ot p rin tin g th is m ate ria l a s a p ublic s e rv ic e . R ath er, th ey r e co gniz e d th at it c o uld s e ll m agazin es .… ").
1 31. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 7 2.
1 32. R osn er & M ark o w it z , s u pra n ote 1 30, a t 4 78 ("F or a lm ost a d eca de, e xp osé s o f in hum ane w ork in g c o ndit io ns a nd d em ands fo r re fo rm w ere re gula r fe atu re s in n ew sp apers a nd m agazin es a cro ss th e c o untr y ." ).
1 33. S ee C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 6 7 ( n am in g s e ve ra l s u ch o rg aniz a tio ns, in clu din g th e N atio nal C ouncil f o r In dustr ia l S afe ty (1 913), th e In dustr ia l H yg ie ne S ectio n o f th e A m eric a n P ublic H ealt h A sso cia tio n ( 1 914), th e C onfe re nce B oard o f P hysic ia ns in In dustr y ( 1 915), a nd th e A m eric a n A sso cia tio n o f In dustr ia l P hysic ia ns a nd S urg eons ( 1 916)). T he p hysic ia ns g ro up's m em bers h ip s o are d fr o m 1 25 in 1 916 to 6 00 b y t h e e nd o f W orld W ar I. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 1 45.
1 34. S elle rs , s u pra n ote 4 7, a t 2 36.
1 35. Id . a t 2 37.
1 36. Id . a t 2 38; s e e a ls o C HER NIA C K, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 3 8 ( "In 1 915 th e fir s t w ork m en's c o m pensa tio n l a w s p ro vid ed im plic it , th ough n ot e xp lic it , c o ve ra ge fo r s ilic o sis ." ).
1 37. C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 8 ; s e e a ls o S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 1 454 6 ( d is cu ssin g th e in te re st in m edic in e s p urre d b y la bor s h orta ges).
1 38. S elle rs , s u pra n ote 4 7, a t 2 36 (re vie w in g th e e nfo rc e m ent p ow ers o f s ta te a gencie s fo llo w in g th e w ar).
1 39. Id . a t 2 53.
1 40. S ee id . a t 2 39 ( d is cu ssin g th e B ure au o f L abor's s u pport o f in ve stig atio ns in to th e p hosp horu s m atc h a nd le ad in dustr ie s in th e e arly tw entie th c e ntu ry ); C HER NIA C K, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 3 8 ("B y 1 914 th e F edera l B ure au o f M in es h ad b egun to re co m mend y e arly p hysic a l e xa m in atio ns fo r w ork e rs e xp ose d to d usts c o nta in in g s ilic a ." ).
1 41. S elle rs , s u pra n ote 4 7, a t 2 46.
1 42. Id . at 240. N o m entio n of occu patio nal fa cto rs th at m ig ht le ad to fib ro id phth is is , a silic o sis p re dece sso r, a ppeare d in a w id ely u se d m edic a l te xtb ook in th e 1 880s, fo r e xa m ple . C f. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 3 13 3 ( re co untin g th e h is to ry o f e arly m edic a l te xtb ooks o n o ccu patio nal d is e ase s).
1 43. S elle rs , s u pra n ote 4 7, a t 2 47.
1 44. S ee R osn er & M ark o w it z , s u pra n ote 1 30, a t 4 78 ( "T he m ove m ent to c o ntr o l w ork p la ce h aza rd s w as w id esp re ad, e nco m passin g a v a rie ty o f d if f e re nt g ro ups." ).
1 45. W IT T, su pra note 49, at 1000 1 (e m phasiz in g th e fa ilu re s of re gula to ry appro ach es and th e i n cre asin g m om entu m fo r a fo cu s o n in su ra nce a s a w ay to e nsu re w ork e r s a fe ty ).
1 46. S ee B AR TH , su pra n ote 2 3, a t 6 1 ("T he e sse ntia l q uid p ro q uo o f [w ork e rs ' co m pensa tio n]… i n vo lv e d th e a bro gatio n o f th e in ju re d e m plo ye es' rig ht to p urs u e a co m monla w a ctio n a gain st th eir e m plo ye r. In re tu rn th ey re ce iv e d a n a ss u ra nce o f a s p eedy a nd c e rta in a w ard in a m ounts s p ecif ie d b y l a w ." ); C RYSTA L E ASTM AN , W ORKA C CID EN TS A N D T H E L A W 2 162 0 (2 d e d. 1 916) (d is cu ssin g e xp lic it ly th e q uid p ro q uo in a r e port fo r th e R usse ll S age F oundatio n a nd h elp in g b uild p ublic s u pport fo r w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s yste m s). P ublic in te re st re gula tio n th eoris ts s u ggest th at w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n l e gis la tio n deve lo ped out of sta te le gis la tu re s' co nce rn fo r em plo ye es, "m any of w hom w ere re ce nt i m mig ra nts o r fo rm er s la ve s a nd h ard ly in a p osit io n to s tr ik e h ard b arg ain s w it h th e in dustr ia l ty co ons o f t h e da y." M cG AR IT Y & S H APIR O, su pra note 50, at 17. Left unsp ecif ie d, how eve r, is how th ese p ow erle ss e m plo ye e s co nvin ce d th e m em bers o f le gis la tu re s to d efy th e in dustr ia l ty co ons a nd p ass 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 4 9/7 7 l e gis la tio n a gain st th e ty co ons' in te re sts . T he p ublic c h oic e a cco unt is s u perio r, in o ur v ie w , b eca use it e xp la in s th e ris e o f th e le gis la tio n w it h out re so rt to e pis o dic d efia nce b y le gis la tu re s o f p ow erfu l in te re sts t h at a re o th erw is e b elie ve d to c o ntr o l e ve nts .
1 47. R osn er & M ark o w it z , s u pra n ote 1 30, a t 4 79.
1 48. S ee g enera lly Jo hn M . K le eberg , F ro m S tr ic t L ia bilit y to W ork e rs ' C om pensa tio n: T he P ru ssia n R ailr o ad Law , th e G erm an Lia bilit y A ct, and th e In tr o ductio n of B is m arc k's A ccid ent In su ra nce in G erm any, 1 8381 884, 3 6. N .Y .U . J . IN T'L L . & P O L. 5 3 ( 2 003) ( d escrib in g in nova tio ns in c re atin g w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n).
1 49. S ee B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 6 7 (n otin g th at th e la te ncy p erio d fo r s ilic o sis is b etw een fo ur a nd t w enty y e ars ).
1 50. S ee id . at 63 (d is cu ssin g pro ble m s th at lo ng la te ncy perio ds pose fo r w ork e rs ' co m pensa tio n g enera lly ).
1 51. T he n ew le gis la tio n, w hic h b egan w it h N ew Y ork 's a doptio n o f a w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s ta tu te in 1 910 a nd re ach ed fr u it io n in 1 963 w it h th e a doptio n o f a sta tu te b y e ve ry in dustr ia liz e d sta te , th us p re ce ded w id esp re a d s ilic o sis . S ee A R TH UR L A R SO N & L E X K . L A R SO N, L A R SO N'S W ORKER S' C OM PEN SAT IO N L A W § 2 .0 7.0 8 ( 2 003 ) ( d escrib in g th e d eve lo pm ent o f w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n a cts in t h e U nit e d S ta te s).
1 52. S ee W IT T, s u p ra n ote 4 9, a t 1 262 7 (to utin g h er e ff o rts a nd h er in flu ence o n th e in tr o ductio n o f s ta tis tic a l s cie nce to w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s ta tu te s).
1 53. Id . a t 1 42.
1 54. S ee id . at 145 (a ddre ssin g th e im pact on th e in tr o ductio n of pre ve ntiv e m easu re s by m akin g e m plo ye rs r e sp onsib le fo r in ju rie s).
1 55. Id . a t 1 87.
1 56. D AV ID M . K EN N ED Y, F R EED OM F R OM F E AR : T H E A M ER IC AN P EO PLE IN D EPR ESSIO N A N D W AR , 1 9291 945, a t 5 5 (1 999). A t th e e nd o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry , s ta te a nd lo ca l e xp endit u re s w ere a bout th e sa m e siz e a s fe dera l e xp endit u re s, w hic h n ow to ta le d m ore th an 2 0% o f th e G ro ss N atio nal P ro duct. Id .
1 57. Z IE G ER , su pra n ote 1 22, a t 5 6 ; se e a ls o K EN NED Y, su pra n ote 1 56, a t 2 2 ("[I]n th e p uls in g i n dustr ia l c it ie s, v ir tu a lly a ll A m eric a ns d ra m atic a lly im pro ve d th eir s ta ndard s o f liv in g o ve r th e c o urs e o f t h e p ost W orld W ar I d eca de." ).
1 58. K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 2 1 ( "A c a r th at c o st th e a ve ra ge w ork e r th e e quiv a le nt o f n early tw o y e ars ' w ages b efo re th e F ir s t W orld W ar c o uld b e p urc h ase d fo r a bout th re e m on th s' e arn in gs b y th e la te 1 920s." ).
1 59. S ee Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 6 ( c e le bra tin g th e r is in g p ro sp erit y th at h ad b ro ught a n e nd to th e c ycle o f u nre st a nd v io le nce ).
1 60. S ee K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 2 7 ( d escrib in g th e d eath o f th e o rg aniz e d la bor m ove m ent a t th e h ands o f in cre ase d e ff o rts b y e m plo ye rs to o ff e r m ore a ttr a ctiv e b enefit s ); M ONTG OM ER Y, s u pra n ote 1 1 3, a t 3 3 (s tr e ssin g th e g oals o f p ers o n nel m anagers to "p acif y " th e c o nce rn s o f th e w ork e rs to e nsu re g re ate r p ro ductiv it y ).
1 61. Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 7 .
1 62. Id . a t 2 3.
1 63. Id .
1 64. K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 2 5; s e e a ls o A LA N B R IN KLE Y, T H E E N D O F R EFO RM : N EW D EAL L IB E R ALIS M IN R EC ESSIO N A N D W AR 2 02 (1 995) (n otin g th e A m eric a n F edera tio n o f L abor ( A FL) b eca m e d is e nch ante d in p art b eca u se o f a " h is to ric r e lu cta nce to r e ly o n g ove rn m ent a ssis ta nce ( a r e lu cta nce b orn o f th e c o nvic tio n th at o nce la bor b eca m e d ependent o n th e s ta te it c o uld b e — a nd w ould b e — o ppre sse d b y th e s ta te )"). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 0/7 7 1 65. S ee B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 9 29 3 ( a naly zin g a b rie f h is to ry o f w ork m en's c o m pensa tio n la w s th at d id n ot in clu de o ccu patio nal d is e ase ).
1 66. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 1 46.
1 67. G EO R GE G . D AV IS E T A L., T H E P N EU M ONOKO NIO SES (S IL IC OSIS ): B IB LIO GRAPH Y A N D L A W S 7 (1 935) (n otin g th e in cre ase in lit ig atio n o ve r s ilic a in th e 1 930s). M anu fa ctu re rs in N ew Y ork in 1 925 s u pporte d a b ill to s to p th e "h undre ds" o f c o m mon la w s u it s o ve r s ilic o sis b eca use "h undre ds o f t h ousa nds o f d olla rs " h ad a lr e ady b een s p ent b y th en in s e ttle m ents . Id . a t 5 0.
1 68. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 3 (s ta tin g th at in 1 933 "n ew sp apers , m agazin es, a nd p ro fe ssio nal jo urn als w ere fille d w it h s to rie s a bout th e th re at o f a n ew s co urg e — s ilic o sis — th at w as c rip plin g w ork e rs in a w id e v a rie ty o f in du str ie s"). F or e xa m ple , in N ew Y ork S ta te in 1 934, th ere w ere $ 50 m illio n in d am ages c la im ed in s ilic o sis s u it s , p ro m ptin g e ff o rts to b rin g th e c o ndit io n in to th e w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s yste m . D AV IS , s u pra n ote 1 67, a t 3 0; s e e a ls o R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 9 19 6 (d escrib in g th e cris is in N ew Y ork ). In M assa ch use tts , th e co sts o f co ve rin g silic o sis cla im s r e quir e d $ 2 p er $ 100 o f p ayro ll fe e o n to p o f th e $ 2.7 0 p er $ 100 o ccu patio nal d is e ase r a te fo r fo undrie s, a lm ost d oublin g th e c o st o f th e in su ra nce . D AV IS , s u pra n ote 1 67, a t 5 1.
1 69. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 4 .
1 70. Id . a t 7 9 ( q uotin g fr o m a 1 930e ra in su ra nce c o m pany's tw enty fif th a nnual r e port to it s p olic yh old ers a bout th e s e rio usn ess o f s ilic o sis c la im s).
1 71. D AV IS , s u pra n ote 1 67, a t 7 5.
1 72. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 7 87 9 ( d escrib in g th e n egativ e im pact o f th e s u it s o n in dustr y it s e lf a nd e ve n w ork e rs a s a g ro up); B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 4 (n otin g, a m ong fa cto rs i n cre asin g silic o sis cla im s, "a n a ppare nt e ff o rt to fin d so m e so urc e o f in co m e b y th e u nem plo ye d, a n um ber o f w hom h ad h ad th e d is e ase fo r s o m e tim e b ut c o ntin ued to w ork u ntil e co nom ic c o ndit io ns c a use d th em to b e la id o ff ') .
1 73. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 8 1.
1 74. R osn er a nd M ark o w it z 's s tu dy lin ks th e ris e o f s ilic o sis to a c o m bin atio n o f fa cto rs . F ir s t, th ey n ote t h at fr o m th e la te 1 800s u ntil th e e arly 1 900s, m edic a l u nders ta ndin g o f d ust re la te d d is e ase s fo cu se d o n t u berc u lo sis . S ee id . a t 1 52 1 (d escrib in g th e e arly s tr u ggle o f th e s cie ntif ic c o m munit y to c o m e to a n u nders ta ndin g a bout th e o rig in s o f th e d is e ase ). E arly in th e tw entie th c e ntu ry , e vid ence b egan to e m erg e, f ir s t in B rit a in a nd la te r in th e U nit e d S ta te s, th at c a st d oubt o n th e b acte rio lo gic a l m odel, b ut th e m edic a l c o nse nsu s o n th e b a cte rio lo gic a l m odel re m ain ed. S ee id . a t 2 12 2 (e xp la in in g th e s lo w m ove to w ard a b ro ader u nders ta ndin g o f th e d is e ase ).
1 75. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 2 04.
1 76. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 5 ; s e e id . a t 7 6 ( s ta tin g th at, d urin g th e D epre ssio n, " [ a ]s w ork e rs w ere th ro w n o ut o f w ork a n d fa m ilie s fo rc e d to s u pport th e d is a ble d o n m eager o r n o in co m e, t h e arg um ents about re sp onsib ilit y fo r in dustr ia l dis e ase and dis a bilit y to ok on a new urg ency and m eanin g").
1 77. Id . a t 7 7.
1 78. Id . a t 7 8 (q uotin g J a m es D . H acke tt, S ilic o sis , 1 1 N .Y . D EP'T O F L A B. IN D US. B U LL. 4 75 (D ec.
1 932)).
1 79. Id . a t 8 7.
1 80. C HAR LE S LE VEN STE IN & G REG ORY F. D ELA U RIE R , TH E C OTTO N D UST PA PER S:
S C IE N CE, P O LIT IC S, A N D P O W ER IN T H E " D IS C OVER Y" O F B YSSIN OSIS IN T H E U .S . 4 3 ( 2 002).
I n te re stin gly , th ese s ta te a gencie s s o ugh t e xp anded fu ndin g d urin g th e w ar y e ars o n th e g ro unds th at w ar p ro ductio n re quir e d m ore a tte ntio n to e m plo ye e h ealt h e ff o rts . Id . a t 4 546. T his s o urc e o f fu ndin g s h if te d t h e lo ca tio n o f s ta te in dustr ia l d is e ase c o ntr o l fr o m s ta te la bor d epartm ents to s ta te h ealt h d epartm ents .
R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, su pra n ote 7 9, a t 1 26; se e a ls o In te rv ie w w it h L eonard J. G old w ate r, in C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 1 47 ( a ddin g th at s ta te p ro gra m s w ere m ade p ossib le b y S ocia l S ecu rit y m oney). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 1/7 7 1 81. F or a d is cu ssio n o f th e G aule y B rid ge d is a ste r, s e e in fr a n ote s 1 982 02 a nd a cco m panyin g te xt.
1 82. S ee S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 2 04 (a ddre ssin g th e d angers a sso cia te d w it h th e c o m bin atio n o f t h e X r a y's lim it e d d ia gnostic u se fu ln ess w it h d octo rs ' lim it e d X ra y r e adin g s kills ).
1 83. D AV IS , s u pra n ote 1 67, a t 5 2.
1 84. S ee, e .g ., F re deric k S now K ello g, S ilic o sis C la im s — A N ew P ro ble m in th e In su ra nce F ie ld , N .J .
L .J ., 1 935, a t 1 ; R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 7 0 ( e xp la in in g th at th e fo undry in dustr y w as " u nder p re ssu re fr o m th e in su ra nce in dustr y , w hic h w as th re ate nin g to w it h dra w it s lia bilit y c o ve ra ge").
1 85. D AV IS , s u pra n ote 1 67, a t 3 3; s e e a ls o id . a t 7 3 (n otin g th at "[a ]n e pid em ic o f s u it s a ggre gatin g $ 974,0 00 a gain st o ne c o m pany a lo ne, h ave b een file d in M is so uri" fo r w ork re la te d s ilic o sis c la im s).
1 86. See LA BO R LA W IN FO . SER V., U.S . DEP'T OF LA BO R, OCC UPAT IO NALD IS EASE L E G IS LA T IO N IN T H E U NIT E D S TA T E S, 1 936, a t 1 3 (1 938) (d escrib in g th e in it ia tio n o f o ccu patio nal d is e ase c o ve ra ge fo r " d ust d is e ase s").
1 87. S ee M ars h v . In dus. A ccid ent C om m'n o f C al. , 1 8 P .2 d 9 33, 9 38 ( C al. 1 933) ( b asin g th e d ate o f th e i n ju ry o n th e d ate it b eco m es d is co ve ra ble th ro ugh " th e e xe rc is e o f r e aso nable c a re a nd d ilig ence ").
1 88. S ee S ilic o sis , T IM E, J a n. 6 , 1 936, a t 5 8 ( d is cu ssin g th e M ars h c a se ); s e e a ls o T he S ilic o sis P ro ble m , N .Y . T IM ES, A pr. 2 2, 1 936, a t 2 2 ("F ew lia bilit y co m panie s w ill a ssu m e a silic o sis ris k a t a ny b ut a p ro hib it iv e p re m iu m ." ).
1 89. A re pre se nta tiv e o f th e A sso cia tio n o f C asu alt y a nd S ure ty E xe cu tiv e s, fo r e xa m ple , re porte d th at s ilic o sis c o sts "th re a te n[] th e ru in o f m any A m eric a n in dustr ie s." T he S ilic o sis M enace , L IT E R AR Y D IG ., D ec. 1 5, 1 934, a t 1 5.
1 90. S ee U .S . D ep 't o f L abor, C om mit te es fo r P re ve ntio n o f S ilic o sis in In dustr y , 4 2 M ONTH LY L A B.
R EV. 1 545, 1 546 (1 936) (q uotin g L abor S ecre ta ry F ra ncis P erk in s o n th e in te re sts o f a ll se cto rs in r e so lv in g lia bilit y c ris is a nd e xp la in in g th e g re at in te re st o f m any in dustr ia l a nd le gal g ro ups in h ow to h andle th e s ilic o sis p ro ble m ).
1 91. K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 1 79.
1 92. Id . a t 1 77 (q uotin g A rth ur S ch le sin ger). K ennedy n ote s th at J o hnso n's c o m ments w ere s o m etim es h ard to in te rp re t. F or e xa m ple , u pon b ein g a ppoin te d, h e a nnounce d th at, "It w ill b e re d fir e a t fir s t a nd d ead c a ts a fte rw ard ." Id .
1 93. Id . a t 1 85; s e e B R IN KLE Y, s u pra n ote 1 64, a t 3 9 ( s u m mariz in g c o m pla in ts a bout N atio nal R eco ve ry A dm in is tr a tio n ( N RA) c o des).
1 94. K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 1 84.
