white collar crime

T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 1 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 Subje ct:

Crim in olo gy a nd C rim in al J ustic e , O rg a niz a tio nal a nd White -C olla r C rim e Onlin e P ublic a tio n D ate :

Jul 2014 DOI:

10 .1 0 93/o xfo rd hb/9 7 80 199935383.0 13.0 08 The P syc ho lo gy o f W hite -C olla r O ffe nd in g Mic hael L . B enso n a nd S ara h M . M anchak O xfo rd H andbooks O nlin e Abstr a ct a nd K eyw ord s A g ro w in g b ody o f r e se arc h s e em s to c ontr a dic t p rio r a ssu m ptio ns th at in div id ual c hara cte ris tic s a re u nim porta nt t o th e e tio lo gy o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g. T his a rtic le h ig hlig hts th e th eore tic al th in kin g a nd th e e m pir ic al r e se arc h t h at u nders c ore s th e n eed to a tte nd to w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders ’ p ers o nalit y tr a it s , n eutr a liz atio ns, a nd c rim in al t h in kin g s ty le s. M ore r e se arc h is n eeded to b ette r u nders ta nd w hat in div id ual p sy cholo gic al fa cto rs c ontr ib ute to t h e r is k fo r b ecom in g a w hit e -c olla r o ffe nder a nd to in fo rm in te rv entio n e ffo rts a nd p olic y o ptio ns fo r w hit e -c olla r a nd c orp ora te c rim e.

K eyw ord s: white -c olla r c rim e , corp ora te c rim e , white -c olla r o ffe n ders , pers on ality tr a its , crim in al th in kin g s ty le s , neu tr a liz a tio n s I n tro ductio n I n h is fa m ous p re sid entia l a ddre ss to th e A m eric an S ocio lo gic al A sso cia tio n, Edw in S uth erla nd ( 1 940 , p . 1 0) w ro te o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders th at “ W it h a s m all n um ber o f e xceptio ns, th ey a re n ot in p overty , w ere n ot r e are d in s lu m s o r b adly d ete rio ra te d fa m ilie s, a nd a re n ot fe eble m in ded o r p sy chopath ic .” H e r e je cte d th e n otio n th at in nate i n div id ual c hara cte ris tic s, w heth er in herit e d g enetic ally o r in duced in e arly c hild hood, c ould e xpla in w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g. In h is v ie w , in div id ual in volv em ent in w hit e -c olla r c rim e r e su lt e d fr o m d if fe re ntia l e xposu re to th e f o lk w ays a nd c ult u ra l v alu es o f th e w orld s o f b usin ess a nd fin ance. T hro ugh th e p ro cesse s o f d if fe re ntia l a sso cia tio n, b usin essp eople c om e to a ccept a nd a dopt b ehavio rs th at a re fa vora ble to v io la tio ns o f th e la w in th e f o rm o f w hit e -c olla r c rim es. T hus, in S uth erla nd’s v ie w , w hit e -c olla r c rim e is p rim arily th e p ro duct o f a d evia nt c ult u re a nd n ot th e r e su lt o f d evia nt in div id uals .

F o r b oth b ette r a nd w ors e , S uth erla nd’s v ie w d om in ate d th eory a nd r e se arc h o n w hit e -c olla r c rim e fo r d ecades. H is t h eory o ffe rs k e en in sig ht in to th e o ffe nse s c om mit te d b y s e em in gly r e sp ecta ble m em bers o f th e b usin ess c om munit y . S ure ly c ult u re a nd le arn in g a re im porta nt fa cto rs in th e e tio lo gy o f w hit e -c olla r c rim e, a nd th e p ow er o f s it u atio nal in flu ences o n b ehavio r s h ould n ot b e ig nore d. A s w it h m ost th eorie s o f c rim in al b ehavio r, h ow ever, d if fe re ntia l a sso cia tio n s im ply d oes n ot p ro vid e a c om pre hensiv e u nders ta ndin g o f th e p ote ntia l c ause s o f w hit e - c olla r o ffe ndin g. In p artic ula r, th e th eory fa lls s h ort b ecause it im plic it ly a ssu m es th at e very one r e sp onds in th e s a m e w ay to c ult u ra l a nd s it u atio nal in flu ences a nd ig nore s s tr o ng e vid ence th at p eople d if fe r in th eir s u sc eptib ilit y t o s u ch fo rc es. It g iv es n o g uid ance a s to w ho is m ost lik e ly to b e s u sc eptib le to c rim in ogenic e nvir o nm ents o r to s e ek o ut s u ch c onte xts p re cis e ly b ecause th ey a ffo rd o pportu nit ie s fo r o ffe ndin g.

I t m ay w ell b e th at th e “ u su al a nd c usto m ary ” r is k fa cto rs fo r c rim e, s u ch a s p overty a nd la ck o f e ducatio n, d o n ot a pply to w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders , a s S uth erla nd a rg ued. In deed, s e vera l s tu die s s u ggest th at w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a re m ore lik e ly to b e o f b ette r fin ancia l s ta tu s a nd m ore e ducate d th an o th er ty pes o f o ffe nders ( Benso n a nd K erle y, 2 000 ; Wheele r e t a l. , 1 988 ). N everth ele ss, Suth erla nd’s ( 1 940) r e je ctio n o f p sy cholo gic al fa cto rs w as p re m atu re . S evera l b odie s o f r e se arc h in dic ate th at a n in cre ase d fo cus o n th e p sy cholo gic al c orre la te s o f w hit e - c olla r c rim e is e sse ntia l to b ette r u nders ta nd, p re dic t, a nd c ontr o l w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g. T his c hapte r e xplic ate s T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 2 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 t h e lit e ra tu re a nd th eory o n tw o p rim ary p sy cholo gic al c orre la te s o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g: c ognit io ns a nd p ers o nalit y . In s o d oin g, w e a rg ue th at a tte ntio n to in div id ual tr a it s a nd c ognit io ns m ust b e a t th e fo re fr o nt o f u nders ta ndin g th e e tio lo gy o f w hit e -c olla r c rim e.

T his c hapte r is o rg aniz ed in th e fo llo w in g m anner. T he fir s t s e ctio n a ddre sse s th e c halle nges o f d efin in g w hit e - c olla r c rim e a nd e lu cid ate s h ow th e v ario us d efin it io ns le ad to c ontr a stin g im ages o r p ic tu re s o f th e ty pic al w hit e - c olla r o ffe nder. T he s e cond s e ctio n p ro vid es a n u nders ta ndin g o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g fr o m a p sy cholo gic al p ers p ectiv e, p re se ntin g th e a vaila ble lit e ra tu re o n th e c ognit iv e p ro cesse s a nd p ers o nalit y c hara cte ris tic s o f w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders . In th e th ir d s e ctio n, w e s u m mariz e th e k e y fin din gs fr o m th e r e se arc h b ase , h ig hlig htin g tr e nds a s w ell a s s tr e ngth s a nd w eakn esse s. W e a ls o d ra w a tte ntio n to a venues fo r fu tu re r e se arc h th at m ay b e p artic ula rly f r u it fu l. F in ally , in th e fo urth s e ctio n, w e c onclu de b y n otin g th e p ossib ilit y th at th ere m ay b e a lin k b etw een o ccupatio nal s u ccess a nd w hit e -c olla r c rim e.

D efin it io nal I s su es a nd T heir E ffe cts o n t h e S tu dy o f W hit e -C olla r C rim e T he d efin it io n o f whit e -c o lla r c rim e is n oto rio usly c ontr o vers ia l. T he c ontr o vers y c ente rs o n w heth er th e te rm o ught to b e d efin ed o n th e b asis o f th e n atu re o f th e o ffe nse o r o n th e c hara cte ris tic s o f th e p ers o n w ho c om mit s t h e o ffe nse . A n o ffe nse -b ase d d efin it io n fo cuse s o n th e ty pe o f c rim in al a ct. T he b est- k n ow n o ffe nse -b ase d d efin it io n w as p ro pose d b y Edelh ertz ( 1 970 , p . 3 ), w ho d efin ed w hit e -c olla r c rim e a s “ A n ille gal a ct o r s e rie s o f i lle gal a cts c om mit te d b y n on-p hysic al m eans a nd b y c oncealm ent o r g uile to o bta in m oney o r p ro perty , o r to a void t h e p aym ent o r lo ss o f m oney o r p ro perty o r to o bta in b usin ess o r p ers o nal a dvanta ge.” A p ers o n-b ase d d efin it io n, o n th e o th er h and, e m phasiz es s p ecif ic c hara cte ris tic s o f th e o ffe nder. S uth erla nd, fo r e xam ple , d efin ed w hit e - c olla r c rim e a s “ a c rim e c om mit te d b y a p ers o n o f r e sp ecta bilit y a nd h ig h s o cia l s ta tu s in th e c ours e o f h is o ccupatio n” ( Suth erla nd, 1 983 , p . 7 ; s e e a ls o R eis s a nd B id erm an, 1 980, p . 4 ).