1 95. Id . a t 1 84.
1 96. Id . a t 2 181 9.
1 97. Id . a t 2 42.
1 98. B ala a n & B anks, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 4 35. C iv il s u it s b y th e w ork e rs w ere la rg ely s e ttle d o ut o f c o urt.
S ee a ls o S ilic o sis : T unnelin g T hro ugh a n A tm osp here o f D eadly D ust, N EW SW EEK, J a n. 2 5, 1 936, a t 3 3, 3 4 ( d is cu ssin g g enera lly th e c a se a nd r e su lt in g s e ttle m ents ).
1 99. S ee B ala an & B anks, su pra note 71, at 435; P R IM ER , su pra note 9, at 25 (d escrib in g th e c o m posit io n o f s ilic ic r o ck a s m ore th an tw oth ir d s q uartz ). C hern ia ck p ro vid es th e m ost th oro ugh a cco unt.
H e n ote s th at e stim ate s o f th e s ilic a c o nte nt s h ow ed it w as a t le ast 9 0% . C HER NIA C K, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 4 1. C hern ia ck a ls o s u ggests th at th e d eath to ll m ay h ave b een a s h ig h a s 7 64. Id . a t 1 04.
2 00. T he s to ry o f G aule y B rid ge c a m e to lig ht w hen a " y o ung N ew Y ork p la yw rig ht" w as tr a ve lin g th ro ugh W est V ir g in ia a nd g ave a m in er a rid e. V illa ge o f L iv in g D ead, L IT E R AR Y D IG ., J a n. 2 5, 1 936, a t 6 .
L earn in g o f th e " v illa ge o f th e liv in g d ead," w here m any s till liv in g tu nnel w ork e rs w it h s ilic o sis r e sid ed, th e p la yw rig ht w ro te "a g rim s h ort o f a m in er s lo w ly s u ff o ca tin g" fr o m s ilic o sis fo r N ew M asse s, a ra dic a l p aper. Id . A la bor p aper, P eople 's P re ss, th en p ic ke d u p th e s to ry a nd p ublis h ed a n onfic tio n a cco unt. Id .
U .S . R epre se nta tiv e V it o M arc a nto nio (R N .Y .) , a m an "[d ]a rk h air e d, o uts p o ke n, sim ple in d re ss, … [ w ho] has alr e ady im pre sse d his co lle agues w it h his earn estn ess," th en la unch ed a co ngre ssio nal 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 2/7 7 i n ve stig atio n. Id . M arc a nto nio , la te r te rm ed " th e m ost e le cto ra lly s u cce ssfu l r a dic a l p olit ic ia n in A m eric a ," in h is fir s t te rm in C ongre ss p ro pose d '" re openin g a nd o pera tin g s h ut d ow n fa cto rie s b y a nd fo r th e b enefit o f t h e unem plo ye d pro ducin g fo r use in ste ad of pro fit .'" Vit o M arc a nto nio : His Lif e and M ilie u, h ttp ://u se rs .r c n .c o m /r e dpost/lif e .h tm l (la st v is it e d M ar. 2 9, 2 006). T he m ost c o m pre hensiv e b io gra phy o f M arc a nto nio d escrib ed h im a s " fr e quently th e s o le s p oke sm an in C ongre ss fo r A m eric a 's r a dic a l le ft" fr o m 1 936 to 1950. A LA N S C HAFFE R , V IT O M AR CAN TO NIO , R AD IC AL IN C ONGRESS 1 (1 966).
M arc a nto nio r e ad th e s to ry in P eople 's P re ss, w hic h s p urre d th e h earin gs. S ilic o sis , s u pra n ote 1 98, a t 3 3.
M arc a nto nio la te r c a lle d th e R in ehart & D ennis C o., w hic h c o nstr u cte d th e tu nnel, "w ors e th an D illin ger a nd A l C apone." U .S . D ep't o f L abor, S ilic o sis D eath s A ssa ile d in th e H ouse , C om mit te es fo r P re ve ntio n o f S ilic o sis in In dustr y , 4 2 M ONTH LY L A B. R EV. 1 545, 1 546 ( 1 936). In a n in te re stin g s id e n ote , o ne o f th e w it n esse s w as a s cie ntis t fr o m th e N YU M edic a l S ch ool w ho w as re cru it e d to te stif y in re sp onse to a r e quest fr o m M arc a nto nio . T he s cie ntis t's m ain m otiv e in te stif y in g w as " a g ir lf r ie n d in W ash in gto n" w hom h e th ought w ould b e im pre sse d b y h is " b ein g a b ig s h ot a nd te stif y in g b efo re a c o ngre ssio nal c o m mit te e." W hen h e p ro duce d lu ng sp ecim ens to sh ow th e co m mit te e, "th ey e m ptie d th e ro om ." In te rv ie w w it h L eonard J . G old w ate r, in C ORN, s u pra n o te 9 8, a t 1 42.
2 01. C HER NIA C K, su pra note 71, at 109 (q uotin g W IL LIA M G . C OLE & LE W IS G . C OLE , P N UEM OCONIO SIS ( S IL IC OSIS ): T H E S TO RY O F D USTY L U NGS 3 ( 1 940)).
2 02. C arlt o n S kin ner, S ilic o sis D eath s to H aste n L egis la tio n C ontr o llin g O ccu patio nal D is e ase s, W ALL S T.
J ., F eb. 2 9, 1 936, a t 4 .
2 03. In ve stig atio n R ela tin g to H ealt h C ondit io ns of W ork e rs Em plo ye d in th e C onstr u ctio n and M ain te nance o f P ublic U tilit ie s B efo re th e H . C om m. o n L abor, 7 4th C ong. ( 1 936).
2 04. S ee LA BO R LA W IN FO . S ER V., su pra note 186, at 5 (d escrib in g th e natio nal co nfe re nce s); C HER NIA C K, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 1 09 ( n otin g th at th e c o nfe re nce s b egan le ss th an th re e m onth s a fte r th e c o ngre ssio nal s u bco m mit te e is su ed it s r e port) ; U .S . D ep't o f L abor, C om mit te es fo r P re ve ntio n o f S ilic o sis i n In dustr y , 4 2 M ONTH LY L A B. R EV. 1 5 45, 1 5454 6 (J u ne 1 936) (d escrib in g th e c o nte nt o f th e d ebate w it h in th e c o nfe re nce s).
2 05. T he R oose ve lt A dm in is tr a tio n so ught to enco ura ge a co m pro m is e , as it had th ro ugh it s oth er a tte m pts a t u sin g b oard s to n egotia te b etw een la bor a nd m anagem ent. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 2 18. A fe dera l s o lu tio n c o uld n ot b e im pose d, a s th e R oose ve lt A dm in is tr a tio n h ad p re vio usly a tte m pte d o n o th er is su es, b eca use th e S upre m e C ourt h ad re ce ntly s tr u ck d ow n th e N atio nal In dustr ia l R eco ve ry A ct a s u nco nstit u tio nal. Id . a t 1 02. A s a n e xa m ple o f th e b arg ain in g m ade p ossib le , th e s ilic o sis c o nfe re nce s pro duce d a ca ll fo r unif o rm sta te le gis la tio n on th e pro ble m "[b ]e ca use of co m petit io n b etw een th e s a m e o r s im ila r in dustr ie s in v a rio us S ta te s." U .S . D ep't o f L abor, P ro gra m fo r P re ve ntio n a nd C om pensa tio n o f S ilic o sis , 4 4 M ONTH LY L A B. R EV. 9 09, 9 13 ( 1 937).
2 06. S ee B R IN KLE Y, su pra n ote 1 64, a t 3 5 (d is cu ssin g th e co rp ora tis t id eolo gy o f m any N ew D eal r e fo rm ers ); id . a t 4 0 ( d is cu ssin g R oose ve lt 's a tte m pts to s p onso r c o opera tiv e b usin essla bor p artn ers h ip s i n 1 938).
2 07. S ee L A BO R L A W IN FO . S ER V., s u pra n ote 1 86, a t 4 (d escrib in g th e d ebate o ve r w heth er s ta te s ta tu te s co ve rin g "in ju rie s" ra th er th an "a ccid ents " in clu ded o ccu patio nal d is e ase co ve ra ge); se e a ls o R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 8 6 (n otin g th e p ro ble m s w it h th e c o m pensa tio n s yste m fo r s ilic o sis re la te d d is e ase s w hen e xp erts d is a gre ed o n d ia gnose s, th e c o urs e o f th e d is e ase , a nd o th er k e y i s su es). T he b arg ain in g w as p artic u la rly e xp lic it in N ew Y ork , w here th e fir s t a tte m pt a t a le gis la tiv e s o lu tio n th re ate ned to b ankru pt th e in su ra nce in dustr y . S ee id . a t 9 49 5 (n otin g th e in adequacie s o f la te r c o m pro m is e s).
2 08. S ee id . a t 8 6 ( n otin g th at s ilic o sis " w as e xtr e m ely d if f ic u lt to d ia gnose ").
2 09. S ee id . a t 7 ( "[S ]o m e o f th e n ew in d ustr ia l u nio ns a dded s a fe ty a nd h ealt h is su es to m ore tr a dit io nal d em ands fo r s h orte r h ours a nd b ette r w ages." ); S elle rs , s u pra n ote 4 7, a t 2 37 ( a ddin g th at u nio ns in th e f ir s t p art o f th e tw entie th c e ntu ry c re ate d th eir o w n m edic a l c lin ic s fo r w ork e rs ); M ONTG OM ER Y, s u pra 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 3/7 7 n ote 1 1 3, a t 1 63 ( e xp la in in g th at u nio ns u se d h ealt h a nd s a fe ty is su es a s b ase s fo r " q uic kie " s tr ik e s d urin g p erio ds o f r e la tiv e ly h ig h la bor d em and in 1 936 a nd 1 937). T he U nit e d M in e W ork e rs , fo r e xa m ple , fo ught l o ng a nd h ard fo r th e in clu sio n o f s a fe ty p ro vis io ns in u nio n c o ntr a cts a nd fin ally g ain ed th eir in clu sio n in t h e A ppala ch ia n W age A gre em ent o f 1 941. C harle s A nth ony M orto n, T he U nit e d M in e W ork e rs a nd th e E sta blis h m ent o f C oal M in e S afe ty R egula tio ns 8 28 3 ( 1 954) ( u npublis h ed M .A . th esis , O hio S ta te U niv .) ( o n file w it h th e O hio S ta te U niv e rs it y L ib ra ry ).
2 10. T he p rim ary is su e fo r u nio ns in th e 1 930s w as g ain in g c o ntr o l o ve r th e w ork p la ce . S ee Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 2 8 ( "W ork e rs in th e 1 9 30s r e so lv e d to lim it m anageria l a uth orit y a nd to s a fe guard th eir s ta ndard s a nd s ta tu s w it h c le ar c o ntr a ctu al s a fe guard s." ).
2 11 . A s R osn er a nd M ark o w it z n ote , I t became clear that it was in the interest of a broad range of groups to try to defuse the social crisis surrounding silicosis. The insurance industry took the lead, but state government, labor unions, and the professional community all saw the social crisis of silicosis suits as a threat. It was necessary to remove the disease from the political arena and return it to the stewardship of the professionals. ROSNER & MARKOWITZ, supra note 79, at 82.
2 12. Id . a t 1 07. A cco rd in g to a n in te rv ie w w it h W arre n A . C ook, u nio ns a t th is tim e g enera lly d id n ot h ave i n dustr ia l h yg ie nis ts o n s ta ff . C ORN, s u p ra n ote 9 8, a t 1 35.
2 13. Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 2 6; s e e a ls o B R IN KLE Y, s u pra n ote 1 64, a t 2 01 ("T he ris e o f th e A m eric a n la bor m ove m ent h ad b een o ne o f th e m ost s tr ik in g s o cia l d eve lo pm ents o f th e 1 930s." ).
2 14. S ee Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 4 5, 5 5 (d escrib in g th e c o nflic t b etw een th e A FL a nd C ongre ss o f I n dustr ia l O rg aniz a tio ns ( C IO ) a s th ey c o m pete d o ve r m em bers h ip ); K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 3 01 0 3. B rin kle y n ote s th a t R oose ve lt v a cilla te d o ve r a ppro pria te p olic ie s a t th is p oin t. S ee B R IN KLE Y, s u pra n ote 1 64, a t 8 68 7 (illu str a tin g s o m e o f th e c rit ic is m o f th e P re sid ent o ve r h is la ck o f c o ncre te p la nnin g).
W it h in th e A dm in is tr a tio n, th e p erio d w as r e fe rre d to a s th e " s tr u ggle fo r a p ro gra m ." Id . a t 9 7.
2 15. B R IN KLE Y, s u pra n ote 1 64, a t 3 ,2 3.
2 16. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 1 33 ("T he N atio nal S ilic o sis C onfe re nce h ad n ot r e so lv e d th e s ilic o sis is su e. R ath er, it h ad s p urre d th e c o nte ndin g g ro ups to o rg aniz e n atio nally ." ).
2 17. S ee S kin ner, s u pra n ote 2 02, a t 4 (a ddre ssin g R ep. M arc a nto nio 's c a ll fo r fe dera lly im pose d s a fe ty s ta ndard s). T he th re at w as p ro bably s e en a s s ig nif ic a nt. R oose ve lt 's r h eto ric h ad ta ke n a h ard tu rn le ft in 1 935, a nd "h e n ow b ra ndis h ed th e m aile d fis t o f o pen p olit ic a l w arfa re " a t b usin ess. K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 2 78. B eca use th e m ain th re at to R oose ve lt la y to th e le ft in 1 935, h is s h if t le ftw ard w as a im ed a t F ath er C harle s C oughlin a nd G era ld L .K .. S m it h , th e su cce sso r to th e a ssa ssin ate d H uey L ong's p olit ic a l p ro gra m . Id . a t 2 83. R oose ve lt m ay n ot h ave m eant it , a s K ennedy c o nclu d es, b ut h is r h eto ric w as u ndoubte dly a la rm in g a t th e tim e. S ee id . a t 2 848 5 ( n otin g th at R oose ve lt " s u bstit u te d in su lt fo r in ju ry ").
2 18. C HER NIA C K, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 1 1 0; s e e a ls o R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 9 2 ( n otin g th at N ew York em plo ye rs in tr o duce d a bill m akin g silic o sis co ve ra b le under th e w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s yste m ).
2 19. S kin ner, s u pra n ote 2 02, a t 4 .
2 20. S ee C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 1 01 1 (c o ve rin g th e g ro w th o f s ta te in dustr ia l h yg ie ne u nit s ); U .S .
D ep't o f L abor, T hir d N atio nal C onfe re nce o n L abor L egis la tio n, 1 936, 4 3 M ON TH LY L A B. R EV. 1 438, 1 442 ( 1 936) ( tr a ckin g th e fo rm ula tio n o f th ese u nit s w it h in th e in div id ual s ta te h ealt h d epartm ents ).
2 21. C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 1 1 .
2 22. S ee id . a t 1 21 3 ( p ro vid in g s ta te b y s ta te fig ure s in ta ble fo rm ). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 4/7 7 2 23. S ee id . a t 1 5 (re co untin g th e h is to ry o f th is im porta nt o rg aniz a tio n). T he p erm anent o rg aniz a tio n o rg aniz e d in 1 938. L IO RA S ALT E R , M AN DAT E D S C IE N CE: S C IE N CE A N D T H E S C IE N TIS TS IN T H E M AKIN G O F S TA N DAR DS 3 7 ( 1 988).
2 24. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 1 06 ( d escrib in g th e in it ia l m eetin g o f th e in dustr y c o alit io n th e d ay b efo re c o ngre ssio nal h earin gs o n G aule y B rid ge b egan).
2 25. S ee Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 2 8 ( d escrib in g in dustr y 's s te adfa st r e sis ta nce to u nio nis m ).
2 26. F or e xa m ple , th e R oose ve lt A dm in is tr a tio n h ad c o nve ned a s e rie s o f c o nfe re nce s o f s ta te la bor d epartm ent r e pre se nta tiv e s a nd u nio n le aders b egin nin g in 1 934 to p ush s ta te s to d eve lo p a m odel la bor c o de. L ouis S ta rk , 4 4 S ta te s P re pare M odel L abor C ode, N .Y . T IM ES, F eb. 1 6, 1 934, a t 2 0. T hese c o nfe re nce s p ush ed "fo r th e le ve lin g u pw ard s" o f la bor le gis la tio n a cro ss sta te s. P re sid ent P ro m is e s C ontin ued U plif t o f L abor S ta ndard s, W ALL S T. J ., N ov. 1 0, 1 936, a t 8 . T he fir s t c o nfe re nce 's in dustr ia l h ealt h c o m mit te e a dopte d a re port a dvo ca tin g in dustr ia l d is e ase c o ve ra ge, p erio dic fa cto ry in sp ectio ns, N RAs ty le in dustr ia l c o des a t th e s ta te le ve l, v e ntila tio n s ta ndard s, a nd a h ost o f o th er m easu re s. S ee U .S . D ep't o f L abor, W ash in gto n C onfe re nce o n L abor L egis la tio n, F ebru ary 1 934, 3 8 M ONTH LY L A B.
R EV. 7 79, 7 808 1 ( 1 934) ( lis tin g th e v a rio us im ple m enta tio ns r e co m mended b y th e c o m mit te e). A s e co nd c o nfe re nce h eld in 1 935 re ach ed s im ila r c o nclu sio ns. S ee U .S . D ep't o f L abor, N atio nal C onfe re nce o n L abor L egis la tio n, A sh eville , N .C ., O cto ber 4 5 , 1 935, 4 1 M ONTH LY L A B. R EV. 1 247, 1 2505 3 (1 935) ( d escrib in g th e a ddit io nal re co m mendatio ns o f th e se co nd co nfe re nce ). T he th ir d co nfe re nce in it ia lly a dopte d a ca ll fo r a co nstit u tio nal a m endm ent a uth oriz in g fe dera l le gis la tio n o n m in im um w ages a nd " o th er s o cia l le gis la tio n," a lt h ough th e la tte r p hra se w as la te r d ele te d a t th e r e quest o f S ecre ta ry o f L abor P erk in s, w ho a rg ued th at it w as to o b ro ad. S ee L abor fo r C hange in C onstit u tio n, N .Y . T IM ES, N ov. 1 2, 1 936, a t 2 ( d escrib in g th e a m endm ent a nd P erk in s' in flu ence o n it s fin al la nguage).
2 27. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 1 08 ( n otin g th e in sta nt le git im acy e njo ye d b y th e A ir H yg ie ne F oundatio n).
2 28. Id . a t 1 29.
2 29. S ee K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 2 97 (s u ggestin g th at R oose ve lt "w as m ore in te re ste d in g iv in g w ork e rs p urc h asin g p ow er th an in g ra ntin g th em p olit ic a l p ow er").
2 30. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 1 293 0 (d escrib in g th e c a ll o f th e u nio ns fo r f e dera l r e gula tio n o f th e w ork p la ce r a th er th an th e a doptio n o f v o lu nta ry s ta ndard s).
2 31. K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 2 89.
2 32. S ee, e .g ., T he S ilic o sis B ill, N .Y . T IM ES, A pr. 3 , 1 936, a t 2 2 ( n otin g th at, in G ra ftin g a N ew Y ork s ta te b ill o n s ilic o sis , " [l] a bor s u cce ssfu lly o ppose d p hysic a l e xa m in atio n [o f w ork e rs a t r is k] a nd th is th ro ugh fe ar o f lo sin g th e r ig ht to e arn a liv in g. A ppare ntly th e r is k o f d eath w as n ot h eeded"); S ilic o sis P ro ble m in S ta te a t 'C ris is ', N .Y . T IM ES, A pr. 15, 1936 , at 9 (q uotin g an A FL sp oke sm an th at th e need fo r X ra y e xa m in atio n w as u nquestio ned "[w ]h ere s ilic o sis e xis ts " b ut th at e m plo ye es s h o uld n ot b e d is ch arg ed o r a ssig ned to lo w er p ayin g jo bs if th ey w ere d is co ve re d to h ave s ilic o sis ).
2 33. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 1 31 (lis tin g th e b ill fo r "p re ve ntio n o f in dustr ia l c o ndit io ns h aza rd ou s to th e h ealt h o f e m plo ye es" in tr o duce d b y S enato r J a m es E . M urra y a s e vid ence o f t h is s u cce ss).