E ach d efin it io nal a ppro ach h as it s s tr e ngth s a nd lim it a tio ns. O ffe nse -b ase d d efin it io ns a re h elp fu l in th at th ey o ffe r a c om mon fr a m ew ork fr o m w hic h to d efin e w hit e -c olla r crim e a nd e stim ate it s p re vale nce. H ow ever, u nders ta ndin g w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g fr o m a n in div id ual p sy cholo gic al s ta ndpoin t m ay p ro ve p ro ble m atic , a s th e c hara cte ris tic s o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a re lik e ly to v ary a cro ss h ete ro geneous c ate gorie s o f c rim es. F o r e xam ple , u nder E delh ertz ’s d efin it io n, o ffe nse s a s h ete ro geneous a s a ntit r u st v io la tio ns b y c orp ora te e xecutiv es a nd fa ls e s ta te m ents o n w elf a re a pplic atio ns b y s in gle p are nts w ould b oth q ualif y a s w hit e -c olla r c rim es. T hese o ffe nse s v ary g re atly in s e verit y a nd a re lik e ly to b e in flu enced b y d if fe re nt p ers o nal a nd s it u atio nal r is k fa cto rs .

F u rth erm ore , d esc rip tio ns o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders u sin g a n o ffe nse -b ase d d efin it io n m ay b e m is le adin g, s in ce th ey o nly in clu de tr a it s o f k n ow n o ffe nders . T he e xte nt to w hic h th ose tr a it s e xte nd to o ffe nders w ho a re a ble to a void d ete ctio n fr o m la w e nfo rc em ent is u nkn ow n. N everth ele ss, a n um ber o f w ell- k n ow n s tu die s h ave e m plo yed th is s tr a te gy to in vestig ate a v arie ty o f is su es r e la te d to w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g a nd w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders ( Benso n a nd M oore , 1 992 ; Hagan a nd N agel- B ern ste in , 1 982 ; Weis b urd e t a l. , 1 991 ).

T here a re p ro s a nd c ons to u sin g o ffe nder-b ase d d efin it io ns a s w ell. F a vorin g th is a ppro ach is a n in cre ase d l ik e lih ood fo r fin din g p atte rn s o f p sy cholo gic al r is k fa cto rs a m ong w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders . W hen r e se arc hers h one in o n s p ecif ic c hara cte ris tic s o r fe atu re s o f th e o ffe nder ( e .g ., s o cia l s ta tu s o r o ccupatio n), th ey a re lik e ly to g et a m ore h om ogenous s a m ple a nd th us p erh aps m ore r e lia ble ( b ut n ot n ecessa rily g enera liz able ) fin din gs. D ependin g o n th e d efin it io n p ro pose d, h ow ever, o ne s a m ple o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders m ay d if fe r s u bsta ntia lly fr o m a noth er s a m ple o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders . In p ra ctic e, s a m ple s d ra w n fr o m o ffic ia l r e cord s te nd to c om pris e p eople w ho d o n ot h ave h ig h s o cia l s ta tu s a nd w ho h ave c om mit te d r e la tiv ely m in or o ffe nse s, s o m e o f w hic h m ay n ot b e o ccupatio nally r e la te d ( s e e, fo r e xam ple , Benso n a nd K erle y, 2 000 ; D aly , 1 989; Wheele r e t a l. , 1 988 ). T his a gain r a is e s c oncern s a bout g enera liz abilit y . F in ally , u sin g c hara cte ris tic s o f th e o ffe nder in th e d efin it io n r e duces r e se arc hers ’ a bilit y to e xpla in th e p ote ntia l c ause s o f th e b ehavio r. A lt h ough w e r e m ain a gnostic in th is c hapte r a bout w hat is th e b est d efin it io n o f w hit e -c olla r c rim e, w e a re c are fu l to a rtic ula te w hic h d efin it io n w as u tiliz ed in th e e m pir ic al s tu die s r e vie w ed b elo w .

A P o rtra it o f t h e W hit e -C olla r O ffe nder W hat d oes t h e w hit e -c o lla r o ffe nder “ lo ok” lik e ?

O ne o f th e k e ys to p re dic tin g w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g is to id entif y t h ose c hara cte ris tic s o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders th at d is tin guis h th em b est fr o m o th er ty pes o f o ffe nders . A s n ote d T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 3 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 a bove, th ere a re s o m e m eth odolo gic al c halle nges in r e achin g th is g oal. U sin g a n o ffe nse -b ase d d efin it io n, a ny c hara cte ris tic s o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders r e fle ct th e tr a it s o f k n ow n o ffe nders — or th ose w ho h ave fa lle n u nder th e p urv ie w o f th e c rim in al ju stic e s y ste m . A lt h ough o ffe nse -b ase d d efin it io ns y ie ld a h ete ro geneous s a m ple fo r s tu dy, t h ere a ppear to b e s o m e im porta nt n ota ble tr e nds w it h r e sp ect to d em ogra phic fe atu re s. S pecif ic ally , c om pare d w it h o th er o ffe nders , w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a re m ore lik e ly to b e w hit e a nd m ale ( Barn ett, 2 000 ), to b e b ette r e ducate d, to h ave fe w er is su es w it h s u bsta nce a buse ( Po ortin ga e t a l. , 2 006 ), to h ave a h ig her fin ancia l s ta ndin g, a nd to b egin o ffe ndin g la te r in lif e ( Wheele r e t a l. 1 988 ; W eis b urd , W arin g, a nd C hayet, 2 001).

T o k n ow th at th e d em ogra phic c hara cte ris tic s o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders d if fe r fr o m th ose o f o th er o ffe nders d oes n ot t a ke u s v ery fa r to w ard e xpla in in g th e fo rm er’s b ehavio r, b ut it d oes r a is e th e p ossib ilit y th at w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders m ay p osse ss o th er c hara cte ris tic s th at a re u niq ue to th em a nd o f g re ate r e tio lo gic al s ig nif ic ance. B ecause a s u bsta ntia l b ody o f r e se arc h o n n on‒w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders in dic ate s th at th in kin g p atte rn s a nd p ers o nalit y tr a it s a re v ery im porta nt p re dic to rs o f o ffe ndin g ( Andre w s a nd B onta , 2 010 ; Mille r a nd L y nam , 2 001 ; Moffit t e t a l. , 2 002 ; Y o chels o n a nd S am enow , 1 976 ), it m ake s s e nse to lo ok a t th ese fa cto rs fo r m ore in sig ht in to w hy a nd h ow w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders e ngage in c rim e. A ccord in gly , in th e n ext s u bse ctio ns, w e r e vie w th e p sy cholo gic al lit e ra tu re o n c ognit io ns a nd p ers o nalit y w it h r e sp ect to w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g.

T he C ognit io ns o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd ers O ne o f th e m ost r o bust in div id ual- le vel p re dic to rs fo r r e cid iv is m — re gard le ss o f th e o ffe nse ty pe o r th e o ffe nder— a re th e a ntis o cia l c ognit io ns h e o r s h e p osse sse s. In deed, a ntis o cia l th in kin g is c onsid ere d o ne o f th e “ b ig fo ur” r is k fa cto rs fo r c rim e ( s e e Andre w s a nd B onta , 2 010 ), a lo ngsid e c rim in al h is to ry , a ntis o cia l a sso cia te s, a nd h avin g a n a ntis o cia l p ers o nalit y p atte rn . S evera l m eta -a naly tic fin din gs h ave r e peate dly d em onstr a te d th e p ote ncy o f th is r is k fa cto r ( fo r a r e vie w , s e e Andre w s a nd B onta , 2 010 ) a s w ell a s th e u tilit y o f ta rg etin g th e p sy cholo gic al p ro cess o f m ala daptiv e a nd a ntis o cia l th in kin g s o a s to r e duce a n o ffe nder’s r is k fo r fu tu re c rim in alit y ( La ndenberg er a nd L ip se y, 2 005 ). A lt h ough s c hola rs o f w hit e -c olla r c rim e m ay n ot h is to ric ally h ave r e cogniz ed th em a s s u ch, w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders a ls o h ave a ntis o cia l c ognit io ns th at fa cilit a te th eir c rim in al b ehavio r. T hese a ntis o cia l c ognit io ns i n clu de s u ch c ognit iv e p ro cesse s a s d enia l ( e .g ., o f r e sp onsib ilit y o r in ju ry to th e v ic tim ), m in im iz atio n, a nd j u stif ic atio n— all o f w hic h m ig ht b e s u bsu m ed u nder th e te rm neutra liz a tio ns , a c ognit iv e p ro cess a t w hic h w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders m ay b e p artic ula rly a dept. T echniq ues o f n eutr a liz atio n c an b e th ought o f a s lin guis tic o r c ognit iv e t o ols th at p erm it o ffe nders to te m pora rily fr e e th em se lv es fr o m th e c onstr a in ts o f m ora l c onventio ns b y p ro vid in g t h em w it h a w ay to d efin e th eir u nto w ard b ehavio r a s a ccepta ble u nder th e c ir c um sta nces.