2 34. K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 3 39.
2 35. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 1 33 (n otin g th e A dm in is tr a tio n's p re occu patio n w it h th e c o m in g w ar). A tte ntio n a ls o s h if te d to in te rn atio nal e ff o rts , w it h th e In te rn atio nal L abor O ff ic e c o nve nin g a c o nfe re nce o n th e to pic in 1 938. S ilic o sis P arle y O pens, N .Y . T IM ES, A ug. 3 0, 1 938, a t 3 .
2 36. K EN NED Y, s u pra n ote 1 56, a t 3 35 ( d escrib in g th e S upre m e C ourt's r e ve rs a l o n th e c o nstit u tio nalit y o f th e N ew D eal le gis la tio n in 1 937).
2 37. Id . a t 2 65.
2 38. P erk in s c o m bin ed 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 5/7 7 t he commonsense practicality of her New England forebears, the sometimes patronizing compassion of the social worker milieu in which she had been steeped at Jane Addams's Hull House as a young woman, and a large fund of political know‐how compiled in her career as a labor lobbyist and industrial commissioner in New York.
I d . a t 2 59. S he b elie ve d th at g ove rn m ent c o uld d o b ette r fo r w ork e rs th an e it h er e m plo ye rs o r th e w ork e rs t h em se lv e s. Id . a t 2 60.
2 39. B ars to S ilic o sis C it e d b y E xp erts , N .Y . T IM ES, F eb. 4 , 1 937, a t 2 3.
2 40. S ilic o sis P ro ble m in S ta te a t 'C ris is ', s u pra n ote 2 32.
2 41. U .S . D ep't o f L abor, P ro gra m fo r P re ve ntio n a nd C om pensa tio n o f S ilic o sis , 4 4 M ONTH LY L A B.
R EV. 9 09, 9 09 ( 1 937).
2 42. S ee s u pra n ote 9 9 a nd a cco m panyin g te xt.
2 43. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 2 4 (d escrib in g h ow s ta tis tic ia ns a t M etr o polit a n L if e a nd P ru dentia l h andle d 8 0% o f th e $ 3 b illio n m ark e t fo r " in dustr ia l in su ra nce " p olic ie s s o ld to w ork e rs ); i d . a t 7 5 ( q u otin g A nth ony L anza 's 1 939 a cco unt th at " [o ]u t o f a c le ar s ky a nd w it h d ra m atic s u ddenness, t h e in su ra nce c o m panie s w ere fa ce d w it h a s it u atio n th at w as in m any r e sp ects te rrif y in g").
2 44. S ee id . a t 2 52 6 ( e xp la in in g th at th e w ork o f F re deric k H off m an, a P ru dentia l a naly st, " w as c rit ic a l to t h e u nm askin g o f s ilic o sis a s a d is tin ct c o ndit io n in th e U nit e d S ta te s").
2 45. S ELLE R S, s u pra n ote 4 5, a t 2 0 ( q u otin g a ctu ary W illia m S ta nden). T he in su ra nce c o m panie s d id n ot d eve lo p accu ra te in fo rm atio n im media te ly . S ee id . at 29 (d is cu ssin g th e deve lo pm ent of in su ra nce c o m panie s' c u sto m er s cre enin g p ra ctic e s).
2 46. S ee D AV IS , s u pra n ote 1 67, a t 3 0 ( d escrib in g th e fis ca l c ris is in N ew Y ork ); id . a t 5 2 ( d escrib in g th e f is ca l c ris is in M assa ch use tts ).
2 47. V erm ont g ra nit e w ork e rs , a n o ccu p atio nal g ro up w hose h ig h s ilic o sis ra te s s p urre d m uch o f th e m odern re se arc h o n th e d is e ase , p rim arily d ie d o f tu berc u lo sis a fte r c o ntr a ctin g s ilic o sis . G ra ham , s u pra n ote 5, at 200; se e als o D ER IC KSO N, su pra note 80, at 52 ("[T ]h e m ost im porta nt so urc e of m is u nders ta ndin g [in th e e arly tw entie th c e ntu ry ] w as th e p erv a siv e fa ilu re to d if f e re ntia te s ilic o sis fr o m t u berc u lo sis ." ).
2 48. A bsh er, su pra note 13, at 663 ("[C ]o nfo undin g fa cto rs in clu de genetic s, sm okin g habit s , and u nderly in g d is e ase s s u ch a s tu berc u lo sis a nd rh eum ato id a rth rit is ." ); C ra ig head, s u pra n ote 1 5, a t 4 01 ( "C le ara nce o f p anic u la te m atte r fr o m th e lo w er re sp ir a to ry tr a ct is m ore c o m ple x a nd is in flu ence d b y n um ero us v a ria ble s, o nly a fe w o f w hic h c a n b e s a tis fa cto rily d efin ed q uantit a tiv e ly . N ot th e le ast o f th ese f a cto rs is th e v a ria bilit y b etw een in div id u als , th e e ff e cts o f a gin g, a nd c ig are tte s m oke ." ); W ang & B anks, s u pra note 10, at 70 ("In th e genera l popula tio n, cig are tte sm okin g acco unts fo r th e ove rw helm in g p ro portio n o f p atie nts w it h s e ve re a ir w ays o bstr u ctio n." ).
2 49. S ee R osn er & M ark o w it z , s u pra n ote 1 30, a t 4 757 7.
2 50. S ee D anie l M . F ox & J u dit h F . S to ne, B la ck L ung: M in ers ' M ilit a ncy a nd M edic a l U nce rta in ty . 1 968 1 972, in S IC KN ESS A N D H EALT H IN A M ER IC A, s u pra n ote 1 30, a t 3 2, 3 9 ( d e scrib in g th e c o ntr o ve rs y i n th e 1 960s o ve r th is r e quir e m ent fo r d ia gnosin g b la ck lu ng).
2 51. B R IN KLE Y, s u pra n ote 1 64, a t 2 12.
2 52. Id . a t 2 091 1 .
2 53. S ee Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 1 04 ( "[F ]o r m ost w ork e rs , th e r e la tiv e ly s tr a ig htfo rw ard q uestio n o f w ages r e m ain ed th e fir s t p rio rit y ." ).
2 54. S ee id . a t 1 1 0 ( s ta tin g th at th e T a ft H artle y A ct c re ate d a lle gedly " e ndle ss b ure aucra tiz a tio n o f la bor r e la tio ns").
2 55. Id . a t 1 20. 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 6/7 7 2 56. B R IN KLE Y, s u pra n ote 1 64, a t 2 23.
2 57. S ee Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 1 37 ( s u ggestin g th at e co nom ic e xp ansio n a nd s ta bilit y c rip ple d th e l a bor m ove m ent) .
2 58. Id . a t 1 54.
2 59. S ee C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 2 9 (a llo w in g fu ll a nd e qual m em bers h ip to p ro fe ssio nal g ove rn m ent e m plo ye es).
2 60. S ee id . a t 3 23 3 ( n otin g d ebate s o ve r A C GIH 's r o le in s e ttin g in dustr y s ta ndard s).
2 61. S ee id . a t 3 33 4 ( p ro vid in g th e c o m mit te e's o bje ctiv e s). T hre e v a lu es fo r s il ic a w ere e sta blis h ed: fiv e m illio n p artic le s p er c u bic fo ot o f a ir ( m ppcf) fo r " S ilic a H ig h ( a bove 5 0% fr e e S iO ) ," 2 0 m ppcf fo r " S ilic a M ediu m ( 5 5 0% fr e e S iO ) ," a nd 5 0 m ppcf fo r " S ilic a L ow ( b elo w 5 % )." Id . a t 4 0. 2 62. Id . a t 3 5.
2 63. Id . a t 4 3.
2 64. A C GIH r e pla ce d th e te rm M axim um A llo w able C once ntr a tio ns ( M AC s) w it h th e te rm T hre sh old L im it V alu e (T LV ) b eca use o f te rm in olo gy co nce rn s. S ee S ALT E R , su pra n ote 2 23, a t 5 7 (p ro vid in g n ew t e rm in olo gy beca use of "in appro pria te co nnota tio ns"). "T hre sh old Lim it Valu e" and "T LV " are both c o pyrig hte d te rm s. S ee id . a t 3 6.
2 65. S ee C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 6 0 ( q uotin g th e C om mit te e o n T hre sh old L im it s ).
2 66. Id . a t 6 16 2.
2 67. S ee S ALT E R , s u pra n ote 2 23, a t 4 34 4 (d escrib in g A C GIH 's a ctiv it ie s to day); s e e a ls o H ealt h a nd S afe ty H om epages, O ccu patio nal E xp osu re L im it s : S um mary o f In fo rm atio n fr o m E U M em ber S ta te s a nd O th er S ourc e s, h ttp ://w ww.h ealt h andsa fe ty .c o .u k/O ELs_ su m mary _ of_ in fo rm atio n n .h tm l# us (la st vis it e d M ar. 2 8, 2 006) ( n otin g n atio ns th at s e le cte d e xp osu re s ta ndard s v a lu es b ase d o n A C HIH 's s ta ndard s).
2 68. W illia m N . D enm an, T he B la ck L u ng M ove m ent: A S tu dy in C onte m pora ry A git a tio n 8 9 (1 974) ( u npublis h ed P h.D . d is se rta tio n, O hio U niv e rs it y ) (n otin g th at th e m in ers u nio n s u pporte d m ech aniz a tio n a nd q uotin g a F ortu n e m agazin e a rtic le la belin g J o hn L . L ew is " th e b est s a le sm an th e m ach in ery in dustr y e ve r h ad").
2 69. Id . a t 6 ( "[T ]h e a lm ost c o m ple te m ech aniz a tio n o f c o al m in in g in A m eric a , p a rtic u la rly s in ce th e e nd o f t h e S eco nd W orld W ar p ro duce d s ig nif ic a ntly g re ate r a m ounts o f c o al d ust in th e m in es." ).
2 70. S ee, e .g ., H .R . 2 622, 8 4th C ong. ( 1 955) ( p ro vid in g fo r s ilic o sis c o m pensa tio n); S . 2 299, 8 4th C ong.
( 1 955) (re quir in g stu dy of silic o sis ); S . 3097, 84th C ong. (1 955) (m andatin g in ve stig atio n of healt h c o ndit io ns in m in es); S . 7 64, 8 5th C ong . (1 957) (p ro vid in g c o m pensa tio n fo r s ilic o sis ); H .R . 1 240, 8 5th C ong. (1 957) (a uth oriz in g fe dera l m in e a nd q uarry in sp ectio ns); H .R . 4 111 , 8 5th C ong. (1 957) (re quir in g f e dera l m in e a nd q uarry in sp ectio ns); H .R . 9 483, 8 5th C ong. ( 1 957) ( a uth oriz in g fe dera l m in e a nd q uarry i n sp ectio ns); S . 8 28, 8 5th C ong. (1 957) (a uth oriz in g fe dera l m in e a nd q uarry in sp ectio ns); H .R . 3 394, 8 5th C ong . (1 957) (m andatin g in ve stig atio n o f h ealt h c o ndit io ns in m in es a nd q uarrie s); S . 4 03, 8 6th C ong. (1 959) (p ro vid in g fo r fe dera l s ilic o sis c o m pensa tio n); S . 8 11 , 8 6th C ong. (1 959) (p ro vid in g fe dera l m in e and quarry in sp ectio ns); H .R . 3741, 86th C ong. (1 959) (a uth oriz in g fe dera l m in e and quarry i n sp ectio ns); H .R . 3 760, 8 6th C ong. ( 1 959) ( a uth oriz in g fe dera l m in e a nd q uarry in sp ectio ns); H .R . 6 295, 8 6th C ong. ( 1 959) ( a uth oriz in g fe dera l m in e a nd q uarry in sp ectio ns).
2 71. S ee R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, su pra note 79, at 2000 1 (d eta ilin g th e ste ps in build in g a n atio nw id e c a m paig n r e gard in g r o ck m in ers ' h ealt h ).
2 72. S ee id . a t 2 06.
2 73. S ee P ub. L . N o. 8 73 00, 7 5 S ta t. 6 49 ( 1 961) ( g ra ntin g in ve stig ativ e a uth orit y ).
2 74. D EN M AN , s u pra n ote 2 68, a t 2 4.
2 75. Id . a t 2 62 7. T e stim ony a t th e 1 968 h earin gs o n th e J o hnso n A dm in is tr a tio n's O SH A p ro posa l o fte n i n clu ded m entio n o f s ilic o sis a nd m in e d ust is su es. S ee, e .g ., O ccu patio nal S afe ty a nd H ealt h A ct o f 1 968:
H earin gs o n S . 2 864 B efo re th e S . S ubco m m. o n L abor o f th e C om m. o n L abor a nd P ublic W elf a re , 9 0th C ong. 5 96 0 (1 968) [h ere in afte r 1 968 O SH A H earin gs] (s ta te m ent o f D avid S . B la ck, U nders e cre ta ry o f 2 2 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 7/7 7 t h e In te rio r) ( n otin g th at A C GIH w ill b e a doptin g a m in e d ust s ta ndard a nd r e co untin g th e D epartm ent o f I n te rio r's a ctiv it ie s o n d ust is su es); id . a t 6 4 ( s ta te m ent o f W . W illa rd W ir tz , S ecre ta ry o f L abor) ( lis tin g d ust i s su es in m in in g a s in n eed o f a ddre ss); id . a t 2 29 (s ta te m ent o f S en. J e nnin gs R andolp h) (c a llin g fo r i m pro ve m ents to ke ep p ace w it h p ro b le m s); id . a t 2 45 (s ta te m ent o f W illia m N aum ann, A sso cia te d G enera l C ontr a cto rs o f A m eric a ) (d is cu ssin g s ilic o sis e xp osu re fr o m ro ck w ork ); id . a t 2 72 (s ta te m ent o f P aul H afe r, N atio na l A sso cia tio n o f M anufa ctu re rs ) (c h ara cte riz in g c o al m in ers ' d ust d is e ase s a s "th e g re ate st s in gle g ro up o f o ccu patio nal d is e ase s in th e U nit e d S ta te s in te rm s o f d is a bilit y a nd c o m pensa tio n c o sts ").
2 76. D enm an, s u pra n ote 2 68, a t 2 72 8.
2 77. Id . a t 5 1.
2 78. Id . a t 1 75.
2 79. Id . a t 1 41.
2 80. Id . a t 1 77. A la st m in ute v e to th re at b y th e N ix o n W hit e H ouse o n fis ca l g ro unds p ro m pte d a w ild ca t s tr ik e in C harle sto n, W est V ir g in ia a nd b ro ught a q uic k s ig natu re fr o m N ix o n. Id . a t 1 85.
2 81. S ee C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 5 1 ( n otin g th at s ta te in dustr ia l h yg ie ne p ro gra m s d eclin ed th ro ugh th e 1 950s); id . a t 1 959 6 (d escrib in g th e im pact o f d eclin in g p ost w ar fe dera l fu nds o n s ta te p ro gra m s in a n i n te rv ie w w it h C harle s D . Y aff e e, w ho s ta te d, "w hen th e w ar e nded, a d epre ssio n s e t in in in dustr ia l h yg ie ne. A n um ber o f p ro gra m s fo ld ed fo r la ck o f fu nds").
2 82. S ee id . a t 2 9 ( n otin g n ew in dustr ia l d eve lo pm ents ).
2 83. S ee S ALT E R , s u pra n ote 2 23, a t 3 9 ( c it in g 1 931 th ro ugh 1 968 a s A C GIH 's m ost a ctiv e p erio d).
2 84. S ee id . a t 4 4 (n otin g th at T LV c o m mit te e m em bers h ip h as b een s ta ble ). S pecif ic a lly , fr o m 1 961 to 1 983, o nly 5 7 d if f e re nt p eople s e rv e d o n th e c o m mit te e. Id . T LV c o m mit te e m em bers h ip is c o ntr o lle d b y t h e c h air , a nd s u bsta nce s a re s e le cte d g e nera lly b ase d o n in dustr y r e quests . Id . a t 4 7.
2 85. S ee id . a t 3 8 (d is cu ssin g A C GIH 's b elie f th at m anufa ctu rin g a nd h ealt h s ta ndard s s h ould b e s e t d if f e re ntly ).
2 86. S ee id . at 60 (e xp la in in g th at, in ord er to eff e ctiv e ly co ntr o l in dustr y pra ctic e s, A C GIH , not a p ro fe ssio nal a sso cia tio n p er s e , n eeds th e p artic ip atio n o f th ose in th e in dustr y ). T here is lit tle e vid ence o f d ir e ct p ers o nal b enefit to a ny m em bers o f th e o rg aniz a tio n o r th e c o m mit te es — c o m mit te e m em bers w ere p aid o nly th eir tr a ve l e xp ense s. Id . a t 4 4, 4 7.
2 87. T LV s fo r a bout 4 00 s u bsta nce s w ere in co rp ora te d in to O SH A c o nse nsu s s ta ndard s v ia th eir e arlie r u se u nder th e W als h H eale y A ct s ta ndard s, a lt h ough s o m e w ere "b ase d o n in ad equate d ocu m enta tio n." S ee C ORN, su pra n ote 9 8, a t 9 1 (d escrib in g O SH A's co ngre ssio nal a uth orit y to b yp ass ru le m akin g p ro ce dure s a nd e sta blis h " s ta rt u p" s ta ndard s). A C GIH d id n ot a tte m pt to s to p O SH A's in appro pria te u se o f th e T LV s. S ee id . a t 9 2 (c la rif y in g th at th e T LV s w ere n ot m eant to b e s ta ndard s). A cco rd in g to C orn , " A C GIH s e em ed to h ave m ix e d e m otio ns a bout u se o f th e T LV s. T hey w ante d to c o ntr ib ute to th e n ew f e dera l e ff o rt to b rin g a bout a h ealt h y a n d s a fe w ork p la ce , a nd th ey w ere p ro ud o f th e T LV s. V ery lit tle d is cu ssio n c a n b e fo und a bout th is is su e." Id . In th e o ne d is cu ssio n re co rd ed in th e m in ute s, A C GIH s e em s to h ave b een re sig ned to O SH A's in appro pria te u se o f th e T LV s. S ee id . (e la bora tin g th at, a lt h ough th e A C GIH w as d is p le ase d w it h th e L abor D epartm ent fo r m is u sin g th e T LV s, it fe lt th at if th e L abor D ep artm ent w as g oin g to u se T LV s fo r th at p urp ose it m ig ht a s w ell u se A C GIH 's T LV s). T he b oard r e sp onded to a q uestio n fr o m th e flo or b y s a yin g: " T here is n oth in g in m y o pin io n , th at A C GIH c a n d o to p re ve nt o r s to p a nyo ne, a ny s ta te o r fe de ra l a gency, fr o m u sin g o ur A C GIH T LV s in s ta ndard s." Id . a t 9 2 9 3. O ne p artic ip ant re ca lle d th at, d esp it e th e la nguage in th e T LV p ublic a tio ns w arn in g a gain st tr e atin g t h em a s s ta ndard s, th e g ro up "w as ra th er tic kle d w it h th em se lv e s th at th e T LV s w ere b ein g u se d th at w ay." In te rv ie w w it h L eonard J . G old w ate r, in id . a t 1 45. G old w ate r a ls o n ote d th at th e A C GIH "to ok n o m easu re s, w hats o eve r, to d is a sso cia te th e m se lv e s fr o m [O SH A's u se o f th e T LV s] a fte r it w as m ade, a fte r t h ese th in gs w ere a dopte d." Id . a t 1 44. A C GIH s ta ndard s w ere te ch nic a lly " n ot c o nse nsu s s ta ndard s, b ut 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 8/7 7 t h e le gis la tio n e sta blis h in g O SH A re quir e d th at o nly c o nse nsu s s ta ndard s b e a dopte d." S ALT E R , s u pra n ote 2 23, a t 4 2. A s o ne in fo rm ant [to th e s tu dy] s u ggeste d, S ection 5(a) of the OSHAct mandates the Secretary of Labor to adopt, without dealing with title 5 of the Administrative Procedures Act [sic], as soon as practicable, any of the consensus standards already established in federal regulations … Some argue that the Secretary had discussions (before adopting the standards). Others argue that the adoption was automatic because the big employers were already using these standards.