N eutr a liz atio n th eory is p art o f a b ro ader m ovem ent in th e s o cia l a nd b ehavio ra l s c ie nces th at g re w to p ro m in ence i n th e la tte r h alf o f th e tw entie th c entu ry . R ese arc hers a nd p ra ctit io ners a lik e b egan to tu rn th eir a tte ntio n to i n div id ual- le vel fa cto rs to e xpla in c rim in al b ehavio r, a nd c hie f a m ong th ese fa cto rs w as h um an c ognit io n. T he c ru x o f th e th eory a rg ues th at c rim in al b ehavio r c annot b e u nders to od w it h out a n u nders ta ndin g o f th e o ffe nder’s t h in kin g. It is im porta nt to k n ow n ot o nly w hat th oughts o ffe nders h ave, p rio r to e ngagin g in a n a ct, th at a llo w o r f a cilit a te e ngagem ent in th e a ct. It is a ls o im porta nt to u nders ta nd w hat o ffe nders th in k aft e r th ey e ngage in a n illic it a ct, in o rd er to r e concile w hat th ey h ave d one w it h th eir o w n s e lf v ie w . T hus h ow p eople th in k o r ta lk to th em se lv es a bout w hat th ey h ave d one o r in te nd to d o is a c ru cia l p art o f u nders ta ndin g th eir b ehavio r. In fa ct, m ost e vid ence- b ase d o ffe nder in te rv entio ns fo cus o n tr a in in g o ffe nders to b e c ogniz ant o f h ow th eir th oughts le ad to th eir b ehavio r a nd th us to p artic ula r c onse quences a nd to s e ek to c hange th ese c rim in ogenic th in kin g p atte rn s ( e .g ., “ R easo nin g a nd R ehabilit a tio n,” Ross e t a l. , 1 988 ; “ T hin kin g fo r a C hange,” Bush e t a l. , 2 011 ).

A lm ost w it h out e xceptio n a nd r e gard le ss w heth er th ey c om e fr o m th e u pper o r m id dle r e aches o f th e s ta tu s h ie ra rc hy, th e p eople w ho a re c onvic te d o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nse s d eny h avin g c rim in al in te nt ( Benso n, 1 985 ). T hey v ie w th em se lv es a s g enera lly m ora l, a nd th ey ty pic ally d o n ot s e e th em se lv es a s b ein g lik e “ re al c rim in als ” ( B enso n, 1 985 ; Box, 1 983 ). In ste ad, th ey te nd to r a tio naliz e a w ay th eir o ffe nse s a s “ o vers ig hts ,” “ m is ta ke s,” o r “ te chnic al v io la tio ns.” T his fe atu re o f th eir p sy cholo gy w as r e cogniz ed b y Suth erla nd ( 1 949 , p . 2 22) a nd is w id ely t h ought to p la y a n im porta nt r o le in w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g.

O f c ours e n ot a ll w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a re o bliv io us to th e ille galit y o f th eir b ehavio r. S om e d o r e cogniz e in a dvance th at c erta in a ctio ns w ould v io la te th e la w a nd r u n c ounte r to p re vailin g m ora l c onventio ns. B efo re th ey c an v io la te th ese c onventio ns, th ey m ust s o m ehow c onvin ce th em se lv es th at th e v io la tio ns a re a ccepta ble . T hey d o s o b y u sin g te chniq ues o f n eutr a liz atio n ( Syke s a nd M atz a, 1 957 ). A lt h ough th e n eutr a liz atio n te chniq ues u se d T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 4 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 b y w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a re s im ila r to th ose o fte n s tu die d a m ong g enera l o ffe nders ( Mills e t a l. , 2 002 ; Sim ourd 1 997 ; Walt e rs , 1 995 ), th ey te nd to c ente r a ro und th e v alu es, c usto m s, a nd id eolo gie s o f th e w orld o f b usin ess.

I n th eir o rig in al p aper o n th e to pic , Syke s a nd M atz a ( 1 957 ) id entif ie d a n um ber o f te chniq ues o f n eutr a liz atio n, w hic h s u bse quent r e se arc h h as fo und a re o fte n e m plo yed b y w hit e -c olla r c rim in als ( Benso n, 1 985 ; Willo tt, G rif fin , a nd T orra nce, 2 001 ). T he fir s t is c alle d denia l o f r e sp onsib ilit y .

In th is c ase , th e in div id ual k n ow s o r s u sp ects th at s o m eth in g u nto w ard is h appenin g b ut s e es h im se lf o r h ers e lf a s n ot r e sp onsib le fo r w hate ver is g oin g o n. F o r e xam ple , s o m eone w ho is “ a ctin g u nder o rd ers ” fr o m a c olle ague o r s u perio r m ay fe el e xcuse d fr o m b earin g r e sp onsib ilit y fo r h is o r h er a ctio ns. T his is lik e ly to b e m ore c om mon w hen th e c rim e is c om mit te d fr o m w it h in a n o rg aniz atio n b y a n e m plo yee o f th at o rg aniz atio n. A s e cond te chniq ue fo r s a nit iz in g c erta in b usin ess c rim es is to d eny t h e v ic tim o r t h e h arm .

In m any w hit e -c olla r c rim es, s u ch a s in sid er tr a din g o r a ntit r u st v io la tio ns, th ere a re n o r e adily id entif ia ble in div id ual v ic tim s. In ste ad, w hate ver h arm is c ause d is d if fu se d a cro ss a la rg e n um ber o f p eople . In deed, a k e y c hara cte ris tic o f w hit e -c olla r c rim e is th e o fte n d if fu se n atu re o f th e h arm a nd th e s p atia l s e para tio n b etw een v ic tim s a nd o ffe nders ( Benso n a nd S im pso n, 2 009 ). T he la ck o f id entif ia ble v ic tim s m ake s it e asy fo r o ffe nders to d ow npla y th e s e rio usn ess o f th eir c rim es to th e p oin t o f in sig nif ic ance.

I n ste ad o f d enyin g r e sp onsib ilit y o r th e v ic tim , w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders s o m etim es a ls o appeal t o a h ig her lo yalt y .

T his in volv es fr a m in g o ne’s a ctio ns s o th at th ey c an b e s e en a s s e rv in g a g re ate r m ora l p urp ose th an m ere o bedie nce to th e la w . F o r e xam ple , th e o w ner o f a s m all b usin ess m ay ju stif y c heatin g o n ta xes b y a rg uin g th at s ta yin g in b usin ess s o a s to p ro te ct th e liv elih ood o f h is o r h er e m plo yees is m ore im porta nt th an c onfo rm in g to th e t a x c ode. A lt e rn ativ ely , th e b usin ess o w ner m ay a rg ue th at th e ta x c ode it s e lf is u nfa ir a nd u nju st; h ence it is n ot w orth y o f r e sp ect o r o bedie nce. T his te chniq ue is s im ila r to o ne th at Syke s a nd M atz a ( 1 957 ) la bele d co ndem nin g t h e c o ndem ners .

B ecause m ost w hit e -c olla r o ffe nse s a re mala p ro hib it u m ( i. e ., r e cogniz ed a s w ro ng b ecause th e l a w s a ys s o ) a s o ppose d to mala in s e ( i. e ., u niv ers a lly r e cogniz ed a s in here ntly w ro ng) o ffe nse s, a nd b ecause c onflic t o ver w hat th e la w s h ould o r s h ould n ot p ro hib it is e ndem ic to fr e e m ark e t e conom ie s, it is n ot d if fic ult to u nderm in e o ne’s fe lt s e nse o f m ora l o blig atio n to o bey th e la w b y a sse rtin g th e u nfa ir n ess o f a ny p artic ula r la w . A ll o f th ese te chniq ues u se d b y w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders p ro vid e a p ers p ectiv e o r v ie w poin t o n ille gal b ehavio r th at e nable s w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders to v io la te th e la w w it h out fe elin g g uilt o r ta rn is h in g th eir s e lf - im age a s r e sp ecta ble p eople .

A lt h ough th e u se o f n eutr a liz atio ns b y w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders is k n ow n to b e w id esp re ad, it d oes n ot m ean th at o ffe nders c an p ic k a nd c hoose r a ndom ly a m ong th e te chniq ues in in te rp re tin g th eir o w n b ehavio r. In o ne o f th e f ir s t s y ste m atic tr e atm ents o f th e c ognit iv e o rie nta tio ns o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders , Benso n ( 1 985) a rg ued th at th e w ay th at o ffe nders a tte m pt to e xpla in o r a ccount fo r th eir in volv em ent in w hit e -c olla r c rim e is s tr u ctu re d b y th e m echanic s, h is to ry , a nd o rg aniz atio nal fo rm ats o f th e o ffe nse s th em se lv es. F o r e xam ple , b ecause a ntit r u st o ffe nse s h ave a d if fe re nt h is to ry a nd a re c om mit te d u sin g d if fe re nt te chniq ues th an o ffe nse s s u ch a s e m bezzle m ent o r in com e ta x e vasio n, p erp etr a to rs o f th e fo rm er o ffe nse s te nd to c om e u p w it h d if fe re nt e xculp ato ry s ta te m ents th an th ose w ho c om mit th e la tte r.