I d . In a ddit io n, "T here w as s o m e d is cu ssio n in A C GIH a bout w heth er to a dopt a c o nse nsu s m eth od, b ut A C GIH d id n ot d o s o ." Id . A s o ne p ers o n d escrib ed th e s it u atio n, S tokinger saw the legislation (OSHAct) required consensus standards from that point on (for the purpose of their being adopted as OSHA regulations). So he looked around and appointed industry and union representatives on the TLV committee for the first time. I don't think this is appreciated. Stokinger was wrong, but he thought he could make the TLV committee (into) a consensus body if there were industry and union representatives.
I d .
2 88. S ALT E R , s u pra n ote 2 23, a t 5 9. A C GIH a nd it s m em bers , h ow eve r, d eny th at th ey a re b ia se d t o w ard in du str y . Id . (e xp la in in g th at m any A C GIH m em bers vie w th e org a niz a tio n as an "in dustr y w atc h dog").
2 89. Id . a t 4 6 ( re fe rrin g to th e la bor in dustr y a s a " re lu cta nt p artic ip ant" in th e A C GIH ). U nio ns r e fu se d to p artic ip ate in A C GIH , b elie vin g th e o rg aniz a tio n w as "in dustr y d om in ate d." M CGAR IT Y & S H APIR O, s u pra n ote 5 0, a t 1 24.
2 90. S ee S ALT E R , s u pra n ote 2 23, a t 4 74 8 (d escrib in g g enera lly th e in fo rm al p ro ce ss b y w hic h th e A C GIH s e ts p rio rit ie s a nd d eve lo ps s ta ndard s).
2 91. T he B ootle ggers a nd B aptis ts th eo ry o f re gula tio n s u ggests th at tw o d if f e re nt g ro ups o fte n w ork t o geth er to a ch ie ve p olit ic a l g oals . S ee B ru ce Y andle , B ootle ggers a nd B aptis ts : T he E duca tio n o f a R egula to ry Eco nom is t, AEI J. GOV'T & SO C'Y 13 (M ay/J u ne 1983), ava ila ble at h ttp ://w ww.m erc a tu s.o rg /p df/m ate ria ls /5 60 .p df. L ik e th e b ootle ggers in th e e arly tw entie th c e ntu ry S outh , w ho b enefit e d fr o m la w s th at b anned th e s a le o f liq uor o n S undays, s p ecia l in te re sts n eed to ju stif y th eir e ff o rts to o bta in s p ecia l fa vo rs w it h p ublic in te re st s to rie s. T he B aptis ts , w ho s u pporte d th e S unday b an o n m ora l g ro unds, p ro vid ed th at p ublic in te re st su pport. W hile th e B aptis ts vo ca lly e ndors e d th e b an o n S unday s a le s, th e b ootle ggers w ork e d b ehin d th e s ce nes a nd q uie tly re w ard ed th e p olit ic ia ns w it h a p ortio n o f th eir S unday liq uor s a le p ro fit s . Id .
2 92. S ee C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 9 0 ( e xp la in in g th at A C GIH h as u nsu rp ris in gly e ndors e d th e O SH A ct) .
2 93. S ALT E R , s u pra n ote 2 23, a t 4 2.
2 94. S ee J O HN M ORIO N B LU M , Y EAR S O F D IS C ORD: A M ER IC AN P O LIT IC S A N D S O CIE TY, 1 961 1 974, at 402 (1 991) (d eta ilin g N ix o n's envir o nm enta l in it ia tiv e s as a re actio n to his m ain polit ic a l o pponent's p osit io n).
2 95. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 2 10.
2 96. S ee. e.g ., 196 8 O SH A H earin gs, su pra note 275, at 596 0 (s ta te m ent of D avid S . B la ck, U nders e cre ta ry o f th e In te rio r). M r. B la ck te stif ie d th at th e d epartm ent's p ro gra m s h ad h ad "a m ark e d 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 5 9/7 7 e ff e ct o ve r th e la st 3 0 y e ars in s te adily d ecre asin g th e n um ber o f c a se s o f s ilic o sis ." Id . "E ve n s ilic o sis , f o rm erly a m atte r o f m ajo r c o nce rn , h as to a la rg e e xte nt b een c o ntr o lle d" a nd th a t s o cia l s e cu rit y d is a bilit y f ig ure s fo r s ilic o sis c la im s re fle ct "e xp osu re s th at o ccu rre d m any y e ars a go, p artic u la rly in c o al m in in g, r a th er th an c u rre nt c o ndit io ns." Id . a t 4 61 ( s ta te m ent o f A ndre w K alm yko w , C ounse l, A m . In s. A ss'n ).
2 97. S ee C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 6 5 ( n otin g th at u nio ns la gged b ehin d m anagem ent a nd g ove rn m ent in i n dustr ia l h yg ie ne is su es).
2 98. R OSN ER & M AR KO W IT Z, s u pra n ote 7 9, a t 2 12.
2 99. B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 5 6 (d is cu ssin g th e im porta nce o f d is a ste rs th at g ain p ublic n otic e in s p urrin g c h ange in w ork p la ce r e gula tio n).
3 00. S ee C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 4 4 ( "A m eric a ns in th e 1 950s w ere n ot v e ry in te re ste d in o ccu patio nal h ealt h . O th e r p ublic h ealt h p ro ble m s, fo r e xa m ple , d eliv e ry o f h ealt h c a re , a nd p o lit ic a l is su es d om in ate d t h eir th in kin g." ).
3 01. M cG AR IT Y & S H APIR O, s u pra n ote 5 0, a t 3 4 ( d enouncin g th e c o m pro m is e th at th e fin al v e rs io n o f t h e O SH A ct str u ck b etw een R epublic a ns a nd D em ocra ts , n am ely th at w hile O SH A w ould h ave th e a uth orit y to s e t th e s ta ndard s, a noth er a gency, th e O ccu patio nal S afe ty a nd H ea lt h R evie w C om mis sio n, w ould b e th e a dju dic a to ry b ody to d ete rm in e w heth er th e A ct h ad b een vio la te d). N ix o n so ught a n e le cto ra l re alig nm ent. S ee R OBH RT M ASO N, R IC HAR D N IX O N A N D T H E Q UEST F O R A N EW M AJO RIT Y 3 (2 004) (d escrib in g N ix o n's im media te g oal o f s e cu rin g a la rg e m ajo rit y fo r re e le ctio n in 1 972). N ix o n h ad b eate n H ubert H . H um phre y in 1 968 b y o nly 5 00,0 00 v o te s o ut o f 7 2 m illio n v o te s c a st, a n e le ctio n in w hic h u nio ns h ad w ork e d v ig oro usly fo r H um phre y. S ee Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 1 8283 ( m ark in g th e 1 968 p re sid entia l e le ctio n a s "th e e nd o f th e N ew D eal d is p ensa tio n"). N ix o n w as a w are a fte r th e 1 968 e le ctio n th at h e "h ad n ot y e t w on o ve r a ny m ajo rit y " a nd th at "h e o w ed h is e le ctio n to th e v o te s o f a m in orit y ra llie d in o pposit io n to th e m is ta ke s o f th e D em ocra ts ra th e r th an in s u pport o f h is p ro m is e ." M ASO N, s u pra n ote 3 01, a t 3 7. T he c lo se ness o f th e e le ctio n u ndoubte d ly h ad tu rn ed in p art o n a ctiv e u nio n s u pport fo r H um phre y. T he A FLC IO " fin ance d a s tr o ng o pera tio n to tu rn th e la bor v o te fr o m W alla ce b ack to th e D em ocra ts ." B LU M , s u pra n ote 2 94, a t 3 14. A lt h ough Z ie ger te rm s N ix o n "o ne o f l a bor's c h ie f n em ese s, d atin g fr o m h is re db ait in g c a m paig ns fo r th e U .S . C ong re ss a nd S enate in 1 946 a nd 1 9 50," h e a ls o n ote s th at N ix o n h ad "c u lt iv a te d s o m e e le m ents o f th e la bor m ove m ent — h ard c o re c o nse rv a tiv e c o nstr u ctio n u nio ns, fo r e xa m ple , a nd a h uge T e am ste rs ' u nio n b y n ow a lm ost c o m ple te ly i s o la te d fr o m a nd d is d ain fu l o f th e A FLC IO ." Z IE G ER , s u pra n ote 1 22, a t 1 91. T he 1 968 e le ctio n r e su lt s d em onstr a te d tw o ke y fa cts . F ir s t, "[t]h e Jo hnso n co alit io n o f 1 964 sp lin te re d in 1 968," w it h G eorg e W alla ce 's th ir d p arty ca ndid acy pullin g sig nif ic a nt blu e co lla r su pport in N orth ce ntr a l sta te s (O hio , M ic h ig an, In dia na, a nd Illin ois ). B LU M , s u pra n ote 2 94, a t 3 16. L ookin g to 1 972, N ix o n c o uld th us h ope to i m pro ve h is m arg in s a m ong th ese v o te rs . S eco nd, N ix o n h ad to fin d n ew s u pport to w in re ele ctio n. S ee M ASO N, s u pra n ote 3 01, a t 6 ( d eta ilin g N ix o n's e ff o rts to fin d th is n ew s u pport th ro ugh r e fu sin g to o ppose t h e n otio n o f g ove rn m enta l a ctiv is m , w hic h w as p opula r a t th e tim e, a nd th ro ugh le avin g in ta ct a m ajo rit y o f th e p ro gra m s c re ate d b y D em ocra ts b etw een th e 1 930s a nd th e 1 960s). T here w as n o g uara nte e th at t h e c ris is w it h in th e D em ocra tic P arty , w hic h p la ye d to N ix o n's a dva nta ge in 1 968 , w ould c o ntin ue in to th e 1 970s. S ee id . a t 3 6 (re fe rrin g to N ix o n's re lia nce o n th e c ris is w it h in th e D em ocra tic P arty a s a "fr a gile b asis fo r p olit ic a l s u cce ss").
3 02. M ASO N, s u pra n ote 3 01, a t 4 2 ( q uotin g E liz a beth D re w ).
3 03. S ee id . a t 7 2, 9 79 8 (n otin g h ow c e ntr a l th e la bor v o te h ad b een to th e D em ocra ts a nd h ow N ix o n u rg ed h is s ta ff to p ublic iz e h is A dm in is tr a tio n a s " p ro w ork in gm an"). A m em o b y P at B uch anan a naly zin g p olit ic a l str a te gy note d th at th e ta rg et co nstit u ency in 1970 w ould be "la w and ord er D em ocra ts , c o nse rv a tiv e s o n th e 'S ocia l Is su e,' b ut 'p ro gre ssiv e ' o n d om estic is su es." Id . a t 8 4. In p urs u it o f la bor, N ix o n "e nth usia stic a lly cu lt iv a te d" unio n le aders , hostin g a "h ig hp ro file " Labor D ay din ner fo r unio n l e aders in 1 970. S ee id . a t 9 7 (re co untin g N ix o n's a tte m pts a t a ttr a ctin g th e la bor v o te a t a tim e w hen 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 0/7 7 l a bor w as b eco m in g in cre asin gly d is so cia te d fr o m th e D em ocra t P arty ). N ix o n d id p ers u ade A FLC IO h ead G eorg e M eany to r e m ain n eutr a l in 1 972. S ee id . a t 1 73.
3 04. Id . a t 9 7. T he W hit e H ouse "a vo id ed a ctiv e co nflic t w it h u nio ns o n [e co nom ic is su es] w here ve r p ossib le ." Id . a t 1 34.
3 05. S ee id . a t 4 9 ( d is cu ssin g h ow N ix o n c o uld r e ach th e c o nse rv a tiv e " e m erg in g m ajo rit y "). W hen N ix o n a rriv e d in th e W hit e H ouse it w as "a tim e w hen m ain str e am p olit ic a l d ebate re m ain ed d om in ate d b y a ctiv is t a nd n ot c o nse rv a tiv e p ro posa ls . … A s L eonard G arm ent w ould n ote in 1 971, in s p it e o f th eir ' c o nse rv a tiv e philo so phy,' A m eric a ns w ante d 'lib era l' benefit s — co m ple te healt h ca re , m ore so cia l s e cu rit y , e tc ." Id . a t 5 6.
3 06. S ee id . a t 6 7 (o bse rv in g th at th ese g ain s w ere d ue la rg ely to th e R epub lic a ns' e m phasis o n th e n eeds o f th e " s ile nt m ajo rit y "). It a ls o p aid o ff in 1 972, w it h N ix o n w in nin g 5 7% o f u nio n h ouse hold v o te rs .
S ee id . a t 1 89 (n otin g th at N ix o n's e ff o rts to g enera te su pport re su lt e d in h im re ce iv in g th e g re ate st p lu ra lit y in A m eric a n h is to ry in th e 1 972 e le ctio n).
3 07. S ee C ORN, su pra note 98, at 86 (a sse rtin g th at, alt h ough th e ca usa l re la tio nsh ip betw een o ccu patio nal d is e ase a nd c e rta in in dustr ie s h ad b een e sta blis h ed, th e a va ila ble k n ow le dge to r e m edy th is p ro ble m h ad n ot b een a pplie d to p re ve ntin g th e p ro ble m ).
3 08. U nder th e O SH A ct, w hen N IO SH re co m mends th at O SH A p ro m ulg ate a h ealt h sta ndard , th e S ecre ta ry o f L abor m ust, within 60 days after receipt thereof, refer such recommendation to an advisory committee pursuant to this paragraph, or publish such as a proposed rule pursuant to paragraph (2), or publish in the Federal Register his determination not to do so, and his reasons therefor. The Secretary shall be required to request the recommendations of an advisory committee appointed under section 812(c) of this title if the rule to be promulgated is, in the discretion of the Secretary which shall be final, new in effect or application and has significant economic impact.
3 0 U .S .C . § 8 11 (a )( 1 ) (2 000). 3 09. C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 8 8 n .* .
3 10. In te rv ie w w it h C harle s D . Y aff e , in id . a t 2 030 4 (in fe rrin g th at th e A C GIH d id n ot ta ke a n o ff ic ia l p osit io n o n a fe dera l O SH A ct) .
3 11 . S ee, e .g ., G AO , s u pra n ote 1 6, a t 5 66 0 ( c rit ic iz in g th e la ck o f c o opera tio n in 1 970s).
3 12. T his w as s u pple m ente d b y a g enera l d uty p ro vis io n. T he O SH A ct e sta blis h e d a g enera l d uty o n th e p art o f e m plo ye rs to " fu rn is h to e ach o f h is e m plo ye es e m plo ym ent a nd a p la ce o f e m plo ym ent w hic h a re f r e e fr o m r e co gniz e d h aza rd s th at a re c a usin g o r a re lik e ly to c a use d eath o r s e rio us p hysic a l h arm to h is e m plo ye es; and [to ] co m ply w it h occu patio nal sa fe ty and healt h sta ndard s pro m ulg ate d under th is c h apte r." 2 9 U .S .C . § 6 54(a )( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 000). 3 13. S ee M cG AR IT Y & S H APIR O, s u pra n ote 5 0, a t 3 6 (e xp la in in g th at C ong re ss, w antin g O SH A to i m media te ly begin pro vid in g sa fe r and healt h ie r A m eric a n w ork p la ce s, m ade a onetim e exce ptio n a llo w in g O SH A to p ro m ulg ate a lr e ady e sta blis h ed n atio nal c o nse nsu s s ta ndard s a nd fe dera l s ta ndard s u nder th e W als h H eale y A ct) ; s e e a ls o 2 9 U .S .C . § 6 55(a ) (2 000) (o utlin in g th e p ro ce dure b y w hic h th e S ecre ta ry w ould p ro m ulg ate o ccu patio nal s a fe ty o r h ealt h s ta ndard s).
3 14. S ee V IS C USI E T A L., s u pra n ote 5 2, a t 7 75 ( c o nstr u in g th e n atu re o f O SH A s ta ndard s).
3 15. S ee M cG AR IT Y & S H APIR O, s u pra n ote 5 0, a t 3 7 (d escrib in g O SH A's ru sh to p ro m ulg ate th e s ta ndard s th at C ongre ss h ad m andate d). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 1/7 7 3 16. S ee V IS C USI E T A L., s u pra n ote 5 2, a t 7 75 (c rit ic iz in g O SH A's "te ch nolo gyb ase d" a ppro ach to r e gula tio n).
3 17. S ee d is cu ssio n in fr a S ectio n II.D .2 (e xa m in in g th e e m erg ence o f O SH A e m plo ye es a s a n in te re st g ro up).
3 18. M cG AR IT Y & S H APIR O, s u pra n ote 5 0, a t 3 7.
3 19. S ALT E R , s u pra n ote 2 23, a t 4 1.
3 20. S ee M cG AR IT Y & S H APIR O, s u pra n ote 5 0, a t 8 1 (a ff ir m in g th e u nio ns' m is tr u st o f th e R egan O SH A's a bilit y to p ro m ulg ate a n a cce pta ble s ta ndard ).
3 21. S ee id . (s ta tin g th at O SH A, in a n e ff o rt to a ppeal to th e c h em ic a l a nd m anufa ctu rin g in dustr ie s, b egan d ra ftin g a u nif o rm s e t o f r e gula to ry s ta ndard s).
3 22. B AR TH , s u pra n ote 2 3, a t 7 7 ( a ckn ow le dgin g th e in te re st in s ta ndard s e ttin g th at th e p assa ge o f th e 1 970 O SH A ct g enera te d).
3 23. Id .
3 24. Id .
3 25. C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 8 6.
3 26. Id . a t 8 9.
3 27. Id . a t x i.
3 28. Id . a t x .
3 29. S ee M cG AR IT Y & S H APIR O, s u pra n ote 5 0, a t 6 36 4. M cG arit y a nd S hapir o d escrib e th e fir s t d eca de a s fo llo w s:
I n its early years [until 1981], OSHA had in fact been a very loosely run organization. Rulemaking initiatives were generated internally in an ad hoc fashion. T he heads of the Health and Safety Directorates had traditionally controlled standard‐setting within their functional bailiwicks, with sporadic input from the assistant secretary. Loose internal work groups were assembled to draft rulemaking documents with substantial technical help from outside consultants. It was not uncommon for the head of a directorate to work directly on the rule, even to the point of typing the final version of the rule at 4 a.m. on the morning it was due. The entire agency tended to gear up for a single rulemaking effort, putting aside most other initiatives until they assumed front burner status. Id.
3 30. Id . a t 1 33 ( q uotin g D r. P ete r In fa nte , w ho d is cu sse d d if f ic u lt ie s w it h O SH A a dm in is tr a to rs ).
3 31. Id . a t 1 34.
3 32. Id . a t 7 9.
3 33. S ee id . ( e xp la in in g th e h is to ry o f th e p ro gra m ).
3 34. Id . a t 1 43. C onsid er a ls o th e e xa m ple o f th e " lo cko ut" r u le — th e r u le th at s p ecif ie d p ro ce dure s u nder w hic h e quip m ent is lo cke d to p re ve nt in ju ry fr o m a ccid enta l r e sta rts d urin g s e rv ic in g — th at M cG arit y a nd S hapir o u se to illu str a te th e d ela ys in O SH A's a cco m plis h in g e ve n re la tiv e ly s tr a ig htfo rw ard ru le m akin g.