R ecently in vestig ato rs h ave b egun to e xplo re h ow w hit e -c olla r n eutr a liz atio ns a re s tr u ctu re d b y s o cia l c la ss a nd g ender a s w ell a s b y th e m echanic s o f o ffe nse s. F o r e xam ple , u sin g a s a m ple o f in div id uals c onvic te d in fe dera l c ourts o f v ario us c rim es in volv in g v io la tio ns o f tr u st o r fid ucia ry d uty , K le now ski, C opes, a nd M ullin s ( 2 010) fo und t h at g ender e xpecta tio ns a ppear to s h ape th e a vaila bilit y a nd fr e quency o f u se o f c erta in a ccounts . S pecif ic ally , w om en a re m ore lik e ly to e xpla in th eir c rim es a s th e r e su lt o f u navoid able n ecessit y , w here as m en a re m ore lik e ly t o d eny h arm o r to c ondem n th eir c ondem ners . In a s im ila r s tu dy fo cusin g o n c la ss d if fe re nces in a ccounts , Willo tt, G rif fin , a nd T orra nce ( 2 001) c om pare d w hit e -c olla r m ale p ro fe ssio nals c onvic te d o f e conom ic c rim es w it h b lu e- c olla r e conom ic c rim in als . B oth g ro ups o f o ffe nders s tr e sse d th e n eed to p ro vid e fo r o th ers to ju stif y th eir i n volv em ent in th eir o ffe nse s, b ut th ey d is p la yed s u btle th em atic d if fe re nces in h ow th is “ m ale a s b re adw in ner” s tr a te gy w as p re se nte d. T he b lu e-c olla r o ffe nders s p oke o f th eir o blig atio ns a s m en to p ro vid e fo r th eir fa m ilie s, b ut t h e s o cia lly p riv ile ged p ro fe ssio nals p re se nte d a b ro ader, m ore e m bellis h ed v ie w o f th eir o blig atio ns, c it in g th eir r e sp onsib ilit ie s to th eir e m plo yees a nd th eir c re dit o rs . T hus Willo tt e t a l. ( 2 001 , p . 4 62) a rg ue th at th eir “ fin din gs r e veal a n in te rp la y o f id entit y w ork b ein g a ccom plis h ed a ro und d if fe re nt v ers io ns o f p riv ile ged a nd s u bord in ate d v ers io ns o f m asc ulin it y in r e la tio n to c la ss.” A lt h ough n eutr a liz atio ns h ave o fte n b een tr e ate d in th e w hit e -c olla r c rim e lit e ra tu re a s lin guis tic a cts u nderta ke n b y o ffe nders a s a w ay o f fr e ein g th em se lv es fr o m m ora l c onstr a in ts s o th at th ey c ould e ngage in p artic ula r o ffe nse s, T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 5 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 t h is p osit io n h as b een s u bje ct to s u bsta ntia l c rit ic is m . Maru na a nd C opes ( 2 005) , fo r e xam ple , a rg ue th at n eutr a liz atio ns s h ould n ot b e th ought o f a s ju st a noth er ty pe o f in dependent c ausa l v aria ble th at p re cedes o ffe ndin g in a s im ple “ A c ause s B ” ty pe o f te m pora l o rd er. R ath er, in th eir v ie w , c ognit io ns a ffe ct b ehavio r, a nd b ehavio r a ffe cts c ognit io ns th ro ughout th e lif e c ours e .

C rim in alit y a nd c ognit io n a re o ngoin g p ro cesse s w it h n o fix ed “ b egin nin gs” o r “ e ndin gs.” S ubtle c hanges in c ognit io n ( a s “ c ause ”) a nd c hanges in d esis te nce ( a s “ e ffe ct” ) a re lik e ly to o verla p in tim e, w it h c ause a ffe ctin g t h e e ffe ct a nd th e e ffe ct a ffe ctin g th e c ause — callin g th e u tilit y o f b oth c onstr u cts in to q uestio n ( p . 2 89).

H is to ric ally , te chniq ues o f n eutr a liz atio n h ave b een r e gard ed b y s c hola rs o f w hit e -c olla r c rim e a s n ot b ein g e xplic it ly a ntis o cia l b ecause th ey d o n ot e xplic it ly e ndors e la w bre akin g. R ath er, th ey h ave b een a ssu m ed to o pera te a s e xte nuatin g c ir c um sta nces u nder w hic h c rim e b ecom es p erm is sib le o n c erta in o ccasio ns ( Box, 1 983 ).

R ese arc h o n o th er ty pes o f o ffe nders , h ow ever, s u ggests th at th is v ie w o f n eutr a liz atio n is o utd ate d a nd in n eed o f m odif ic atio n. In deed, it m ay b e a rg ued th at p artic ula r ty pes o f p ers o nalit ie s a re m ore o r le ss p ro ne to e ngagin g in t h ese n eutr a liz atio n te chniq ues, a nd th e u se o f n eutr a liz atio ns m ay b e a n in dic ato r o f p ers o nalit y tr a it s th at c o- o ccur w it h c rim in alit y . A ccord in gly , w e tu rn n ow to a d is c ussio n o f th e lit e ra tu re o n p ers o nalit y tr a it s a s th ey r e la te t o w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g.

T he P ers o nalit y o f t h e W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd er T he n otio n th at in div id ual tr a it s a nd c hara cte ris tic s a ffe ct o ne’s p ro pensit y fo r e ngagin g in c rim e is n ot n ew to th e f ie ld o f c rim in olo gy. In deed, p eople w ho a re d elin quent a re a ls o m ore lik e ly to b e im puls iv e o r s e nsa tio n-s e ekin g, a ggre ssiv e, a nd e m otio nally r e activ e ( s e e Kru eger e t a l. , 1 994 ). S uch tr a it s a re a ls o lik e ly to in flu ence w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g, b ut a ddit io nal p ers o nalit y tr a it s m ay b e p artic ula rly u niq ue to th e w hit e -c olla r o ffe nder. F o r e xam ple , a s e arly a s th e tu rn o f th e tw entie th c entu ry , E . A . Ross ( 1 907) a rg ued th at th e w hit e -c olla r c rim in als o f h is d ay, w hom h e c alle d c rim in alo id s, w ere m ora lly in se nsit iv e. In th e p urs u it o f p ro fit , c rim in alo id s la ck c onsid era tio n o f th e r ig hts a nd w ell- b ein g o f o th ers a nd a re s im ply n ot b oth ere d b y th e h arm th at th ey in flic t o n th em :

The k e y to th e c rim in alo id s is n ot e vil im puls e b ut m ora l in se nsib ilit y … . N atu re h as n ot fo re doom ed th em to evil b y a d ouble d ose o f lu st, c ru elt y , m alic e, g re ed, o r je alo usy . T hey a re n ot d egenera te s to rm ente d b y monstr o us c ra vin gs. T hey w ant n oth in g m ore th an w e a ll w ant— money, p ow er, a nd c onsid era tio n— in a word , s u ccess; b ut th ey a re in a h urry a nd th ey a re n ot p artic ula r a s to th e m eans.

( Ross, 1 977 , p . 3 1) S in ce R oss, o th er s c hola rs h ave s p ecula te d o n v ario us tr a it s th at m ay b e p artic ula rly c om mon a m ong w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders . F o r e xam ple , Sto tla nd ( 1 977) th ought th at w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders r e lis h th e se nse o f s u perio rit y o ver t h e v ic tim th at c om es w hen a n o ffe nse is s u ccessfu lly c arrie d o ff a nd th e v ic tim lo se s o ut. T he fe elin g o f p ow er a nd s u perio rit y th at a ris e s fr o m th e o ffe nse is p sy cholo gic ally r e w ard in g to th e o ffe nder a nd m ay b ecom e a s o urc e o f m otiv atio n fo r c ontin ued o ffe ndin g ( Shover 2 007 ; Sto tla nd, 1 977 ). T he w hit e -c olla r o ffe nder’s s e nse o f s u perio rit y i s th ought to b e a ccom panie d b y a rro gance ( Shover a nd H ochste tle r, 2 006 ). E lit e w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders s e em to b elie ve th at “ th ey d on’t h ave to fo llo w th e r u le s b ecause th ey m ade th em ” ( Sw artz , 2 003 , p . 3 02). R ela te d to th eir a rro gance a nd s e nse o f s u perio rit y is th e g ra tif ic atio n th at c om es fr o m m aste rin g a c om ple x s it u atio n. Sto tla nd ( 1 977) c alls th is s o urc e o f m otiv atio n “ e go c halle nge.” F in ally , a necdota l r e se arc h h as lo ng fo und th at h ig h-s ta tu s w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders h ave a s e nse o f s e lf - re gard th at c ro sse s w ell b eyond th e lin e s e para tin g a h ealt h y e go fr o m o utr ig ht n arc is sis m ( Pe rri, 2 013 ).

H ow ever, o nly r e cently h as th e fie ld b egun to r e cogniz e a p artic ula r p sy cholo gic al c onstr u ct th at in corp ora te s m any o f th e tr a it s a nd c hara cte ris tic s th at w hit e -c olla r s c hola rs h ave w rit te n a bout u nsy ste m atic ally fo r d ecades:

p sy chopath y. O ne o f th e e arlie st d esc rip tio ns o f p sy chopath y w as o ffe re d b y Herv ey C le ckle y ( 1 941) . A s a p ra ctic in g p sy chia tr is t, C le ckle y n otic ed a tr o ublin g p atte rn o f p ers o nalit y a nd b ehavio r in s o m e o f h is c lie nts — c hara cte ris tic s th at s to od n ota bly in c ontr a st to th ose c om monly o bse rv ed a m ong p atie nts u nderg oin g p sy chia tr ic t r e atm ent. T hese p atie nts a ppeare d to b e in ta ct c ognit iv ely , to b e in c ontr o l o f th eir m enta l fa cult ie s, a nd to la ck th e m ore tr a dit io nal p sy chia tr ic s y m pto m s o f n euro sis a nd p sy chosis . In ste ad, th ey a ppeare d to h ave a d is o rd er o f p ers o nalit y — one th at s h are d s o m e o verla ppin g c rit e ria w it h o th er p ers o nalit y d is o rd ers ( e .g ., a ntis o cia l p ers o nalit y )— but w as y et q uit e d is tin ct. T hese in div id uals a ppeare d n orm al o n th e o uts id e b ut w ere fa r fr o m n orm al T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 6 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 o n th e in sid e; th ey a ppeare d to w ear, a s Cle ckle y ( 1 941) v iv id ly p ut it , a “ m ask o f s a nit y ,” a nd th ey h ave s in ce b een d esc rib ed to b e “ w it h out c onsc ie nce” ( Hare , 1 993 ).

C le ckle y d esc rib ed th ese “ p sy chopath ic ” p atie nts a s b ein g d is tin guis h ed b y a p aucit y o f a ffe ctiv e e xperie nces a nd a n in abilit y to e xperie nce e m path y. P sy chopath s a re c harm in g a nd in te llig ent, w it h a m anip ula tiv e i n te rp ers o nal s ty le , b ut a ls o e gocentr ic . It h as b een s u ggeste d th at th ese c hara cte ris tic s a llo w p sy chopath s to g ain a ccess to — and th en ta ke a dvanta ge o f— vuln era ble p eople ( Hare , 1 993 ) a nd c orp ora tio ns ( Babia k a nd H are , 2 006 ). B ehavio ra lly , th ey a re u nre lia ble , d is h onest, s h ow p oor ju dgm ent, h ave fle etin g a nd im pers o nal s e xual r e la tio nsh ip s, a nd fa il to fo llo w a lif e p la n. A ddit io nally , th ese in div id uals m ay a ls o e ngage in a ntis o cia l b ehavio r w it h “ lit tle o r n o e vid ence o f th e c onsc io us c onflic t o r th e s u bse quent r e gre t th at a re n ot r e gula rly a bse nt in o th er m anif e sta tio ns” ( Cle ckle y, 1 988 , p . 3 44).

T he in te rp ers o nal a nd a ffe ctiv e d efic it s o bse rv ed b y Cle ckle y ( 1 941) a re c entr a l to c urre nt c onceptu aliz atio ns o f p sy chopath y. F o r e xam ple , th ey c om pris e o ne o f tw o c ore fa cto rs a sse sse d b y th e P sy chopath y C hecklis t- R evis e d ( P C L-R ) d evelo ped b y Hare ( 1 990) , a to ol u se d to a sse ss p sy chopath y la rg ely in c rim in al p opula tio ns. O th er o pera tio naliz atio ns s u ch a s th e P sy chopath ic P e rs o nalit y In vento ry ( P PI) ( L ilie nfe ld a nd A ndre w s, 1 996), a to ol d esig ned to a sse ss th e c onstr u ct in th e g enera l ( i. e ., n oncrim in al) p opula tio n, a ls o e m phasiz es p sy chopath s’ e gocentr ic it y , fe arle ssn ess, a nd in te rp ers o nal d om in ance. B oth o f th ese le adin g m easu re s o f p sy chopath y a sse ss t h e im puls iv eness a nd ir re sp onsib ilit y o f p sy chopath s. A lt h ough th ere is s o m e d ebate a s to w heth er a ntis o cia l b ehavio r is n ecessa rily a p re re quis it e fo r th e d is o rd er ( s e e Ske em a nd C ooke , 2 010 ), th ese c ore p ers o nalit y tr a it s a re c erta in to p la y a r o le a m ong th ose in div id uals w ho d o e ngage in ille gal a nd/o r a ntis o cia l b ehavio r. T his m ay b e p artic ula rly tr u e fo r w hit e -c olla r c rim in als .

T he e m pir ic al r e se arc h e xam in in g th e p ers o nalit y tr a it s o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders is r e la tiv ely n ew a nd s u ffe rs fr o m s o m e m eth odolo gic al lim it a tio ns. T hese a re d ue in la rg e p art to th e d if fic ult y o f a ccessin g s a m ple s o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders , a nd, o f c ours e , to th e d efin it io nal is su es n ote d a bove. C urre ntly e xta nt r e se arc h a llo w s u s to d ra w o nly i n fe re ntia l c onclu sio ns a bout th e lin k b etw een p ers o nalit y ( p sy chopath ic tr a it s in p artic ula r) a nd w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g, b ut th e fin din gs fr o m th ese s tu die s n everth ele ss s ig nal th at th is is a p ro m is in g lin e o f r e se arc h.

R ese arc h o n th e lin k b etw een p ers o nalit y tr a it s a nd w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g c om es fr o m fo ur ty pes o f s tu die s th at u se d if fe re nt m eth odolo gic al a ppro aches. F ir s t, th ere a re v ig nette -b ase d s u rv eys o f n onoffe nders . In th ese s tu die s, r e se arc hers a sse sse d th e p ers o nalit y tr a it s a nd th in kin g s ty le s o f c olle ge s tu dents ( Ray, 2 007 ), M BA s tu dents , a nd e xecutiv es ( Sim pso n a nd P iq uero , 2 002 ) a nd th en, g auged th eir w illin gness to e ngage in w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g, g iv en a v arie ty o f w ork p la ce r e la te d v ig nette s.. In th e s tu dy o f c olle ge s tu dents , Ray ( 2 007) fo und th at h ig her F a cto r 1 P PI s c ore s— whic h in dex s e lf - c ente re dness, im puls iv it y , a nd e gocentr ic it y — pre dic te d w illin gness to e ngage in w hit e -c olla r c rim e, a nd th is r e la tio nsh ip w as p artia lly m edia te d b y a ttit u des r e la te d to w hit e -c olla r c rim e.

I n o th er w ord s, s tu dents w ho w ere h ig her in P PI F a cto r 1 s c ore s w ere a ls o m ore lik e ly to h ave a ttit u des s u pportiv e o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g. S im ila rly , in th e s tu dy o f b usin ess s tu dents a nd p ro fe ssio nals , Sim pso n a nd P iq uero ( 2 002) d is c overe d th at c onte xtu al fa cto rs a nd n eutr a liz atio ns in flu enced p artic ip ants ’ w illin gness to e ngage in w hit e -c olla r c rim e‒lik e b ehavio rs . H ow ever, p oor s e lf - c ontr o l w as n ot r e la te d to o ffe ndin g p ro pensit ie s. C om bin ed, th ese s tu die s s u ggest th at a m ong n onoffe nders w ho a re w illin g to e ngage in h ypoth etic al w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g, a ntis o cia l t h in kin g ( i. e ., n eutr a liz atio ns, a ttit u des fa vora ble to w ard w hit e -c olla r c rim in al a ctiv it y ) a nd s o m e p ers o nalit y tr a it s ( e .g ., e gocentr is m ) m ay p la y a r o le in th eir d ecis io n m akin g, b ut b ehavio ra l m ark e rs s u ch a s im puls iv it y m ay n ot b e r e lia ble p re dic to rs o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g.

S econd, th ere a re s e vera l s tu die s in w hic h c hara cte ris tic s o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a re r e porte d b y in div id uals k n ow n to th em . P ro se cuto rs a nd d efe nse a tto rn eys w ho h ave w ork e d w it h w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders d esc rib e th em a s g re edy, e ntit le d, n arc is sis tic , a nd c ontr o llin g ( Bucy e t a l. , 2 008 ). C olle agues o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders d esc rib e th em a s m anip ula tiv e a nd e gocentr ic ( A le heto , 2 003). D esp it e th ese le ss th an d esir a ble tr a it s , w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders w ere a ls o p erc eiv ed a s e xtr o verte d ( A le heto , 2 003) a nd c haris m atic ( Bucy e t a l. , 2 008 ). T hey a ppear to e xhib it th e v eil o f s o cia l c om pete ncy th at h as b een n ote d b y o th ers ( e .g ., Cle ckle y, 1 941 ; Hare , 1 993 ). A lt h ough th ese s tu die s a re p ro ne to p ers o nal b ia se s, th ey a re c onsis te nt w it h th eore tic al p re su pposit io ns a bout th e p ers o nalit y tr a it s o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a nd w it h th e r e se arc h r e vie w ed a bove in dic atin g a lin k b etw een s p ecif ic p ers o nalit y tr a it s c om mon to p sy chopath y a nd w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g.