I d . a t 1 1 21 4. O SH A p ro m ulg ate d c o nse nsu s s ta ndard s in 1 971, b ut th ese "w ere n ot u nif o rm in th eir c o ve ra ge a nd co nta in ed sig nif ic a nt in co nsis te ncie s b etw een in dustr ie s a nd b etw een d if f e re nt ty p es o f e quip m ent in th e s a m e in dustr y ." Id . a t 1 1 2. T he U nit e d A uto W ork e rs re peate dly p etit io ned O SH A fo r a r e vis e d, m ore u nif o rm ru le , b ut in te rn al d ebate s w it h in O SH A a nd b etw een O SH A a nd th e O ff ic e o f M anagem ent a nd B udget ( O M B) d ela ye d a fin al r u le u ntil 1 988, m ore th an te n y e ars a fte r O SH A's in it ia l p ublic a tio n o f a n otic e in th e F edera l R egis te r th at it w as c o nsid erin g r e vis in g th e c o nse nsu s s ta ndard . Id .
a t 1 1 2 1 3. U nio ns d id n ot lik e th e fin al ru le , p rim arily b eca use it d id n ot "in co rp ora te th e p rin cip le o f 'o ne p ers o n, o ne lo ck, o ne ke y,' u nder w hic h th e w ork e r se rv ic in g th e m ach in e m ust p ers o nally lo ck th e 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 2/7 7 m ach in e's s w it c h in th e o ff p osit io n b efo re b egin nin g th e m ain te nance w ork a nd m ust p ers o nally re m ove t h e lo ck o n th e w ay o ut." Id . a t 1 1 3. U nio ns a ls o w ante d a b ro ader r u le , a pplic a ble to m ore in dustr ie s, a nd " e m plo ye e p artic ip atio n in th e fo rm ula tio n o f lo cko ut/ta gout p ro ce dure s a nd tr a in in g p ro gra m s." Id . T he u nio ns' in te re st in th ese th re e a re as is s tr a ig htfo rw ard . B oth th e " o ne p ers o n, o ne lo ck, o ne k e y" p rin cip le a nd th e g re ate r e m plo ye e p artic ip atio n in c re atin g tr a in in g p ro gra m s in cre ase d e m plo ye e c o ntr o l o ve r w ork p ro ce dure s, e n hancin g u nio n c o ntr o l w hen c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g a gre em ents e xis te d. E xp andin g th e a pplic a tio n o f a sin gle ru le a cro ss m ore in dustr ie s, ra th er th an ta kin g O SH A's p re fe rre d in dustr y b y i n dustr y a ppro ach , fa vo re d u nio ns, w hose n atio nal o ff ic e c o uld a naly ze th e s in gle ru le , a t th e e xp ense o f i n dustr ie s th at m ig ht b enefit fr o m th e c a se b yc a se a ppro ach . A s th is e xa m ple s u ggests , O SH A b eca m e a p olit ic a l p riz e , s in ce it c o uld b e u se d to a ssis t o r h in der u nio n e ff o rts in th e w ork p la ce .
3 35. S ALT E R , s u pra n ote 2 23, a t 6 36 4.
3 36. Id . a t 6 4.
3 37. M CGAR IT Y & S H APIR O, s u pra n ote 5 0, a t 2 58.
3 38. S ee O SH A In str u ctio n C PL 2 .7 8, F eb. 9 , 1 987 D ir e cto ra te o f T e ch nic a l S upport, r e prin te d in O SH A N otic e C PL 2 , M ay 1 2, 1 986, a va ila ble a t h ttp ://w ww.o sh a.g ov/p ls /o sh aw eb/o w adis p .s h ow _docu m ent?
p _ta ble = D I R EC TIV ES&p_id = 1655 ( s ta tin g th at th e d ir e ctiv e " p ro vid ed d ir e ctio n a nd e sta blis h ed g oals fo r u se b y O SH A p ers o nnel in th e d eve lo pm ent o f a n e rg onom ic s p ro gra m fo r te ch nic a l a ssis ta nce a s w ell a s b ro ad g uid elin es to b e fo llo w ed w hile co nductin g e rg onom ic a lly re la te d e nfo rc e m ent a ctiv it ie s a t th e w ork p la ce ").
3 39. S ee id . ( o rd erin g im ple m enta tio n o f n ew s ta ndard ).
3 40. See Pre ss Rele ase , Sta te m ent by th e Pre sid ent (M ar. 21, 2001), ava ila ble at h ttp ://w ww.w hit e house .g ov/n ew s/r e le ase s/2 001/0 3/2 0010321.h tm l (e xp la in in g th at he sig ned th e l e gis la tio n b eca use h e b elie ve d r e gula tio n w as to o b urd enso m e o n b usin ess).
3 41. S ee E ugene S ca lia , O SH A's E rg onom ic s L it ig atio n R eco rd : T hre e S tr ik e s a nd It's O ut, C ato In stit u te P olic y A naly sis , a va ila ble a t h ttp ://w ww.c a to .o rg / p ub_dis p la y.p hp? p ub_id = 1229 (d eta ilin g th e h is to ry o f t h e lit ig atio n a nd th e a tte m pt to im pose e rg onom ic s s ta ndard s).
3 42. S ee 2 9 C .F .R . § 1 910.1 000(c ) ( 1 971) ( d elin eatin g a n ew s ta ndard ).
3 43. S ee G ra ham , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 2 01 ( d eta ilin g a n ew m eth od o f m easu rin g q u artz e xp osu re s th at, fo r t h e fir s t tim e, to ok in to a cco unt th e p artic le s iz e a nd p erc e nta ge o f q uartz in th e fr a ctio n o f d ust, b ut n otin g t h at th e m easu re m ent r e quir e d a m ath em atic a l c o nve rs io n).
3 44. Id . a t 2 01; s e e N IO SH H AZA R D R EVIE W , s u pra n ote 3 1, a t 3 (e xp la in in g th at, in th e c o ntin ued e ff o rt to p ro te ct w ork e rs fr o m e xp osu re , t h e e xp osu re lim it s h ould b e lo w ere d to 0 .0 5 m g/m ) . 3 45. S ee P R IM ER , s u pra n ote 9 , a t 1 ( e xp la in in g th e e vo lu tio n o f th e r e gula tio n o f s ilic a ).
3 46. S ee id . a t 1 2 (n otin g th at a lo t o f sa m plin g is re quir e d to p ro ve th e co nce ntr a tio n is u nder th e t h re sh old in ord er to get out of O SH A's H aza rd C om munic a tio n sta ndard s). A cco rd in g to O SH A r e gula tio ns, th ese "c o m pre hensiv e h aza rd c o m munic a tio n p ro gra m s … a re to in clu de c o nta in er la belin g a nd oth er fo rm s of w arn in g, m ate ria l sa fe ty data sh eets and em plo ye e tr a in in g." O SH A H aza rd C om munic a tio n Sta ndard s (H CS or HazC om sta ndard s), 29 C.F .R . § 1910.1 200, ava ila ble at h ttp ://w ww.o sh a.g ov/p ls /o sh aw eb/o w adis p .s h ow _docu m ent? p_ta ble = S T T A N DAR DS&p_id = 1 0099.
3 47. S ee P R IM ER , s u pra n ote 9 , a t 1 2, 1 6 ( n otin g h ow a w are ness o f th e p ro ble m le d to c h anges).
3 48. S ee H aza rd C om munic a tio n, 6 7 F ed. R eg. 4 2,3 14, 4 2,3 23 (J u ne 2 1, 2 002) (to b e c o dif ie d a t 3 0 C .F .R . p ts . 4 2, 4 6, 4 7, 4 8, 5 6, 5 7, 7 7) T he H aza rd C om munic a tio n s tr e sse d th e p ote ntia l fo r e xp osu re to s u bsta nce s in th e d ete rm in atio n o f c o ve re d h aza rd s:
A lmost all miners are exposed to crystalline silica, but the potential for illness is related to their exposure to the respirable fraction of dust. For example, suppose your miners work on a concrete floor and there is silica in the concrete. If no cutting, grinding, or other activities occur on the floor 3 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 3/7 7 that would release the respirable fraction, the potential for exposure to respirable crystalline silica is remote, and the miners are not potentially exposed to a hazard. If you must remove the floor through grinding, cutting, or crushing, the potential for exposure is foreseeable and the concrete would become a hazardous chemical subject to HazCom. Base your decision to include a chemical in your HazCom program on its hazards and the potential for miner exposure. Id.
3 49. S ee L ette r fr o m J o hn P enderg ra st, A ssis ta nt S ecre ta ry o f L abor, to T heodore L . G arre tt (S ept. 2 0, 1 988), ava ila ble at http ://w ww.o sh a.g ov/p ls /o sh aw eb/o w adis p .s h ow docu m ent?
p _ta ble = IN TE R PR ETA T IO NS&p_id = 19704 (s ta tin g th at O SH A d enie d th e p etit io n file d o n b ehalf o f th e N atio nal S to ne A sso cia tio n b eca use it ru le d th at "[in fo rm atio n re gard in g th e e vid ence o f c a rc in ogenic it y m ust b e in clu ded o n r e quir e d la bels a nd m ate ria l s a fe ty d ata s h eets fo r c ry sta llin e s ilic a , a nd fo r p ro ducts c o nta in in g c ry sta llin e s ilic a , w here e m plo ye e e xp osu re to th e c ry sta llin e s ilic a m ay o ccu r").
3 50. S ee U .S . D EP'T O F L A BO R, S P R IN G 2 005 U NIF IE D A G EN DA O F F E D ER AL R EG ULA TO RY A N D DER EG ULA TO RY AC TIO NS, ava ila ble at h ttp ://c iir .c s.u m ass.e du/u a/S prin g2005/a ge nda/D EPA R TM EN T_O F_LA BO OR _ (D OL).h tm l; ASTM I N T'L , A STM E 11 329 9A , S TA N DAR D P R AC TIC E F O R H EALT H R EQ UIR EM EN TS R ELA T IN G T O O CCUPAT IO NAL E XPO SU RE T O R ES PIR ABLE C RYSTA LLIN E S IL IC A ( A ug. 1 0, 1 999).
3 51. U .S . D ep't o f L abor, 2 004 R egula to ry P la n, 6 9 F ed. R eg. 7 2,7 81, 7 2,7 81 ( D ec. 1 3, 2 004).
3 52. S ee L ette r fr o m T hom as M . S ulliv a n, C hie f C ounse l fo r A dvo ca cy, to R obert E . B urt, S m all B usin ess A dvo ca cy Chair , OSH A (O ct. 31, 2003), ava ila ble at h ttp ://w ww.s b a.g ov/a dvo /la w s/c o m ments /o sh a03_1031.p df (e xp la in in g th at § 6 09(b ) o f th e R egula to ry F le xib ilit y A ct, as am ended by th e S m all B usin ess R egula to ry E nfo rc e m ent F air n ess A ct of 1996 ( S BR EFA ), re quir e s O SH A and th e E PA to notif y th e O ff ic e of A dvo ca cy of th e S m all B usin ess A dm in is tr a tio n a nd re sp ond to c o m men ts b y a S m all B usin ess A dvo ca cy R evie w P anel b efo re is su in g r e gula tio ns th at m ay h ave a s ig nif ic a nt im pact o n s m all e ntit ie s).
3 53. S ee S BR EFA P A N EL, 12/0 3 R EPO RT O F T H E S M ALL B U SIN ESS A D VO CAC Y R EVIE W P A N EL O N T H E D RAFT O SH A S TA N DAR DS F O R S IL IC A ( D ec. 1 9, 2 003) ( s ta tin g th at th e P EL is th e h ig hest a ve ra ge co nce ntr a tio n o f re sp ir a ble cry sta llin e silic a in th e a ir to w hic h a n e m plo ye e m ay b e e xp ose d o ve r a n e ig ht h our w ork d ay).
3 54. Id .
3 55. U .S . D EP'T O F L A BO R, S PR IN G 2 005 U NIF IE D A G EN DA O F F E D ER AL R EG ULA TO RY A N D D ER EG ULA TO RY A C TIO NS, E N TR Y 1 935, O CCUPAT IO NAL E XPO SU RE T o C RYSTA LLIN E S IL IC A, a va ila ble at http ://c iir .c s.u m ass.e du/c g i b in /u a/w eb_fe tc h _doc? data se t= ua &db= agenda S prin g2005& query = a nd& doc_ id = 1935.
3 56. U .S . D EP'T O F L A BO R, S PR IN G 2 005 U NIF IE D A G EN DA O F F E D ER AL R EG ULA TO RY A N D D ER EG ULA TO RY A C TIO NS, E N TR Y 1921, R ESPIR ABLE C RYSTA LLIN E S IL IC A S TA N DAR D, a va ila ble at http ://c iir .c s.u m ass.e du/c g i bin /u a/w eb_fe tc h _doc? data se t= ua& db= agendaS prin g 2005& query = and& doc_ id = 1921.
3 57. Id .
3 58. Id .
3 59. S ee B ria n W illia m s e t a l. , O ccu patio nal H ealt h , O ccu patio nal Illn ess: T uberc u lo sis , S ilic o sis a nd H IV o n th e S outh A fr ic a n M in es, in O CCUPAT IO NAL L U NG D IS EASE, s u pra n ote 5 . a t 9 5, 1 00 (o pin in g th at th e p re ve ntio n o f s ilic o sis c a n b e a cco m plis h ed b y o bse rv in g d ust le ve ls , a t e ch nic a l p ro ble m ).
3 60. S ee J o nes, s u p ra n ote 5 , a t 2 21 ( p ro posin g th at u sin g le ss h aza rd ous m ate ria ls in lie u o f d angero us m ate ria ls is a v ia ble w ay o f r e ducin g e xp osu re s). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 4/7 7 3 61. S ee id . a t 2 21 ( s u ggestin g th at v e ntila tio n, is o la tio n, s u bstit u tio n, a nd d ust s u ppre ssio n b y w ettin g a re a m ong th e p ossib ilit ie s to r e duce s ilic a e xp osu re ).
3 62. S ee id . ( in dic a tin g th at a pply in g w ate r o r o th er liq uid is a n a dequate m eth od o f c o ntr o llin g d ust) .
3 63. S ee id . (d eta ilin g th e a bilit y o f lo ca l v e ntila tio n s yste m s to tr a p a c o nta m in a nt b efo re it re ach es th e g enera l a ir flo w ).
3 64. C orn d eta ils o ne o f th e ke y p ro ble m s w it h u sin g th e T LV s a s sta ndard s b y u sin g th e fo llo w in g e xa m ple : T LV s ta ndard s w ere in te nded to b e ro om a ir le ve ls , b ut O SH A tr e ate d th em a s m easu re m ents " a t th e n ose ." S ee In te rv ie w w it h L eonard J . G old w ate r, in C ORN, s u pra n ote 9 8, a t 1 454 6. A s C olu m bia M edic a l S ch ool P ro fe sso r a nd lo ngtim e A C GIH m em ber D r. L eonard G old w ate r e xp la in ed in a n in te rv ie w , T LV s w ere b ase d o n r o om m onit o rin g, n ot p ers o nal m onit o rin g:
N ow we're doing almost entirely personal monitoring. And the values you get from personal monitoring, as you well know, have no connection whatsoever to general room air levels. I shouldn't say no connection, but they can be very far apart. In fact my experience with personal monitoring is that it gives higher levels than those in general room air. We've done some studies on this. Mercury in particular is two or three times higher at the nose than it is 6 feet away in the general room air. Now, as far as I'm aware, nothing has been done to point out the fact that these original correlations no longer hold. And that what the agencies are doing now is saying that you mustn't have more than, let's say, 10 parts per million at the nose when originally it was 10 parts per million in the general room air. You're dealing with a totally different system. And so they're insisting on the values of personal monitoring being the same as those of the general room air, which means that you have to reduce them by several‐fold. I wrote to Elkins and Stockinger about this at the time I became aware of it. And Elkins said 'You're right'; he was on the committee. And that's where that ended. Stockinger as usual giggled …. OSHA misapplied these things from day one. As far as I'm aware, ACGIH has done nothing to tell OSHA: "You're off‐base, you don't know what you are talking about. You're misapplying TLVs, you're misinterpreting them, you're doing everything wrong with them." To me this has done great mischief, to put it mildly. Id.
3 65. S ee G ra ham , su pra n ote 5 , a t 2 01 (d eta ilin g a n ew co nve rs io n m eth od th at h as p ro ble m s, fo r e xa m ple , c o nve rtin g b etw een p arts p er c u bic fo ot a nd m g/m ) . 3 66. S ee B anks, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 8 (a dvo ca tin g th at, o nce s o m eone h as a n o ccu patio nal lu ng d is e ase , " th e w ork e r is b est a dvis e d to le ave th e w ork p la ce ").
3 67. S ee s u pra te xt a cco m panyin g n ote 2 32 (d is cu ssin g u nio n e ff o rts to p re ve nt le gis la tio n th at w ould r e su lt in th e d is ch arg e o f a ff e cte d e m plo ye es).
3 68. S ee K are n R oth enberg e t a l. , G enetic In fo rm atio n a nd th e W ork p la ce : L eg is la tiv e A ppro ach es a nd P olic y C halle nges, 275 S C IE N CE 17 55, 1755 (1 997) (fin din g th at, as te ch nolo gy adva nce s, th e i n fo rm atio n b ase o n c o nnectio ns b etw een g enetic s a nd s u sce ptib ilit y to d is e ase h as in cre ase d).
3 69. J o nes, s u pra n ote 5 , a t 2 21. 3 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 5/7 7 3 70. S ee P hilip H arb er, R esp ir a to rs , in E N VIR ONM EN TA L & O CCUPAT IO NAL M ED IC IN E 1 757, 1 757 ( W illia m N . R om e d., 3 d e d. 1 998). H arb er s ta te d, U se of respirators is not the method of choice for controlling exposures. Respirators do not provide foolproof protection. Respirator‐based protection is completely dependent on voluntary compliance by the worker. Furthermore, protection by respirator use requires an ongoing multifaceted program to assure proper maintenance and utilization. The cost of the respirator itself is only a small part of the total cost of an effective program.
I d .
3 71. T he in te nt b ehin d th ese o bje ctio ns m ay b e to a rg ue th at re sp ir a to rs h ave a h ig her fa ilu re ra te th an e ngin eerin g c o ntr o ls o r th at re sp ir a to r m ain te nance is m ore c o stly o r d if f ic u lt th an e ngin eerin g c o ntr o l m ain te nance . If th at w ere tr u e, h ow eve r, th e c la im w ould n ot b e s ta te d c a te goric a lly , s in ce it w ould h ave to b e e va lu ate d o n a c a se b y c a se b asis .
3 72. S ee, e .g ., R OSEN , s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 4 22. R ose n o ff e re d a n e arly h is to ric a l e xa m ple o f th e p ro ble m o f w ork e r in te rfe re nce w it h s a fe ty m easu re s:
I t has been mentioned that several authors suggested the use of respirators to prevent the inhalation of dust. However, such devices did not come into common use and Federath writing in 1899 offers some illuminating information on this subject. "At the end of the seventies," he says, "I recommended the wearing of a respirator while at work as a prophylactic measure. The miners complained, however, that they could not work with it because it interfered with their breathing. I then suggested to them at least to tie a piece of cloth in front of the nose and mouth‐even in this way a large quantity of dust would be prevented from entering the lungs. I do not know whether they followed this advice — even this measure was probably too inconvenient for them. Unfortunately most of them are very indolent — the younger ones say 'we don't need that' and the older ones, 'that can't help us any more.'" I d .
3 73. S ee, e .g ., B anks, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 4 . B anks illu m in ate d u pon th e d if f ic u lt y in g ettin g w ork e rs to c o m ply w it h s a fe ty m easu re s:
C onveying the public health perspective that dust‐related diseases are dangerous to a worker's respiratory health can be difficult, particularly when the period from first exposure to the development of disease may be 20 or more years. Furthermore, the frequently suggested solution of wearing personal respiratory protective devices throughout the workday is an unrealistic expectation. The increase in the work of breathing, the discomfort, the poor‐fit sometimes attributable to facial hair, and the inability to speak and adequately 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 6/7 7 communicate with one's fellow workers is almost too much too [sic] ask of any worker.
I d .
3 74. S ee, e .g ., B ala an & B anks, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 4 46. B ala an a nd B anks d is p la ye d th eir o ptim is m in a ddre ssin g th e p ro ble m p ose d b y s ilic a :
S ilicosis is preventable. The extent to which this can be realized depends on education of employers and employees, strict enforcement of industrial hygiene practices, and vigilance for circumstances where unacceptable exposures to respirable silica may happen. Further research on the mechanism of lung injury in silicosis and its modulation by pharmacologic agents will contribute to our therapeutic armamentarium for this disease.
I d .; s e e a ls o G ary R . E ple r, C lin ic a l O ve rv ie w o f O ccu patio nal L ung D is e ase , 3 0 T H E R AD IO LO GIC AL C LIN IC S O F N . A M .: O CCUPAT IO NAL L U NG D IS EASE 1 1 21, 1 1 27 ( 1 992) ( m ain ta in in g th at " [v ]ig oro us a dhere nce to d ust co ntr o l re gula tio ns a nd d ust co unt m onit o rin g ca n e lim in ate th is d is o rd er [c h ro nic s ilic o sis ]" ).
3 75. S ee B anks, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 7 ("P rim ary p re ve ntio n, th e b ackb one o f p re ve ntio n o f a ll w ork p la ce d is e ase , is b est a ch ie ve d b y e lim in atin g e xp osu re s." ).