T hir d , th ere a re s tu die s th at c om pare th e p ers o nalit y tr a it s o f k n ow n w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders to th ose o f n onoffe nders T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 7 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 w ho h old s im ila r w hit e -c olla r o ccupatio nal p osit io ns ( Blic kle e t a l. , 2 006 ; Collin s a nd S chm id t, 1 993 ). U sin g a s a m ple o f c onvic te d fe dera l w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders , Collin s a nd S chm id t ( 1 993) fo und th at th at th e w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders w ere lo w er in s o cia liz atio n ( i. e ., s o cia l m atu rit y ), r e sp onsib ilit y ( i. e ., c onsc ie ntio usn ess a nd d ependabilit y ), a nd t o le ra nce ( i. e ., a cceptin g a nd n onju dgm enta l o f o th ers ) b ut h ig her o n e xtr a vers io n ( i. e ., s o cia bilit y ) th an n onoffe ndin g w hit e -c olla r p ro fe ssio nals . S im ila rly , in a s tu dy o f “ h ig h le vel” w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders in G erm any, th e w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders w ere m ore n arc is sis tic , h edonis tic , a nd e xhib it e d le ss b ehavio ra l c ontr o l th an th e c ontr o l s a m ple o f n onoffe nders ( Blic kle e t a l. , 2 006 ).

F in ally , th ere a re s tu die s th at c om pare c erta in ty pes o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders w it h o th er o ffe nder p opula tio ns. In o ne s tu dy, Ragatz a nd c olle agues ( 2 012) m atc hed th re e g ro ups o f o ffe nders o n a ge a nd e th nic it y : ( 1 ) w hit e -c olla r o nly o ffe nders , ( 2 ) o ffe nders w it h v ers a tile c rim in al h is to rie s th at in clu ded b oth w hit e -c olla r a nd o th er o ffe nse s, a nd ( 3 ) o ffe nders w ho c om mit te d n on‒w hit e -c olla r o ffe nse s. T hey fo und th at w hit e -c olla r-o nly o ffe nders h ad s h orte r c rim in al h is to rie s a nd fe w er d ru g p ro ble m s. T hey a ls o e xhib it e d le ss c rim in al th in kin g th an v ers a tile a nd n on‒w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders . T his fin din g w as a ls o n ote d in a s im ila r s tu dy o f w hit e -c olla r-o nly v ers u s m ix ed o ffe nders ( Walt e rs a nd G eyer, 2 004 ). In fa ct, o nly c rim in al th in kin g s c ore s d is tin guis h ed w hit e -c olla r-o nly fr o m v ers a tile o ffe nders ( R agatz e t a l. , 2 012 ). F in ally , b oth w hit e -c olla r g ro ups e xhib it e d h ig her s o cia l p ote ncy a nd e gocentr ic it y th an n on‒ w hit e -c olla r g ro ups. T hese fin din gs s e em to s u ggest th at w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders ( id entif ie d u sin g a n o ffe nse -b ase d d efin it io n) e xhib it p ers o nalit y c hara cte ris tic s s im ila r to th ose o bse rv ed in th e s tu die s r e porte d a bove. H ow ever, w hit e -c olla r-o nly o ffe nders d o n ot s e em to b e as “ c rim in al” in th eir th in kin g o r th eir b ehavio r a s o th er o ffe nders .

T hey h ave s h orte r a nd le ss d iv ers e c rim in al h is to rie s a nd d o n ot e xhib it c rim in al th in kin g to th e s a m e d egre e a s o th er o ffe nders .

S um mariz in g t h e F in din gs a nd D ir e ctio ns f o r F u tu re R ese arc h W hat W e K no w A bout t h e P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd ers T ake n to geth er, s e vera l k e y fin din gs h ave e m erg ed fr o m th e s m all b ut g ro w in g lit e ra tu re o n th e p sy cholo gy o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g. F ir s t, w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a ppear to e xhib it s e le cte d p ers o nalit y tr a it s th at a re c onsis te nt w it h th e c onstr u ct o f p sy chopath y. A cro ss s e vera l m eth odolo gic al a ppro aches, w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a re d esc rib ed a s b ein g e gocentr ic a nd d om in eerin g. T he r e se arc h a ls o s e em s to s u ggest th at w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a re e xtr o verte d a nd s o cia ble . T hese s e em in gly c ontr a dic to ry p ers o nalit y tr a it s a re n ot n ecessa rily m utu ally e xclu siv e. In deed, it h as b een a rg ued th at th eir s o m ew hat m ore d esir a ble p ers o nalit y tr a it s a llo w w hit e -c olla rs o ffe nders to g ain a ccess to — and “ w in o ver” o r “ d upe” — vuln era ble p eople a nd c om panie s, a nd th eir e gocentr is m a llo w s th em to d o s o w it h v ery lit tle c oncern fo r h ow th eir b ehavio r a ffe cts o r h arm s o th ers ( Babia k a nd H are , 2 006 ).

N ext, s o m e o f th e tr a it s th at a re c onsis te nt w it h p sy chopath y a re s h are d a m ong w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a nd n onoffe ndin g in div id uals w ho a re s it u ate d in “ w hit e c olla r” ‒ty pe o ccupatio ns ( Babia k e t a l. , 2 010 ; Ray, 2 007 ). It s e em s n ot to o m uch o f a th eore tic al le ap to s u ggest th at p sy chopath y, o ccupatio nal s u ccess, a nd w hit e -c olla r c rim e m ay b e in te rtw in ed in c om ple x w ays. In th e s tu die s r e vie w ed a bove, it a ppears th at w hen c erta in p sy chopath ic tr a it s a re e xpre sse d to a g re ate r d egre e, m ore a dvers e o utc om es s e em to r e su lt . F o r e xam ple , Ray’s ( 2 007) s tu dy s h ow ed th at h ig her e xpre ssio ns o f th is tr a it n ot o nly le d to h ig her c ognit io ns in s u pport o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g b ut a ls o a g re ate r w illin gness to e ngage in th at ty pe o f c rim e. Babia k a nd c olle agues’ ( 2 010) s tu dy r e veale d n ot o nly th at th e p re vale nce o f p sy chopath y is g re ate r a m ong c orp ora te le aders th an th e g enera l p opula tio n b ut th at c orp ora te le aders r a nkin g h ig her o n p sy chopath ic tr a it s w ere p erc eiv ed b y th eir c olle agues to b e p oore r m anagers a nd te am p la yers . T he id ea th at c erta in p ers o nalit y tr a it s m ay p ro m ote b oth o ccupatio nal s u ccess a nd c rim in ogenic te ndencie s w as n ote d m any y ears a go b y E dw ard G ro ss. Gro ss ( 1 978) a rg ued th at th e l e aders o f la rg e o rg aniz atio ns te nd to b e c hara cte riz ed b y th re e s p ecif ic p ers o nalit y tr a it s : a m bit io usn ess, s h re w dness, a nd m ora l fle xib ilit y . T hese tr a it s , h e s u ggeste d, fo ste re d b oth u pw ard m obilit y in o rg aniz atio nal h ie ra rc hie s a nd a w illin gness to p ut th e a chie vem ent o f o rg aniz atio nal g oals a head o f e th ic al p rin cip le s a nd le gal m andate s.

F in ally , th e r e se arc h s e em s to in dic ate n ot o nly th at p ers o nalit y and c ognit iv e p ro cesse s a re im porta nt to u nders ta ndin g th e p sy cholo gy o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g b ut a ls o th at th ey m ay b e d if fe re ntia lly e xpre sse d a cro ss s u bty pes o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders . T he in sig htfu l w ork o f Ragatz a nd c olle agues ( 2 012) p oin te d o ut h ow th e w hit e - T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 8 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 c olla r-o nly o ffe nder a ppears to b e le ss “ c rim in al” th an o th er o ffe nders w it h r e sp ect to th in kin g p atte rn s a nd c rim in al h is to ry ( e .g ., c are er le ngth a nd v ers a tilit y ) b ut m ay s h are in c om mon th e s o cia bilit y ( i. e ., e xtr a vers io n) a nd e gocentr is m o f o th er w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders . S im ila rly , Bucy a nd c olle agues ( 2 008) p ro pose a ty polo gy o f w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders “ le aders ” a nd “ fo llo w ers ”; b oth c om mit o ffe nse s, b ut “ le aders ” a re lik e ly to b e m ore a sse rtiv e, d om in eerin g, a nd le ss lik e ly to b e d ete rre d b y th e th re at o f p unis h m ent. A lt h ough fu rth er r e se arc h is n eeded in th is a re a, th ere s e em s to b e a s tr o ng s ig nal th at d if fe re nt ty pes o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders — no m atte r h ow th ey a re i d entif ie d— may d if fe r in th eir p sy cholo gic al p ro file s. F u rth er, it is im porta nt to p ay a tte ntio n to b oth th in kin g a nd p ers o nalit y in s tu dyin g w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a nd th e p ote ntia l s u bty pes a m ong th em .

W hat W e D on’t K no w A bout t h e P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd ers a nd A re as f o r F utu re R esearc h T here a re s e vera l lim it a tio ns to p ast r e se arc h o n th e p sy cholo gy o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g th at s u ggest a re as fo r f u tu re e xplo ra tio n. T he fir s t in volv es th e d efin it io nal p ro ble m th at p la gues th is a re a o f r e se arc h. W ho s h ould b e r e gard ed a s a w hit e -c olla r o ffe nder? If w e tr u ly w ant to g et a b ette r psy ch olo gic a l u nders ta ndin g o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders , w e s u ggest th at r e se arc hers n ot u se p ers o nal c hara cte ris tic s to d efin e th em b ut r a th er u se k e y crim in al b ehavio ra l in dic es to d efin e a s a m ple o f in te re st ( i. e ., th e w hit e -c olla r o ffe nse o r a p atte rn o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g o ver tim e). In a n a tte m pt to “ d rill d ow n” to fin d o ut w hat m ake s w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders d is tin ct fr o m o th er o ffe nders , i t w ill b e u se fu l to id entif y th e k e y a sp ects o f th eir c rim in al b ehavio r a nd w ork fr o m th ere . O ne p ote ntia lly fr u it fu l s tr a te gy m ay b e to e xte nd th e a ppro ach o f Ragatz a nd c olle agues ( 2 012) a nd c om pare w hit e -c olla r-o nly o ffe nders w it h m ore c rim in ally v ers a tile o ffe nders .

T o ta ke it o ne s te p fu rth er, it m ay b e h elp fu l to tr y to e xplo re th e e m pir ic al v alid it y o f s u bty pes th at h ave b een p re vio usly p ro pose d ( e .g ., “ le aders ” v ers u s “ fo llo w ers ”) ( Bucy e t a l. 2 008 ). A s w ell, it is n ecessa ry to a ls o e xplo re w heth er o th er d is tin guis h able s u bty pes e m erg e o n th e b asis o f p ers o nalit y a nd th in kin g a nd h ow th ese s u bty pes a lig n w it h th eory . In th is c hapte r, w e h ave a gre ed w it h o th ers th at w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders e xhib it m any o f th e c hara cte ris tic s c entr a l to th e c onstr u ct o f p sy chopath y. D o w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders d if fe r in th e e xte nt to w hic h th ey e xhib it v ario us fe atu re s o f p sy chopath y o r e ven o th er p ers o nalit y tr a it s , fo r th at m atte r? F o r e xam ple , a re s o m e w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders m ore im puls iv e th an o th ers , w hile o th ers a re m ore c ool a nd c alc ula tin g? D o “ fo llo w ers ” r e sp ond b ette r to p unis h m ent o r d ete rre nce a s s u ggeste d b y Bucy a nd c olle agues ( 2 008) ? A re s o m e m ore a nxio us a nd im puls iv e? W e s u ggest th at fu tu re r e se arc h in th is a re a in corp ora te — or a t le ast c onsid er— th e lit e ra tu re o n n orm al p ers o nalit y a s w ell a s o n p sy chopath ic s u bty pes. S uch in fo rm atio n is lik e ly to b e e sse ntia l to p ra ctit io ners t a ske d w it h m anagin g a nd tr e atin g o ffe nders . K now in g n ot o nly h ow p artic ula r o ffe nders d if fe r o n s p ecif ic d om ain s t h at c ould b e ta rg ete d in tr e atm ent b ut a ls o w hat th e lik e ly s o urc e is ( i. e ., e tio lo gic ally ) fo r th ose d if fe re nces) c ould c erta in ly in fo rm a nd im pro ve in te rv entio n e ffo rts .

A s e cond p ro ble m a re a o f p rio r r e se arc h o n th e p sy cholo gy o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g is th at th e k n ow le dge b ase g enera liz es to in div id uals w ho h ave b een c aught a nd w hose a ctio ns h ave b een o ffic ia lly r e cord ed b y th e c rim in al j u stic e s y ste m . G iv en th at ( 1 ) s o m e fe atu re s o f p sy chopath y o bse rv ed a m ong w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders ( e .g ., s e lf - c ente re dness) c an b e a daptiv e in s o m e c onte xts ( Taylo r a nd A rm or, 1 996 ), a nd ( 2 ) p sy chopath ic tr a it s s e en in w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders h ave a ls o b een o bse rv ed in “ n onoffe ndin g” b usin ess s tu dents , p ro fe ssio nals , a nd c orp ora te l e aders ( Babia k e t a l. , 2 010 ; Ray, 2 007 ; Sim pso n a nd P iq uero , 2 002 ), m ore is y et to b e le arn ed a bout h ow w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders d if fe r fr o m n onoffe ndin g w hit e -c olla r e m plo yees. C erta in ly , p re vio us fin din gs d o n eed r e plic atio n. In s o d oin g, it w ill b e im porta nt to e xplo re w heth er th ese g ro ups d if fe r in q ualit y ( i. e ., d o th ey e xhib it d if fe re nt c lu ste rs o r p atte rn s o f p sy chopath ic a nd o th er p ers o nalit y tr a it s ) o r q uantit y ( i. e ., d o th ey d if fe r in th e d egre e to w hic h tr a it s a re e xpre sse d?). K now in g th is in fo rm atio n m ay g et u s c lo se r to u nders ta ndin g th e fa cto rs th at d em arc ate c rim in als f r o m o th ers w ho h ave s im ila r p ers o nalit y tr a it s . H ow ever, r e se arc hers m ust b e c erta in to h ave a “ p ure ” c om paris o n s a m ple o f n onoffe ndin g w hit e -c olla r b usin ess p eople . T his m ay r e quir e th e u se o f a nonym ous s u rv eys a nd o th er a ppro aches th at c an h elp e nsu re th at th e p eople w ho h ave c om mit te d w hit e -c olla r o ffe nse s b ut w ho h ave e vaded d ete ctio n d o n ot g et lu m ped in to a “ n onoffe ndin g” c om paris o n g ro up.

A noth er g enera l w eakn ess o f th e r e se arc h o n w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders is th at o ffe nders a re o fte n s tu die d in is o la tio n f r o m th e o rg aniz atio nal c onte xt in w hic h s o m any w hit e -c olla r o ffe nse s a re s it u ate d. A s h as b een n ote d a t s e vera l p oin ts in th is r e vie w , th e lit e ra tu re c an b e r e ad a s s u ggestin g th at c erta in p ers o nalit y tr a it s fo und a m ong w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders fa cilit a te b oth w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g a nd s u ccess in s o m e ty pes o f o rg aniz atio nal s e ttin gs. If it T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 9 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 e xis ts , th is s o rt o f in te ra ctio n b etw een p ers o nalit y tr a it s a nd th e e nvir o nm enta l c onte xt o f w hit e -c olla r c rim e w ould b e a p ote ntia lly v ery im porta nt fa cet o f th e w hit e -c olla r c rim e p henom enon. H ow ever, w hile th ere is a la rg e b ody o f r e se arc h o n o rg aniz atio nal b ehavio r a nd a g ro w in g b ody o f r e se arc h o n th e p sy cholo gic al c hara cte ris tic s o f w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders , to d ate th ere h as b een n o r e se arc h th at s y ste m atic ally e xplo re s th e in te ra ctio n b etw een o rg aniz atio nal c hara cte ris tic s a nd th e w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g o f in div id ual o rg aniz atio nal p artic ip ants .

T he la st c rit ic is m o f o ur c urre nt u nders ta ndin g o f w hit e -c olla r o ffe ndin g fr o m a p sy cholo gic al p ers p ectiv e c oncern s t h e o verw helm in g d earth o f r e se arc h in th is a re a. F o r a n um ber o f r e aso ns, it is d if fic ult to g et a ccess to w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders . F o r th ose k n ow n to th e c rim in al ju stic e s y ste m , r e se arc hers fa ce c halle nges in a ccessin g c rim in al j u stic e a gencie s a nd m ust fig ure o ut h ow to n avig ate a dded r e str ic tio ns a nd p ro te ctio n o f p ris o ners r e quir e d b y i n stit u tio nal r e vie w b oard s. F o r w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders u nkn ow n to th e c rim in al ju stic e s y ste m , p erh aps th e b est r e se arc h s tr a te gie s a re th ose th at h ave a lr e ady b een tr ie d: ( 1 ) v ig nette -b ase d s tu die s to d ete rm in e w hat p ers o nalit y c hara cte ris tic s a nd th in kin g p atte rn s a re m ore c lo se ly lin ke d to w illin gness to o ffe nd ( e .g ., Ray, 2 007 ; S im pso n a nd P iq uero , 2 002 ) a nd ( 2 ) b y s u rv eyin g n onoffe nders w ho a re k n ow n to m ore o fte n h ave p ers o nalit y c hara cte ris tic s c onsis te nt w it h th e c onstr u ct o f p sy chopath y a nd c onsis te nt w it h th ose o bse rv ed a m ong w hit e - c olla r o ffe nders ( e .g ., Babia k e t a l. , 2 010 ). O f c ours e , c orp ora tio ns a re u nlik e ly to b e o pen to h avin g th eir e m plo yees’ p ers o nalit y a nd th in kin g s c ru tin iz ed, a nd s m art in div id uals a re q uic k to p ic k u p o n th e u nsp oke n g oals o f a r e se arc h s tu dy a nd m ay th us b e le ss w illin g to r e port h onestly o n tr a it s th at a re g enera lly p erc eiv ed a s n egativ e. R ese arc hers w ill n eed to d evelo p n ew a nd in novativ e s tr a te gie s to im pro ve a ccess to w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a nd in cre ase th e a ccura cy w it h w hic h th ey c an d esc rib e th em fr o m a p sy cholo gic al p ers p ectiv e.