3 76. S ee H off m an, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 5 36 (c o nsid erin g th e d ust s a fe ty te ch niq ues k n ow n in th e e arly 1 900s); C HER NIA C K, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 3 8 ( h ig hlig htin g th at " [t]h e e ff ic a cy o f p re ve nta tiv e m easu re s h ad a ls o b een d ocu m ente d" b y 1 915).
3 77. S ee F ra nk J . H earl, Id entif ic a tio n, M onit o rin g a nd C ontr o l o f D ust E xp osu re s, in O CCUPA T IO NAL L U NG D IS EASE, s u pra n ote 5 , a t 3 5, 3 5 ("T he re co gnit io n, e va lu atio n a nd c o ntr o l o f d ust e xp osu re s in o ccu patio nal e nvir o nm ents c a n b e c o m ple x." ).
3 78. S ee P R IM ER , s u pra n ote 9 , a t 1 61 7 (d is cu ssin g th e v a rio us is su es in he re nt in d ia gnosin g s ilic a r e la te d h ealt h tr o uble s).
3 79. S ee id . a t 1 6 ( "U nder c e rta in c o ndit io ns, c u rre nt te ch niq ues a nd e quip m ent c a n't d is tin guis h v e ry w ell b etw een it s p hysic a l s ta te s a t th e lo w c o nce ntr a tio n le ve l s p ecif ie d b y H CS." ).
3 80. S ee G ra ham , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 2 00 . G ra ham c o m mente d o n th e a dded c o m plic a tio ns c a use d b y i n co m ple te d ata :
S etting [occupational exposure] guidelines is hardly a simple task, depending as they do on animal toxicology as well as epidemiological studies, either prospective or retrospective, of exposed occupational cohorts. Often, past exposures are uncertain because of fragmentary data and constantly changing work environments. Clinical data such as chest X‐rays may never have been taken systematically and maintained. Predicting a safe exposure for a working lifetime involves the conundrum of protecting workers but not establishing standards which unfairly burden the industry, although the necessary tendency is clearly to err on the side of worker health.
I d . 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 7/7 7 3 81. S ee, e .g ., H earl, s u pra n ote 3 77, a t 3 5 ( c it a tio n o m it te d). H earl n ote d th at th e a ge o f th e d ust fu rth er c o m plic a te s th e is su e:
S ome studies show that freshly generated dust containing crystalline silica will exhibit increased toxicity in lung cells compared with aged dust, due to the recent creation and presence of surface free radicals. Therefore, specific knowledge about the process that generated the dust and the interactions of the aerosol with the environment provide important information.
I d . H earl c o ntin ued b y e xp la in in g, D ust measurement and dust hazard evaluation is complex because of the need to characterize properties beyond the intensity of exposure, i.e. the dust concentration. It may be necessary to describe the exposure in terms of the particle size distribution, and the often inhomogeneous chemical or morphological properties of the dust. For fibrous materials such as asbestos, particle shape may have a profound impact on the toxicity of the material. Several descriptors of the particles may be used to characterize the concentration including: the mass of the particles, the mass of one chemical species in the particles, the active surface area, the number of particles, or the crystalline properties of the particles.
I d .
3 82. S ee G ra ham , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 1 9 29 3. G ra ham d is cu sse d th at s u cce ss in e lim in atin g h ig h s ilic a e xp osu re h as m ade it m ore d if f ic u lt to fin d o th er d am agin g e xp osu re to s ilic a :
A s dust levels have fallen as a result of environmental controls and governmental standards, the health effects have become more subtle: radiographic changes may be so slight that interpreting a film as "abnormal" or "normal" may be difficult and subject to disagreement, even by expert readers. Likewise, when conglomerate silicosis was often the outcome of extremely high dust exposures, pulmonary function changes were certain and inevitable. Now, however, whether quartz exposure has any effect in the absence of radiographie changes is very much in doubt.
I d .
3 83. S ee S TE PH EN J . C AR ROLL E T A L., A SBESTO S L IT IG AT IO N C OSTS A N D C OM PEN SAT IO N:
A N IN TE R IM R EPO RT 20 (R AN D In stit u te fo r Ju stic e ed., 2002) (c it a tio n om it te d) (fin din g th at i n dependent re aders "re vie w ed th e X R ays s u bm it te d b y a ra ndom s a m ple o f c la im ants … . A c la im w as d ow ngra ded o nly if b oth [r e aders ] in dependently d ete rm in ed th at th ey s a w n o in dic a tio n o f e ve n lo w le ve l, s u bd ia gnostic X R ay e vid ence o f in te rs tit ia l fib ro sis "); s e e a ls o L este r B ric km an, O n th e T heory C la ss's T heorie s o f A sb esto s L it ig atio n: T he D is c o nnect B etw een S ch ola rs h ip a nd R ealit y , 3 1 P EPP. L . R EV. 3 3, 1 283 7 ( 2 003) ( d escrib in g T ru st e xp erie n ce in d eta il) .
3 84. C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 2 0 ( c it a tio n o m it te d). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 8/7 7 3 85. S ee G ra ham , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 2 00 ("[T ]h e V erm ont g ra nit e in dustr y u lt im ate ly p ro vid ed th e m ost c o m ple te e pid em io lo gic d ata o n th e h ealt h e ff e cts o f q uartz th ro ugh a s e rie s o f la ndm ark in ve stig atio ns." ); W ang & B anks, s u pra n ote 1 0, a t 7 0 (" E xp osu re a nd lu ng fu nctio n d ata fr o m [V erm ont g ra nit e w ork e rs s tu die d s e ria lly fr o m 1 979 to 1 987] h as fo rm ed th e b ackb one fo r th e s ilic a s ta ndard in th e U S." ).
3 86. S ee W ang & B anks, s u pra n ote 1 0, a t 7 0 ("T he e vid ence fo r a ir w ays o bstr u ctio n, a s it re la te s to s ilic a , is fo und p rim arily in e pid em io lo gic s tu die s o f S outh A fr ic a n g old m in ers ." ).
3 87. S ee C HER NIA C K, s u pra n ote 7 1, a t 3 83 9 (d is cu ssin g th e d eve lo pm ent o f k n ow le dge a nd c it in g s u ch in cid ents ).
3 88. S ee G ra ham , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 2 00 (e xp lo rin g th e o rig in s o f th e V erm ont s tu die s o n s ilic a ); s e e a ls o I n te rv ie w w it h L eonard J . G old w ate r, in P R OTE C TIN G T H E H EALT H O F W ORKE R S: T H E A M ER IC AN C ONFE R EN CE OF GOVER NM EN TA L IN DUSTR IA L HYG IE N IS TS , 193 81 988, at 143 (1 989) ( h ig hlig htin g th e fa ct th at g ra nit e w ork e rs "d id n ot h ave m uch tr o uble [w it h s ilic o sis ] in V erm ont u ntil th ey s ta rte d u sin g p neum atic to ols . W hen it w as a ll h andw ork th ey h ad n o p ro ble m s").
3 89. S ee G ra ham , su pra note 5, at 200 (d ocu m entin g th e va ria ble s allo w in g fo r a dose re sp onse r e la tio nsh ip fo r w ork e rs e xp ose d to g ra nit e d ust) .
3 90. Id . ( c it a tio ns o m it te d).
3 91. S in ce th e fo rm o f s ilic a w as n ot k n ow n to b e im porta nt a t th e tim e o f th e s tu die s, th e re ports o f th e s tu die s d o n ot in clu de s u ff ic ie nt in fo rm atio n to c h ara cte riz e th e m ate ria l a s fu lly a s is c u rre ntly p ossib le .
3 92. S ee s u pra te xt a cco m panyin g n ote 3 6.
3 93. G ra ham , s u pra n ote 5 , a t 2 05.
3 94. G ord on T ullo ck, P ublic C hoic e , in T H E N EW P A LG RAV E: A D IC TIO NAR Y O F E C ONOM IC S 1 043 ( 1 998).
3 95. S ee B R YC E W IL K IN SO N, C ONSTR AIN IN G G OVER NM EN T R EG ULA T IO N 1 232 4 (N .Z . B us.
R oundta ble ed., 2001), ava ila ble at http ://w ww.n zb r.o rg .n z/d ocu m ents /p ublic a tio ns/p ublic a tio ns 2 001/c o nstr a i in in g_govt.p df (d is cu ssin g th e div e rs e benefit s accru in g to gove rn m ent off ic ia ls fr o m i n cre ase d r e gula tio n).
3 96. S ee S U SAN D UDLE Y & M ELIN DA W AR REN , M ODER AT IN G R EG ULA TO RY G ROW TH : A N A N ALY SIS O F T H E U .S . B U DGET F O R F IS C AL Y EAR S 2 006 A N D 2 007, a t 5 (2 006), a va ila ble a t h ttp ://w ww.m erc a tu s.o rg / ( a naly zin g tr e nd s in fe dera l r e gula to ry a gencie s' b udgets ).
3 97. Id . a t 1 5.
3 98. S ee E xe c. O rd er N o. 1 2,8 66, 3 C .F .R . 6 39 (1 993) (a nnouncin g th at "e co nom ic a lly sig nif ic a nt" g enera lly r e fe rs to r e gula tio ns th at a re e xp ecte d to h ave a n im pact o f $ 100 m illio n p er y e ar o r m ore ).
3 99. Data on re gula tio ns re vie w ed under Exe cu tiv e Ord er 12,8 66 are ava ila ble at h ttp ://w ww.r e gin fo .g ov/p ublic /d o/e oH is to ric R eport.
4 00. S ee id .
4 01. S ee J o se ph M . J o hnso n, A R evie w a nd S yn th esis o f th e C ost o f W ork p la ce R egula tio ns, in C ROSS B O RDER H UM AN R ESO URCES, L A B O R A N D E M PLO YM EN T IS SU ES 4 33, 4 545 5 (A ndre w P .
M orris s & S am uel E str e ic h er e ds., 2 005). J o hnso n e stim ate s th at th e c o st o f w ork p la ce r e gula tio n to ta le d $ 91 b illio n in 2 000. Id . F ig ure s a re in y e ar 2 000 d olla rs . S ee H arv e y S . J a m es, J r., E stim atin g O SH A C om plia nce C osts , 3 1 P O L'Y S C I. 3 21 ( 1 998) ( a naly zin g a nd a ppro xim atin g O SH A c o m plia nce c o sts ).
4 02. S ee J o hnso n, s u pra n ote 4 01, a t 4 545 5.
4 03. S ee V IS C USI E T A L., s u pra n ote 5 2 ( s u m mariz in g th e e co nom etr ic s tu die s th at e xa m in e th e im pact o f O SH A). M ost o f th e s tu die s V is cu si u se d fo cu s o n a ccid ent ra te s, ra th er th an d is e ase s, h ow eve r. F or e xa m ple , d eath r a te tr e nds fo r jo bre la te d a ccid ents d id n ot c h ange a fte r th e e nactm ent o f th e O SH A ct.
4 04. S ee R osn er & M ark o w it z , s u pra n ote 1 30, a t 4 67 (d is cu ssin g th e h is to ry o f w ork p la ce h ealt h a nd s a fe ty m easu re s a nd u nio n o rg aniz in g a s w ell a s q uotin g a n e arly tw entie th c e ntu ry a naly st th at th e c a m paig n fo r w ork p la ce h ealt h a nd s a fe ty w as " p art a nd p arc e l o f th e m ove m ent fo r la bor le gis la tio n"); id . 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 6 9/7 7 a t 4 77 (d escrib in g th e ro le o f u nio ns a nd n otin g th at th e N ew Y ork b ake rs ' u nio n in 1 909 h ad a s tr ik e in w hic h " th e u nio n id entif ie d u nsa nit a ry w ork sh ops a nd th e s p re ad o f d is e ase w it h n onunio n b ake rie s").
4 05. S ee id . a t 4 79 ( "[I]n dustr ia l a ccid ents a nd d is e ase s p ro ve d to b e a n a ttr a ctiv e is su e [a t th e s ta rt o f th e t w entie th c e ntu ry ] fo r p ro gre ssiv e s in te re ste d in e xp andin g th e r o le o f th e s ta te ." ).
4 06. S ee U nio nsta ts .c o m , http ://w ww.u nio nsta ts .c o m (la st vis it e d M ay 6, 2006); B ure au of Labor S ta tis tic s, U nio n M em bers in 2 004, h ttp ://w ww.b ls .g ov/n ew s.r e le ase /a rc h iv e s/u nio n2_01272005.p df; s e e a ls o O rly Lobel, B eyo nd E xp erim enta tio n: G ove rn in g O ccu patio nal S afe ty in th e U nit e d S ta te s 5 ( U niv e rs it y of San Die go Legal Stu die s Rese arc h Paper No. 073 2, 2006), ava ila ble at h ttp ://s srn .c o m /a bstr a ct= 874837 ("O SH A p ra ctic e s a nd th e lim it s o f it s re ach n o d oubt e pit o m iz e th e r e la tiv e p ow er o f b usin ess in te re sts a nd th e p olit ic a l w eakn ess o f la bor in te re sts in th e U nit e d S ta te s." ).
4 07. S ee F ox & S to ne, s u pra n ote 2 50, a t 3 33 4 (c o m mentin g th at th ese o w ners a nd p hysic ia ns w ere m ore c o nce rn ed w it h p olit ic a l c o m pla ce ncy th an w it h th e lim it s o f m edic a l k n ow le dge).
4 08. S ee id . a t 3 63 7 ( e xp lic a tin g th e s it u atio n in th e la te 1 960s, in clu din g th e F arm in gto n d is a ste r, w hic h p ro m pte d le gis la tiv e a ctio n o n th e b la ck lu ng p ro ble m a m ong m in ers ).
4 09. Id . a t 4 0.
4 10. S ee C yn th ia E stlu nd, R ebuild in g th e L aw o f th e W ork p la ce in a n E ra o f S elf R egula tio n, 1 05 C OLU M . L . R EV. 3 19, 3 85 ( 2 005) ( p oin tin g to O SH A's s tr u ctu ra l a nd p olit ic a l w eakn esse s).
4 11 . S ee N IO SH H AZA R D R EVIE W , su pra n ote 3 1, a t 1 , a nd tb l. 1 , a t 5 (s h ow in g in dustr ie s w it h w ork e rs p o te ntia lly e xp ose d to silic a a nd n otin g th at "[s ]in ce 1 968, re porte d m orta lit y a sso cia te d w it h s ilic o sis h as d eclin ed; h ow eve r, 2 00 to 3 0 0 s u ch d eath s w ere r e porte d e ach y e ar d urin g th e p erio d 1 992 1 995").
4 12. Id . a t 3 .
4 13. S ee D AV IS , s u pra n ote 1 67, a t 7 4. T he a uth or g oes o n to d escrib e th e m ajo r p la ye rs in s ilic a re la te d s u it s :
T wo great groups are very much interested in silicosis. One is the employers who are conducting industries in which there is exposure to dust. The other groups consist of the thousands of people who work in these industries. Lawyers and legislators make up another group — one that buzzes around the other two. Id.
4 14. S ee B ric km an, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 4 6 n .2 9 ( d escrib in g p ara lle ls b etw een s ili c o sis a nd a sb esto sis a nd c o nclu din g th at " th e p rin cip al d if f e re nce e nsu in g fr o m id entif y in g a fib ro sis a s a sb esto sis , th at is , c a use d b y e xp osu re to a sb esto s, r a th er th an o ne o f th e o th er c a use s o f fib ro sis , d oes n ot lie in th e m edic a l r e alm ").
T he a uth or g oes o n to e xp la in th at " it is a fu nctio n o f th e c o m pensa tio n s yste m ." Id .
4 15. B ore l v . F ib re board P aper P ro ds. C orp ., 4 93 F .2 d 1 076 ( 5 th C ir . 1 973); s e e a ls o J o hn C . C off e e, J r., C la ss W ars : T he D ile m ma o f M ass T o rt C la ss A ctio n, 9 5 C OLU M . L . R EV. 1 343 , 1 385 ( 1 995) ( o bse rv in g t h e e ff e ct th e fir s t m ajo r a sb esto s d ecis io n h ad o n su bse quent lit ig atio n); F R ED ER IC K M . B AR ON, H AN DLIN G O CCUPAT IO NAL D IS EASE C ASES 2 (1 981) (n otin g th at befo re B ore l "o ccu patio nal d is e ase la w a m ounte d to a g ro up o f ca se s a nd a rtic le s d is cu ssin g re co ve ry u nder th e va rio us sta te w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n a cts ").
4 16. S ee B ore l, 4 93 F .2 d a t 1 091, 1 0959 6 ( h old in g th at s tr ic t lia bilit y m ay a pply in th is c a se b eca use th e u se o f th e p ro duct w as "u nre aso nably d angero us" a nd th at th e to rtfe aso rs m ay b e h eld jo in tly a nd s e ve ra lly lia ble fo r th e to ta l d am ages).
4 17. S ee P atr ic k M . H anlo n & J u lie S . L ehrm an, D eve lo pm ents in P re m is e s L ia bilit y L aw , in A SBESTO S L IT IG AT IO N IN T H E 2 1S T C EN TU RY 1 62 (2 004) (re m ark in g o n th e la ck o f co nfid ence in w ork e rs ' c o m pensa tio n s yste m s). 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 7 0/7 7 4 18. A c la ssic e xa m ple o f th is a ttit u de to w ard B ore l is p ro vid ed b y P ro fe sso r H aro ld S outh erla nd's e ssa y, L aw , L it e ra tu re a nd H is to ry :
L aw is at its best, I think, when used to restrain the exertion of external power by one person over another, at its worst when used, as it so often is, to legitimize, to make possible, the exertion of such power. It is hard to think of a better example than Paul Brodeur's account of the long struggle of dying plaintiffs against the asbestos industry, in particular Ward Stephenson's Herculean labors on behalf of Clarence Borel, which culminated in the Fifth Circuit's ground‐breaking decision in Borel v. Fibreboard Paper Prods. Corp., the case which would effectively break the back of the asbestos industry.
H aro ld P . S outh erla nd, L aw , L it e ra tu re , a n d H is to ry , 2 8 V T. L . R EV. 1 , 8 2 n .2 55 ( 2 003) ( c it a tio n o m it te d).
S outh erla nd g oes o n to q uote P aul B ro deur's a cco unt to s u pport h is p oin t:
a society that cannot summon up the sense to protect the lungs and the lives of its workers cannot hope to protect the lungs and lives of its other citizens, including its children …. The health hazard posed by … [asbestos] has called into question the conduct of a huge cross‐section of the institutions that make up the private‐enterprise system, including many of its manufacturing corporations, insurance companies, investment houses, law firms, trade unions, and governmental regulatory agencies, as well as many members of the medical and legal professions, the scientific community, and Congress.
I d . a t 8 2 (q uotin g P A U L B R ODEU R, O UTR AG EO US M IS C ONDUCT 3 484 9 (1 985)). S outh erla nd's c o m ment, s im ply a n illu str a tio n fo r a n u nre la te d p oin t in h is e ssa y, is r e pre se nta tiv e o f th e a ca dem ic le gal l it e ra tu re 's v ie w o f a sb esto s lit ig atio n. It is d if f ic u lt to s q uare th is a cco unt w it h th e e co nom ic d eva sta tio n a nd fr a ud g iv e n in m ore m odern a cco unts o f a sb esto s lit ig atio n. S ee, e .g ., C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83.
B ric km an o ff e rs a n in te re st g ro upb ase d e xp la natio n fo r th e a ca dem y's u ncrit ic a l a ttit u de to w ard a sb esto s l it ig atio n. B ric km an, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 1 667 0.
4 19. S ee B ric km an, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 4 44 6 (g iv in g a th oro ugh s u m mary o f th e lit e ra tu re o n a sb esto s a nd c a nce r).
4 20. H anlo n & L ehrm an, s u pra n ote 4 17, a t 1 62.
4 21. C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t v .
4 22. C off e e, s u pra n ote 4 15, a t 1 384.
4 23. B ric km an, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 3 5.
4 24. C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 4 9.
4 25. Id . a t 5 0.
4 26. V ic to r E . S ch w artz , M ark A . B ehre ns, & R och elle M . T e desco , C ongre ss S hould A ct to R eso lv e th e N atio nal A sb esto s C ris is : T he B asis in L aw a nd P ublic P olic y fo r M eanin gfu l P ro gre ss, 4 4 S . T E X. L .
R EV. 8 39, 8 61 ( 2 003 ) ( q uotin g th e H onora ble G rif f in B . B ell, A sb esto s L it ig atio n a nd J u dic ia l L eaders h ip :
T he C ourts ' D uty to H elp S olv e th e A sb esto s Lit ig atio n C ris is , 6 B R IE FLY 4 (2 002)), ava ila ble at h ttp ://w ww.n lc p i. o rg /b ooks/p df/V ol6 N um ber6 Ju ne2002.p df.
4 27. There are num ero us sim ila rit ie s betw een asb esto sis and silic o sis th at m ake th e co m paris o n p artic u la rly a pt. B oth d is e ase s fe atu re lo ng la te ncy p erio ds, w id esp re ad e xp osu re , a nd w ell d ocu m ente d h arm s o f e xp osu re . S ee C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 1 4 ( "T hat w ork p la ce e xp osu re to a sb esto s c a n b e 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 7 1/7 7 d angero us w as k n ow n w ell b efo re W orld W ar II." ). T he tw o s u bsta nce s s h are s o m e p hysic a l a nd c h em ic a l c h ara cte ris tic s — a sb esto s is a silic a te . S ee B ala an & B anks, su pra n ote 7 1, a t 4 35 (d escrib in g th e c h em ic a l c o m posit io n o f s ilic a a nd o ff e rin g e xa m ple s o f ty p es o f s ilic a te s). F urth er, b oth d is e ase s h ave l o ng la te ncy p erio ds. S ee C AR ROLL, s u p ra n ote 3 83, a t 1 6 (n otin g th at th ere is a 2 0 to 4 0 y e ar la te ncy p erio d fo r asb esto s dis e ase ). Lastly , both pro duce a ch ro nic dis e ase th at ca n be pre se nt in an a sym pto m atic ve rs io n a s w ell a s m ore se rio us ve rs io ns. S ee Jo nes, su pra n ote 5 , a t 2 15 ("C hro nic s ilic o sis o ccu rs 2 04 0 [y e ars ] a fte r in it ia l e xp osu re to c ry sta llin e s ilic a ." ).
4 28. D avid H ech le r, S ilic a P la in tif f s S uff e r S etb acks, 2 7 N AT 'L L .J . 1 , 1 8 ( 2 005) ( q uotin g A sb esto s: M ix e d D ust a nd F E LA Is su es: H earin g B efo re th e S . C om m. o n th e J u dic ia ry , 1 09th C ong. ( 2 005) ( te stim ony o f L este r B ric km an, P ro fe sso r o f L aw , C ard o zo L aw S ch ool) ).
4 29. S ee J A M ES S . K AKALIK E T A L., C OSTS O F A SBESTO S L IT IG AT IO N ( 1 983); C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 5 1 ("In 1 982, p eople w ere s h ocke d to le arn th at o ve r 2 1,0 00 c la im ants h ad file d c la im s fo r a sb esto sre la te d in ju rie s a nd th at th e lit ig atio n h ad s p re ad to a bout 3 00 d efe ndants . T o day, w e b elie ve t h at th ro ugh th e y e ar 2 000 o ve r 6 00,0 00 c la im ants h ad file d a gain st a bout 6 ,0 00 d efe ndants ." ).
4 30. S ee, e .g ., C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 6 .
4 31. S ee id . a t 4 0 ( n otin g th at th e s ta tis tic s g iv e n w ere p ro bably u ndere stim ate d).
4 32. Id . a t 4 9.
4 33. Id . a t v ii.
4 34. S ee C off e e, su pra note 415, at 1387 (n otin g th at bankru ptc y re org an iz a tio n did lit tle to help d efe ndants w ho w ere ta rg ets o f m ass a sb esto s lit ig atio n).
4 35. S ee C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t v ii. A sb esto s lit ig atio n h as c o sts w ell b eyo nd th e p aym ents b y i n div id ual d efe ndants . E stim ate s o f jo b lo sse s fr o m th e fin ancia l w eake nin g o f th e d efe ndants r a nge fr o m 1 28,0 00 to 4 23,0 00 a nd $ 107 8 b illio n in lo st in ve stm ent c a pit a l. Id . a t 7 37 4.
4 36. Id . a t v ii; s e e a ls o id . a t 6 8 (n otin g th e c h ange in th e ty p e o f d efe ndants d ue to b ankru ptc ie s o f t r a dit io nal d efe ndants ).
4 37. Id . a t v ii.
4 38. Id . a t 4 1.
4 39. Id . a t 4 9.
4 40. Id . a t 5 0.
4 41. S ee B ric km an, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 5 55 6 ( n otin g th at m erit le ss c la im s w ere o fte n a cco m modate d b y " e n m asse " s e ttle m ents a nd d efa ult ju dgm ents ).
4 42. S ee C AR ROLL , s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 5 6 ( d em onstr a tin g th at, fr o m 1 993 to 2 001, o nly 5 27 c a se s o ut o f 1 ,5 98 r e su lt e d in tr ia l v e rd ic ts ).
4 43. S ee C off e e, s u pra n ote 4 15, a t 1 35 6 ( "M ass to rt a ctio ns m atu re d in th e 1 980s." ).
4 44. C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 3 0.
4 45. S ee C hris tin e B ie derm an e t a l. , T o xic J u stic e , D ALLA S O BSER VER , A ug. 1 3, 1 998, a va ila ble a t h ttp ://w ww.d alla so bse rv e r.e om /is su es/1 9980 81 3/n ew s/fe atu re _1.h tm l.
4 46. S ee C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t v ii. O th er s ch ola rs h ave c o m menta te d o n th e m otiv a tio n o f th e b ar a nd th e d is p ro portio nate a m ount o f re ve nue a tto rn eys g enera te d th ro ugh th e s e ttle m ent p ro ce ss. A s o ne s ch ola r w ro te , T he obstacle that plaintiff lawyers faced in the mid 1980s is that while they had crafted the proverbial sorcerer's stone that could turn base metal into gold, they could not yet conjure up enough claimants to take full advantage of the unique opportunities that beckoned. The need for masses of claimants that would enable attorneys to fully exploit the multi‐billion dollar asset pools was met by the initiation of attorney‐sponsored asbestos screenings in the mid‐1980s. 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 7 2/7 7 B ric km an, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 6 3; s e e a ls o F ra ncis E . M cG ove rn , T he T ra gedy o f th e A sb esto s C om mons, 8 8 V A . L . R EV. 1 721, 1 726 ( 2 002) ( "T he tr a nsa ctio n c o sts a sso cia te d w it h th is m assiv e tr a nsfe r o f w ealt h f r o m s to ck h old ers to p la in tif f s a re o utr a geous. L aw ye rs re ce iv e a g ro ssly d is p ro portio nate s h are o f th e t o ta l a m ount o f m onie s s p ent in th e lit ig atio n p ro ce ss." ).
4 47. S ee C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 6 06 1 ( n otin g th at o ve r tim e th e p la in tif f s ' s h are o f r e co ve ry g re w f r o m 3 7 to 4 3 ce nts o n th e d olla r, w it h th e p la in tif f s ' b ar g ettin g th e sa m e p erc e nt o f re co ve ry w hile d efe nse c o sts fe ll) .
4 48. B ric km an, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 1 38.
4 49. T he p la in tif f s ' b ar is a n o rg aniz e d lo bbyin g g ro up. T he A sso cia tio n o f T ria l L aw ye rs o f A m eric a ( A T LA ), th e m ajo r n atio nal p la in tif f s ' b ar o rg aniz a tio n, h as co ntr ib ute d a lm ost $ 11 m illio n to p olit ic a l c a m paig ns (o ve r 9 0% to D em ocra tic c a ndid ate s) o ve r th e 2 0002 004 e le ctio n c ycle s. S ee C ente r fo r R esp onsiv e Polit ic s , Donor Pro file s, ava ila ble at http ://w ww.o pense cre ts .o rg /o rg s/s u m mary .a sp ?
I D =D 000000065 (la st v is it e d M ay 6 , 2 006) (o utlin in g A T LA 's p olit ic a l c o ntr ib utio ns). A T LA 's d onatio ns " ro utin ely r a nk[ ] a m ong th e to p fiv e P A C s in fe dera l c a m paig n c o ntr ib utio ns." S ee C EN TE R F O R L E G AL P O LIC Y, T R IA L L A W YER S IN C.: A R EPO RT O F T H E L A W SU IT IN DUSTR Y IN A M ER IC A 2 003, a t 2 0 ( 2 003), ava ila ble at http ://w ww.m anhatta nin stit u te .o rg /p df/tr ia lla w ye rs in e.p df (d is cu ssin g PA C c o ntr ib utio ns a nd w here a m ong P A C s A T LA r a nks). T w o m ajo r a sb esto s la w fir m s, B aro n & B udd a nd th e L aw O ff ic e s o f P ete r A ngele s, th em se lv e s c o ntr ib ute d m ore th an $ 3 m illio n. S ee id . (o utlin in g th e la rg e a sb esto s fir m s a nd th eir c o ntr ib utio ns to v a rio us p olit ic a l c a ndid ate s); s e e a ls o D anie l L cD uc & M ic h ael E .
R uane, O rio le s O wner M aste rs P olit ic a l C lo ut, W ASH . P O ST, M ar. 2 8, 1 999, a t C l. L cD uc a nd R uane r e port th at [ o]ver the years, Angeles has used his amassed power to change laws that have benefited his law practice and helped ensure that his cases come out on top. At his request, more judges have been named to hear asbestos cases in Baltimore, and significant alterations in state law have made it easier to sue asbestos makers and tobacco companies.
I d . A sb esto s d efe ndants (a t le ast th e s o lv e nt o nes) a ls o o rg aniz e d. S ee P U BLIC C IT IZ E N , F E D ER AL A SBESTO S LE G IS LA T IO N: TH E WIN NER S AR E … (2 005), ava ila ble at http :// w ww.c it iz e n.o rg /d ocu m ents /m aste r% 20re port.p df ( d escrib in g lo bbyin g c a m paig ns b y d efe ndants ). 4 50. S ee R alp h N ader, F orw ard to B AR O N, s u pra n ote 4 15, a t x i.
4 51. S ee C off e e, s u pra n ote 4 15, a t 1 360 ("P la in tif f s ' fir m s s p ecia liz in g in th e fie ld a ls o h ave a s p ecia l i n ce ntiv e to s e arc h fo r c la im ants in o rd er to re aliz e c o ntin uin g re tu rn s fr o m th eir in ve stm ent in h um an c a pit a l. T he a sb esto s lit ig atio n illu str a te s th is te ndency." ); C hris to pher F . E dle y, Jr. & P aul C . W eile r, A sb esto s: A M ult i B illio n D olla r C ris is , 3 0 H AR V. J . O N L E G IS . 3 83, 3 84 ( 1 993). E dle y a nd W eile r a rg ued t h at [ l]awyers then cast the litigation net further to find corporate pockets deep enough to satisfy the vast numbers of pending and future tort claims. Judicial legerdemain helped fill that gap with doctrinal innovations that imposed liability on firms (or their insurers) whose "misdeed," for example, was buying asbestos‐related companies in the 1960s and early 1970s‐after the human tragedy but before the litigation disaster.
I d .; s e e a ls o C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 4 74 8 ( d is cu ssin g h ow th ere h ave r e ce ntly b een c la im s fr o m " p eople w ho w ere e xp ose d to a sb esto s w hile w ork in g a t jo b s it e s w here a sb esto s w as p re se nt in th e a tm osp here b ut n ot to th e d egre e ty p ic a l o f th e tr a dit io nal in dustr ie s"). C arro ll c it e s, a s a n e xa m ple , th e " la rg e n um bers o f c la im s h ave re ce ntly b een b ro ught b y w ork e rs in th e te xtile in dustr y . T e xtile w ork e rs 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 7 3/7 7 s o m etim es w ork w it h m ach in es r u n b y m oto rs w it h g aske ts th at c o nta in a sb esto s o r in fa cilit ie s v e ntila te d b y d ucts lin ed w it h a sb esto s." Id .; s e e a ls o R ic h ard C . F ie ld & R onald F . F ra nk, In dem nit y , C ontr ib utio n, a nd T hir d P arty P ra ctic e in O ccu patio nal D is e ase L it ig atio n, in O CCUPAT IO NAL D IS EASE L IT IG AT IO N 8 9, 9 1 ( S heila L . B ir n baum & J e ro ld O sh in sky e ds., 1 983) ( "P la in tif f s b rin gin g c iv il a ctio ns fo r o ccu patio nal i n ju ry w ill c o nsid er s u in g a n um ber o f e n tit ie s w hic h m ay b e a lle ged to h ave c o n tr ib ute d to th e h arm ." ).
A m ong th ose th e p la in tif f m ay ch oose to su e in clu de "th e e m plo ye r, th e o w ner a nd/o r le sso r o f th e p re m is e s, th e g enera l c o ntr a cto r, th e m anufa ctu re r o f a m ach in e o r o th er p ro du ct in vo lv e d in th e in ju ry , a nd o th er p artie s in th e p ro duct's d is tr ib utio nal c h ain ." Id .
4 52. S ee C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 4 5 ("C la im s fo r n onm alig nant in ju rie s g re w s h arp ly th ro ugh th e l a st h alf o f th e d eca de. A lm ost a ll th e g ro w th in th e a sb esto s c a se lo ad c a n b e a ttr ib ute d to th e g ro w th in t h e num ber of th ese cla im s, w hic h in clu de cla im s fr o m people w it h lit tle or no cu rre nt fu nctio nal i m pair m ent." ); s e e B ric km an, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 5 96 2 ( d escrib in g th e r is e o f u nim pair e d c la im ant c la im s a nd co nclu din g th at "[t]h e w eig ht o f th e e vid ence … [d em onstr a te s] th at a sb esto sis a s d ia gnose d b y a tto rn eys p onso re d asb esto s scre enin gs exis ts prim arily if not exclu siv e ly as a fu nctio n of th e c o m pensa tio n s yste m ").
4 53. S ee C off e e, s u pra n ote 4 15, a t 1 359 ( "[D ]u rin g th e 1 980s … a sb esto s p la in tif f s ' a tto rn eys a rra nged w it h la bor u nio ns fo r p orta ble xra y tr u cks to scre en u nio n w ork e rs fo r te llt a le lu ng sca rs su ggestin g a sb esto s." ); s e e a ls o B ric km an, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 5 9 ("P la in tif f la w ye rs a re a ble to m ain ta in a n ear i n exh austib le su pply of su ch cla im ants by use of atto rn eys p onso re d m ass scre enin gs to id entif y t h ousa nds w ho a re th en d ia gnose d b y th e p ro ce sse s u se d in th e s cre enin gs, to h ave a sb esto sre la te d l u ng c o nd it io ns." ); id . a t 6 21 03 (d escrib in g s cre enin gs in d eta il) ; B ie derm an, s u pra n ote 4 45, a t *4 9 ( d escrib in g m ass s cre enin gs a nd la x c o ntr o ls o n id entif ic a tio n o f h arm ).
4 54. S ee C AR ROLL, su pra note 383, at 49 ("B eca use m ost of th e tr a dit io nal defe ndants are in b ankru ptc y a nd a re n ot m akin g p aym ents a ny m ore , th e lit ig atio n h as m ove d o n to a w id e v a rie ty o f n ew d efe ndants . T he n um ber o f d efe ndants ty p ic a lly n am ed in c la im s is g ro w in g a s w ell. " ); s e e a ls o id . a t 3 1 ( d is cu ssin g h ow , in th e 1 990s, p la in tif f s ' fir m s s o ught n ew d efe ndants a nd m ore m oney fr o m ty p es o f d efe ndants w hic h th ey h ad p re vio usly tr e ate d a s p erip hera l) ; B ie derm an, s u pra n ote 4 45, a t * 3 ("T hanks t o th e b ankru ptin g o f th e b ig gest a sb esto s c o m panie s, th e ta rg ets o f [th e a sb esto s b ar's ] la w su it s a re a h ost of sm alle r manufa ctu re rs a m ong th em bra ke manufa ctu re rs , tu rb in e manufa ctu re rs , pain t m anufa ctu re rs , e ve n th e m ake rs o f th e fir s t g enera tio n o f re sp ir a to ry e quip m ent in te nded to p ro te ct w ork e rs fr o m a sb esto s." ).
4 55. A c la ssic e xa m ple is th e in ve stm en t b y th e a sb esto s p la in tif f s ' b ar in lo ca tin g 1 930s J o hnsM anville G enera l C ounse l V andiv e r B ro w n, w ho h ad re tir e d to S co tla nd. M anville re sis te d th e "in tr o ductio n o f d am agin g c o rre sp ondence b etw een B ro w n a nd S um ner S im pso n, P re sid ent o f R ayb esto s M anhatta n, a s t r ia l e vid ence b y a rg uin g th at B ro w n w as d ead a nd th ere fo re h is s ig natu re c o uld n ot b e a uth entic a te d.
H ow eve r, th is ta ctic p ro ve d fu tile a fte r p la in tif f 's la w ye rs fo und B ro w n a liv e a nd w ell in S co tla nd." S ee B arb ara P fe ff e r B illa uer, H ow T o S urv iv e W ork p la ce L it ig atio n, in H AN DBO OK O F O CCUPA T IO NAL S AFE TY A N D H EALT H 6 87,6 91 n .† ( L aw re nce S lo te e d., 1 987).
4 56. S ee C off e e, s u pra n ote 4 15, a t 1 36 0 ( d is cu ssin g h ow th e a dvic e fo r p ote ntia l d efe ndants e ch oes th is p oin t a nd n otin g th at lia bilit y th eorie s "c o ntin ue to g ro w in th e h ands o f c re ativ e p la in tif f s ' la w ye rs "); s e e a ls o B illa uer, s u pra n ote 4 55, a t 6 87.
4 57. S ee B AR ON, s u pra n ote 4 15, a t 3 7 ("F oru m s h oppin g, h ow eve r, ta ke s o n a dded s ig nif ic a nce in a n o ccu patio nal d is e ase c a se b eca use o f th e s u bsta ntia l v a ria tio n in th e la w , fr o m s ta te to s ta te … ." ).
4 58. F or exa m ple , M is sis sip pi allo w ed th e jo in der of out o f s ta te pla in tif f s to ca se s file d by in s ta te p la in tif f s , a llo w in g fir m s to b rin g c la im s in th e M is sis sip pi c o urts fo r n onM is sis sip pi re sid ents . C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 3 4. S im ila rly , T e xa s p asse d a s ta tu te th at g ave a sb esto s c a se s s p ecia l a cce ss to th e T e xa s co urts durin g th e 1990s, a sta tu te dra fte d in part by one of th e le adin g asb esto s la w ye rs .
B ie derm an, s u pra n ote 4 45, a t 7 . A 1 998 n ew s r e port o n th e s ta tu te id entif ie d th e p ro ble m : 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 7 4/7 7 T his small exception quickly became a gaping hole. Between 1990 and 1992, after the Texas Supreme Court made it more difficult to get rid of nonresidents' suits, the number of nonresidents filing asbestos lawsuits in Texas grew rapidly, according to numbers compiled by the Texas Civil Justice League. There were 580 claims filed by nonresidents in 1990, and 3,121 in 1992. After the 1993 bill, the numbers multiplied even more rapidly. Between 1993 and the end of 1995, more than 35,000 nonresidents filed asbestos‐related claims in Texas, as lawyers in states with shorter limitations' statutes than Texas referred their cases here. Though the loophole was closed last year, there are nearly 42,000 asbestos claims filed in Texas by out‐of‐state plaintiffs awaiting resolution.
I d . (d is cu ssin g th e lo ophole a nd a sb esto s la w su it filin gs in d eta il) ; s e e a ls o D ow C hem . C o. v. C astr o A lf a ro , 7 86 S .W .2 d 6 74 ( T e x. 1 990); A ct o f F ebru ary 2 3, 1 993, S .B . 2 , § 1 , 7 3d L e gis . 1 st R .S . ( c o dif ie d a t T e x. C iv . P ra c. & R em . C ode A nn. § 7 1.0 51 (1 993)). C alif o rn ia h ad a s p ecia l s ta tu te o f lim it a tio ns fo r a sb esto s c la im s th at to lle d th e r u nnin g o f th e lim it a tio ns p erio d u ntil th e p la in tif f s a bilit y to w ork a t h is o r h er o rd in ary o ccu patio n is im pair e d. S ee C AL. C iv . P R OC. C ODE. § 3 40.2 (a ) (2 00 6) (c re atin g a lim it a tio ns p erio d th at d oes n ot b egin u ntil im pair m ent o ccu rs ); C AR ROLL, su pra n ote 3 83, a t 2 4 (re co gniz in g C alif o rn ia 's " re la xe d" lim it a tio ns p ro gra m ).
4 59. S ee C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 3 2 ( p ro vid in g a c h art lis tin g th e c h ange in lit ig atio n s h are ).
4 60. S ee C off e e, s u pra n ote 4 15, a t 1 35 0 ( d is cu ssin g th e im pact o n c o urts o f " d ocke t in undatio n").
4 61. In r e R honeP oule nc R ore r, In c., 5 1 F .3 d 1 293, 1 304 ( 7 th C ir . 1 995); s e e a ls o N orfo lk & W este rn R y.
C o. v . A ye rs , 5 38 U .S . 1 35, 1 66 (2 003 ) (q uotin g O rtiz v . F ib re board C orp ., 5 27 U .S . 8 15, 8 21 (1 999)) ( "T he e le phantin e m ass o f a sb esto s c a se s lo dged in s ta te a nd fe dera l c o urts , w e a gain re co gniz e d efie s c u sto m ary ju dic ia l a dm in is tr a tio n a nd c a ll s fo r n atio nal le gis la tio n." ); F ie ld & F ra nk, s u pra n ote 4 51, a t 1 27 ( "T he pre ssu re of im mense ly ove rc ro w ded docke ts has enco ura ged le gis la tu re s to adopt a postu re t o w ard s s e ttlin g m ult id efe ndant c a se s th at a ppears to d epriv e d efe ndants o f th e fa ir e xe rc is e o f th eir r ig ht t o a tr ia l. " ).
4 62. S ee S ch w artz , s u pra n ote 4 26, a t 8 67 ( q uotin g F ra ncis M cG ove rn o f D uke L aw S ch ool, w ho s ta te d, " If y o u b uild a s u perh ig hw ay, th ere w ill b e a tr a ff ic ja m " o n re ducin g tr a nsa ctio n c o sts o f filin g); s e e a ls o C AR ROLL, s u pra n ote 3 83, a t 2 6 (s ta tin g h ow "re duce [d ] p erc a se tr a nsa ctio n c o sts m ade filin g s m all c la im s fin ancia lly v ia ble fo r m ore p eople , th ere by e nco ura gin g m ass filin gs").
4 63. S ee H ech le r, s u pra n ote 4 28, a t 1 8 ( q uotin g A sb esto s: M ix e d D ust a nd F E LA Is su es: H earin g B efo re t h e S . C om m. o n th e J u dic ia ry , 1 09th C ong. (2 005) (te stim ony o f L este r B ric km an, P ro fe sso r o f L aw , C ard ozo L aw S ch ool) ).
4 64. S ee C off e e, s u pra n ote 4 15, a t 1 346 (d is cu ssin g h ow in div id ual p la in tif f s h ave lit tle c o ntr o l o ve r a tto rn eys in m ass to rt c a se s, p artic u la rly w hen c la im s c o nce rn p ote ntia l fu tu re m edic a l p ro ble m s ra th er t h an im media te c o nce rn s).
4 65. Id . a t 1 365. S ee g enera lly B ie derm an, s u pra n ote 4 45 ( h old in g o ut B aro n & B udd a s th e e pit o m y o f t h e re peat p la ye r). B ie derm an q uote s a d efe nse a tto rn ey, w ho c la im s, "'M y c lie nt is a v e ry s m all p la ye r,' e xp la in s o ne d efe nse la w ye r, w ho a ske d th at h is n am e n ot b e u se d b eca use , a s h e p uts it , 'w hen y o u i r rit a te [B aro n & B udd], th ey h ave a te ndency to r e ta lia te .'" Id .
4 66. T he R AN D s tu dy o f a sb esto s lit ig atio n fo und th at th e p oolin g o f c la im s h elp ed in duce d efe ndants to s e ttle e ve n w eak c la im s:
B y the mid‐1980s, however, plaintiff law firms in areas of heavy asbestos exposure (such as jurisdictions with shipyards or petrochemical facilities) had learned that they could succeed against asbestos defendants by filing large numbers of claims, 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 7 5/7 7 grouping them together and negotiating with defendants on behalf of the entire group. Often defendants would agree to settle all of the claims that were so grouped, including those claims that were questionable, to reduce their overall costs of litigation. By agreeing to pay questionable smaller‐value claims in exchange for also settling stronger and larger‐value claims, defendants could also contain their financial risk. Some plaintiffs might receive lower values for claims that were settled as part of a group. But litigating claims en masse lowered the cost and risk per claim for plaintiff law firms.
C AR ROLL, su pra n ote 3 83, a t 2 3; se e a ls o C off e e, su pra n ote 4 15, a t 1 3737 6 (d is cu ssin g "n ew " c o llu sio n b etw een p artie s' a tto rn eys in m ass to rt lit ig atio n m ade p ossib le b y r e peat p la ye r a sp ects ).
4 67. S ee H ech le r, su pra n ote 4 28, a t 1 8 (fin din g th at th e silic a p la in tif f s ' b ar w as u sin g th e "[s ]a m e m eth odolo gy, sa m e scre enin g co m panie s, sa m e B re aders ," acco rd in g to a defe nse atto rn ey). O ne p ro ble m w as th at m any s ilic a p la in tif f s w ere d is co ve re d to h ave b een p re vio usly d ia gnose d w it h a sb esto sis b y th e s a m e s cre enin g c o m panie s a nd d octo rs . Id . A ppro xim ate ly h alf o f th e 1 0,0 00 p la in tif f s in th e T e xa s M DL p ro ce edin g, fo r e xa m ple , h ad p rio r a sb esto s c la im s. Id .
4 68. In re sp onse to d is co ve rin g p ossib le fr a ud, th e d efe nse fir m s in th e H ousto n M DL p ro ce edin g file d a m otio n se ekin g $ 1.1 m illio n in sa nctio ns fr o m th e p la in tif f s ' la w ye rs , a nd so m e sp ecu la te th at so m e d efe ndants w ho p re vio usly p aid c la im s b ase d o n d ia gnose s th at a re n ow s u sp ect w ill s e ek to r e open th e i s su e. S ee id .
4 69. J u dge J a nis G ra ham J a ck h as r e ce iv e d tr a in in g a s a n urs e . Id .
4 70. S ee In r e S ilic a P ro d. L ia b. L it ig ., 3 98 F . S upp. 2 d 5 63, 6 070 9 ( S .D . T e x. 2 005). T he c o urt n ote d th at t h e ra te o f re ve rs a l o f d ia gnosis o f o ne o f th e p la in tif f 's s cre enin g d octo rs "c a n o nly b e e xp la in ed a s a p ro duct o f b ia s — th at is , o f D r. H arro n fin din g e vid ence o f th e d is e ase h e w as c u rre ntly b ein g p aid to f in d." Id . a t 6 38. T he tw o d is e ase s p ro duce d if f e re nt p atte rn s o n ra dio gra phs. A s th e c o urt n ote d, c it in g t e stim ony fr o m S enate h earin gs, "[b ]e ca use a sb esto sis a nd s ilic o sis h ave s u ch d if f e re nt a ppeara nce s o n a n x ra y, in a c lin ic a l s e ttin g, 'c o nfu sio n b etw een s ilic o sis a nd a sb esto sis d oes n ot o ccu r.'" Id . a t 5 95.
4 71. S ee id . a t 6 12 ( n otin g th at o ne d ia gnosin g d octo r s p ent le ss th an fo ur m in ute s p er c a se o n a ve ra ge).
A m ore o bje ctiv e e xp ert e stim ate d th at "th e e ntir e p ro ce ss o f d ete rm in in g w heth er a n in div id ual h as s ilic o sis ta ke s b etw een 6 09 0 m in ute s." Id . a t 5 94.
4 72. S ee id . at 615 1 6. A noth er physic ia n te stif ie d th at one dia gnosin g docto r's pro ce dure s "c a m e n ow here n ear m eetin g w hat h is o w n m eth odolo gy w as th at h e s p elle d o ut. A nd I h ave b oth th e T hir d a nd F ourth E dit io n o f h is te xtb ooks. A nd in n o w ay d oes it re la te to th at m eth odolo gy." Id . a t 6 16, 6 39. T he d octo r's opin io n w as exclu ded beca use "th e re su lt driv e n m eth odolo gy… is rif e w it h erro r and s p ecu la tio n." Id .
4 73. S ee id . a t 6 01 ( "B eca use o f th is fe e s tr u ctu re , M r. M aso n [o w ner o f th e s cre enin g c o m pany] te stif ie d t h at th e e m phasis w as o n a ttr a ctin g a s m any p eople a s p ossib le to th e s cre enin g s a nd c re atin g a s m any p osit iv e d ia gnose s a s p ossib le ; a s h e s ta te d, '[ f]r o m a b usin ess s ta ndpoin t o f m in e, y o u h ad to d o la rg e n um bers .'" ); s e e a ls o P re ss R ele ase , H ouse C om mit te e o n E nerg y a nd C om merc e , D octo rs R efu se to T e stif y a t S ilic o sis H earin g; O th ers R eco unt D ia gnose s 'M anufa ctu re d fo r M oney,' a va ila ble a t h ttp :// e nerg yco m merc e .h ouse .g ov/1 08/N ew s/0 3092006_l8 10.h tm (re co untin g th e M arc h 8 , 2 006 te stim ony o f H eath M aso n, c o o w ner o f N &M , In c., b efo re th e H ouse E nerg y a nd C om merc e C om mit te e th at " … in th e c a se o f th e C am pbell C herry la w fir m o f H ousto n, h is c o m pany w as o nly p aid fo r p osit iv e d ia gnose s"), a va ila ble at http :// energ yco m merc e .h ouse .g ov/1 08/N ew s/0 3092006_1810.h tm ; Leste r Bric km an, C om ments o n N IO SH 's P ro pose d 'B R eader C ode o f E th ic s,' (D ec. 2 005) (u npublis h ed m anuscrip t) , a va ila ble a t h ttp ://s srn .c o m /a bstr a ct= 871965 ( d is cu ssin g th e p ro ble m s o f m ass s cre enin gs).
4 74. S ee In r e S ilic a P ro d. L ia b. L it ig ., 3 98 F . S upp. 2 d a t 5 67. 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 7 6/7 7 4 75. S ee id . a t 5 72 ("T his e xp lo sio n in th e n um ber o f s ilic o sis c la im s in M is sis sip pi s u ggests a s ilic o sis e pid em ic 2 0 tim es w ors e th an th e H aw k's N est in cid ent. In deed, th ese c la im s s u ggest p erh aps th e w ors t i n dustr ia l d is a ste r in r e co rd ed w orld h is to ry ." ).
4 76. S ee id . ("M is sis s ip pi's a ppare nt s ilic o sis e pid em ic h as b een g re ete d w it h s ile nce b y th e m edia , th e p ublic , C ongre ss a nd th e s cie ntif ic c o m munit ie s." ).
4 77. Id . a t 6 76.
4 78. T he H ouse C om mit te e o n E nerg y a nd C om merc e c o m pose d s e ve ra l le tt e rs in c o nnectio n to th e T e xa s s ilic o sis lit ig atio n r e questin g r e co rd s a nd in fo rm atio n. T hese le tte rs a re d ate d b etw een F ebru ary 1 7, 2 006 a nd M arc h 6 , 2 006 a nd a re a va ila ble a t h ttp ://e nerg yco m merc e .h ouse .g ov/1 08/le tte rs /le tte rs .h tm .
4 79. The docto rs in vo ke d th eir Fif th Am endm ent rig hts in re sp onse to th is questio n aske d by S ubco m mit te e C hair m an E d W hit fie ld : "W ill y o u c e rtif y th at e ach o f th ese d ia gn ose s a nd a ll o th ers th at y o u m ade in th is lit ig atio n a re a ccu ra te a nd m ade p urs u ant to a ll m edic a l p ra ctic e s, s ta ndard s a nd e th ic s? " P re ss R ele ase , H ouse C om mit te e o n E nerg y a nd C om merc e , D octo rs R efu se to Te stif y a t S ilic o sis H earin g; Oth ers Reco unt Dia gnose s 'M anufa ctu re d fo r Money,' ava ila ble at h ttp ://e nerg yco m merc e .h ouse .g ov/1 08/ N ew s/0 3092006_l8 10.h tm ; s e e a ls o S ilic o sis C la m U p, W ALL S T.
J ., M ar. 1 3, 2 006, a t A 18.
4 80. S ee In r e S ilic a P ro d. L ia b. L it ig ., 3 98 F . S upp. 2 d a t 6 20 ( a naly zin g w hy th e m orta lit y r a te in s ilic o sis p atie nts h as s te adily d eclin ed, y e t th e n um ber o f la w su it s is s ig nif ic a ntly r is in g).
4 81. P re ss R ele ase , H ouse C om mit te e on E nerg y and C om merc e , C om mit te e B ro adens S ilic o sis I n ve stig atio n, ava ila ble at http ://e nerg yc o m merc e .h ouse .g ov/1 08/N ew s/ 02172006_1784prin t.h tm ; se e a ls o L ette r fr o m th e H ouse C om mit te e o n E nerg y a nd C om merc e to S ta te H ealt h O ff ic ia ls (F eb. 1 7, 2 006), ava ila ble at http :// energ yco m merc e .h ouse .g ov/1 08/L ette rs /0 2172006_1786.h tm . The le tte r e xp re sse d c o nce rn a bout th e m edic a l p ro ce dure s e m plo ye d b y th ese d octo rs :
M edical monitoring or surveillance — including mobile facilities — can play an important part in protecting and promoting public health. The practices described in the opinion of Judge Jack, however, raise concerns that the public health purposes of these screenings are lost in a push only to identify prospective plaintiffs for a law firm. We are particularly concerned with the apparent lack of medical supervision and follow‐through associated with the mass diagnostic screenings described in In Re: Silica. As such, we must fully understand the facts and legal frameworks involved in such practices.
I d .
4 82. S ee, e .g ., M cG AR IT Y & S H APIR O, s u pra n ote 5 0, a t 1 85 ( "If O SH A is to fu lf ill it s s ta tu to ry m andate t o p ro te ct w ork e rs , a w ay m ust b e fo und to in cre ase it s r e gula to ry o utp ut." ).
4 83. S ee s u pra te xt a cco m panyin g n ote s 4 34 8 ( d is cu ssin g th e fin ancia l in ce ntiv e s to p ro vid in g a h ealt h y a nd s a fe e nvir o nm ent to e m plo ye es).
4 84. See, e.g ., R OSEN , su pra note 71, at 4422 3 (n otin g th at, desp it e "[t]h e gre at te ch nic a l a cco m plis h m ents of th e engin eers " in im pro vin g occu patio nal healt h in m in es, w hic h le d to "th e d is a ppeara nce o f th e m ore e xtr e m e fo rm s o f p ulm onary d is e ase to w ard s th e e nd o f th e c e ntu ry ," th ese a cco m plis h m ents w ere n oneth ele ss p ro ble m atic b eca use "[t]h e m otiv a tio n u nderly in g th e d eve lo pm ent o f m in in g e ngin eerin g w as fu ndam enta lly e co nom ic a nd th ere fo re o nly in dir e ctly c o nce rn ed w it h c re atin g m ore h ealt h fu l w ork in g c o ndit io ns fo r th e m in ers ").
4 85. S ee su pra note 287 (d is cu ssin g in deta il how T LV s w ere in co rp ora te d in to O SH A co nse nsu s s ta ndard s a nd h ow s o m e w ere b ase d o n in adequate d ocu m enta tio n).
4 86. S ee s u pra n ote 3 50 a nd a cco m panyin g te xt. 5 /1 1 /2 017 E BSC Ohost h ttp ://w eb.b .e bscohost.c om .lib ra ry re sourc es.c olu m bia south ern .e du/e host/d eliv ery ?sid = abc123771 6e54 3d5a def 5 52390caa9f8 % 40sessio nm gr1 02& vid = 8& … 7 7/7 7 4 87. S ee J o hn B lu ndell & C olin R obin so n, R EG ULA T IO N W IT H OUT T H E S TA T E … T H E D EBAT E C ONTIN UES 1 82 9 ( 2 000) ( d is cu ssin g th e s ta ndard s a nd c e rtif ic a tio n p ro gra m s s e t b y n ong ove rn m enta l b odie s). T he a uth ors n ote th at U nderw rit e rs L abora to ry , fo r e xa m ple , fa ce s c o m petit io n fr o m 1 2 o th er c e rtif ic a tio n o rg aniz a tio ns a nd th us h as s tr o ng in ce ntiv e s to m ain ta in th e q ualit y a nd r e lia bilit y o f it s te stin g m eth ods a nd s ta ndard s.
4 88. P ro bably th e m ost w ell k n ow n priv a te sta ndard s are se t by th e In te rn a tio nal O rg aniz a tio n fo r S ta ndard iz a tio n (IS O ), w hic h describ es it s e lf as "a glo bal netw ork th at id entif ie s w hat In te rn atio nal S ta ndard s a re re quir e d b y b usin ess, g o ve rn m ent a nd so cie ty , d eve lo ps th em in p artn ers h ip w it h th e s e cto rs th at w ill p ut th em to u se , a dopts th em b y tr a nsp are nt p ro ce dure s b ase d o n n atio nal in put a nd d eliv e rs th em to b e im ple m ente d w orld w id e." S ee IS O , IS O IN B R IE F: IN TE R NAT IO NAL S TA N DAR DS F O R A SU STA IN ABLE WORLD (2 005), ava ila ble at http ://w ww.is o .o rg /is o /e n/p ro ds s e rv ic e s/o th erp ubs/p df/ is o in bric f_ 2005e n.p df. IS O 9 000 se ts sta ndard s fo r p ro duct q ualit y , a nd IS O 1 4000 s e ts s ta ndard s fo r p ro te ctin g e n vir o nm enta l q ualit y . T o geth er, th ese tw o g eneric s ta ndard s a re i m ple m ente d b y 7 60,9 00 o rg aniz a tio ns in 1 54 c o untr ie s. S ee IS O , IS O 9 000 a nd IS O 1 4000 — In B rie f, h ttp ://w ww.is o .o rg /e n/is o 90001 4000/u nde rs ta nd/in brie f.h tm l.
4 89. S ee s u pra n ote 3 37.
4 90. S ee s u pra te xt a cco m panyin g n ote s 3 646 9.
~ ~~~~~~~ B y A ndre w P . M orris s, G ale n J . R oush P ro fe sso r o f B usin ess L aw & R egula tio n, C ase S ch ool o f L aw , C le ve la nd, O hio & S enio r F ello w , P ro pe rty & E nvir o nm ent R ese arc h C ente r, B oze m an, M onta na. A .B .
1 981, P rin ce to n U niv e rs it y ; J .D ., M .P ub.A ff . 1 984, T he U niv e rs it y o f T e xa s a t A ustin ; P h.D . (E co nom ic s) 1 994, M assa ch use tt s In stit u te of Te ch nolo gy. and S usa n E . D udle y, D ir e cto r, R egula to ry S tu die s P ro gra m , M erc a tu s C ente r a t G eorg e M aso n U niv e rs it y a nd A dju nct P ro fe sso r, G eorg e M aso n U niv e rs it y S ch ool o f L aw . B .S . 1 977, U niv e rs it y o f M assa ch use tts ; S .M .M . 1 981, S lo an S ch ool o f M anagem ent, M assa ch use tts In stit u te o f T e ch nolo gy.
C opyrig ht o f A dm in is tr a tiv e L aw R evie w is th e p ro perty o f A m eric a n B ar A sso cia tio n a nd it s c o nte nt m ay n ot b e c o pie d o r e m aile d to m ult ip le s it e s o r p oste d to a lis ts e rv w it h out th e c o pyrig ht h old er's e xp re ss w rit te n p erm is sio n. H ow eve r, u se rs m ay p rin t, d ow nlo ad, o r e m ail a rtic le s fo r in div id ual u se .