C onclu sio n O ver th e p ast tw o d ecades c rim in olo gy h as ta ke n a d ecis iv e tu rn to w ard in div id ual d if fe re nces, e sp ecia lly in r e gard to p sy cholo gic al a nd c ognit iv e c hara cte ris tic s, a s im porta nt e xpla nato ry fa cto rs in th e e tio lo gy o f c rim in al b ehavio r. Y e t, a s Le vi ( 2 013) n ote s, u ntil q uit e r e cently , s c hola rs o f w hit e -c olla r c rim e h ave la rg ely ig nore d th is t r e nd. In deed, w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders h ave lo ng b een a ssu m ed to b e b asic ally n orm al p eople w ho d o n ot s u ffe r fr o m t h e p sy cholo gic al o r p ers o nal p ath olo gie s th at s e em s o c om mon a m ong s tr e et o ffe nders . H ow ever, a s th e r e se arc h r e vie w ed h ere s u ggests , th e a ssu m ptio ns th at w hit e -c olla r o ffe nders a re p sy cholo gic ally n orm al a nd th at i n div id ual d if fe re nces h ave lit tle o r n oth in g to d o w it h w hit e -c olla r c rim e m ay b e m is g uid ed. F u rth erm ore , w e fin d b oth in tr ig uin g a nd c oncern in g th e p ossib ilit y th at c erta in p ers o nalit y tr a it s m ay p ro m ote b oth o ccupatio nal s u ccess in o rg aniz atio ns a nd c rim in al te ndencie s a t th e s a m e tim e. O f c ours e , th is d oes n ot m ean th at th e le aders o f c orp ora te A m eric a a re a ll c ro oks, b ut it d oes s u ggest th at b ein g a c ro ok m ay n ot n ecessa rily d is q ualif y o ne fr o m e nte rin g th e h ig her r a nks o f th e c orp ora te w orld .

R efe re nces A la heto , T age. 2 003. “ E conom ic C rim e: D oes P e rs o nalit y M atte r? ” In te rn atio nal Jo urn al o f O ffe nder T hera py a nd C om para tiv e C rim in olo gy, 4 7: 3 35–3 55.

A ndre w s, D on, a nd Ja m es B onta , J. 2 010. The P sy ch olo gy o f C rim in al C onduct , 5 th e d. N ew P ro vid ence, N J: L e xis N exis .

B abia k, P a ul, C ra ig N ew m ann, a nd R obert H are . 2 010. “ C orp ora te P sy chopath y: T alk in g th e W alk .” Behavio ra l S cie nce s a nd t h e L a w , 2 8: 1 74–1 93.

B abia k, P a ul, a nd R obert H are . 2 006. Snake s in S uit s : W hen P sy ch opath s G o t o W ork .

N ew Y o rk : R egan B ooks.

B arn ett, C ynth ia . 2 000. The M easu re m ent o f W hit e C olla r C rim e U sin g U nifo rm C rim e R eport ( U CR) D ata .

W ash in gto n, D C: U S D epartm ent o f Ju stic e, C rim in al Ju stic e In fo rm atio n S erv ic es.

B enso n, M ic hael. 1 985. “ D enyin g th e G uilt y M in d: A ccountin g fo r In volv em ent in a W hit e -C olla r C rim e.” C rim in olo gy, 2 3(4 ): 5 8 3–6 07.

B enso n, M ic hael, a nd K ent K erle y. 2 000. “ Lif e C ours e T heory a nd W hit e -C olla r C rim e.” In H enry P o nte ll, a nd D avid S hic hor, e ds., Conte m pora ry Is su es in C rim e a nd C rim in al Ju stic e : E ssa ys in H onor o f G ilb ert G eis ( p p. 1 21–1 36). T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 1 0 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 U pper S addle R iv er, N J: P re ntic e H all.

B enso n, M ic hael, a nd E liz abeth M oore . 1 992. “ A re W hit e -C olla r a nd C om mon O ffe nders th e S am e: A n E m pir ic al a nd T heore tic al C rit iq ue o f a R ecently P ro pose d G enera l T heory o f C rim e.” Jo urn al o f R ese arc h in C rim e a nd D elin quency , 2 9(3 ): 2 51 –2 72.

B enso n, M ic hael a nd S ally S im pso n. 2 009. Whit e -C olla r C rim e: A n O pportu nit y P ers p ectiv e.

N ew Y o rk : R outle dge.

B lic kle , G erh ard , A le xander S chle gel, P a nta le on F a sse nbender, a nd U w e K le in . 2 006. “ S om e P e rs o nalit y C hara cte ris tic s o f B usin ess W hit e C olla r C rim e.” Applie d P sy ch olo gy: A n In te rn atio nal R evie w , 5 5: 2 20–2 33.

B ox, S te ven. 1 983. Pow er, C rim e, a nd M ystific a tio n . N ew Y o rk : T avis to ck.

B ucy, P a m ela , E liz abeth F o rm by, M arc R asp anti, a nd K ath ry n R ooney. 2 008. “ W hy D o T hey D o It ? T he M otiv es, M ore s, a nd C hara cte r o f W hit e C olla r C rim in als .” St. Jo hn’s L a w R evie w , 8 2: 4 01–57 1.

B ush , Ja ck, B arry G lic k, Ju lia na T aym ans, a nd M ic hael G uevara . 2 011. Thin kin g fo r a C hange: In te gra te d C ognit iv e B ehavio ra l C hange P ro gra m .

W ash in gto n, D C: U S D epartm ent o f Ju stic e, N atio nal In stit u te o f C orre ctio ns.

C le ckle y, H erv ey. 1 941. The M ask o f S anit y : A n A tte m pt t o R ein te rp re t t h e S o-C alle d P sy ch opath ic P ers o nalit y .

S t. L o uis : M osb y.

C le ckle y, H erv ey. 1 988. The M ask o f S anit y , 5 th e d.. S t L o uis : M osb y.

C ollin s, Ju dit h , a nd F ra nk S chm id t. 1 993. “ Pe rs o nalit y , In te grit y , a nd W hit e C olla r C rim e: A C onstr u ct V alid it y S tu dy.” P ers o nnel P sy ch olo gy, 4 6: 2 95–3 11.

E delh ertz , H erb ert. 1 970. The N atu re , Im pact a nd P ro se cu tio n o f W hit e -C olla r C rim e . W ash in gto n, D C: U S D epartm ent o f Ju stic e.

G ro ss, E dw ard . 1 978. “ O rg aniz atio nal C rim e: A T heore tic al P e rs p ectiv e” In N orm an D enzin , e d., Stu die s in S ym bolic In te ra ctio n ( p p. 5 5–8 5). G re enw ood, C T: JA I P re ss.

H agan, Jo hn, a nd Ile ne N agel. 1 982. “ W hit e -C olla r C rim e, W hit e -C olla r T im e: T he S ente ncin g o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nders in th e S outh ern D is tr ic t o f N ew Y o rk .” Am eric a n C rim in al L a w R evie w , 2 0: 8 02–8 20.

H are , R obert. 1 990. The H are P sy ch opath y C hecklis t-R evis e d ( P C L-R ).

T oro nto : M ult i H ealt h S yste m s.

H are , R obert. 1 993. Wit h out C onscie nce : T he D is tu rb in g W orld o f t h e P sy ch opath s A m ong U s . N ew Y o rk : P o cke t B ooks.

K le now ski, P a ul, H eit h C opes, a nd C hris to pher M ullin s. 2 011. “ G ender, Id entit y , a nd A ccounts : H ow W hit e C olla r O ffe nders D o G ender W hen M akin g S ense o f T heir C rim es.” Ju stic e Q uarte rly , 2 8(1 ): 4 6–6 9.

K ru eger, R ., S chm utte , P ., C asp i, A ., M offit , T ., C am pbell, K ., & S ilv a, P . ( 1 994). P e rs o nalit y tr a it s A re L in ke d to C rim e A m ong M en a nd W om en: E vid ence fr o m a B ir th C ohort. Jo urn al o f A bnorm al P sy ch olo gy , 1 03: 3 28–3 38.

L a ndenberg er, N ana, a nd M ark L ip se y. 2 005. “ T he P o sit iv e E ffe cts o f C ognit iv e–B ehavio ra l P ro gra m s fo r O ffe nders :

A M eta -A naly sis o f F a cto rs A sso cia te d w it h E ffe ctiv e T re atm ent.” Jo urn al o f E xperim enta l C rim in olo gy, 1 : 4 51 –4 76.

L e vi, M ic hael. 2 013. “ In div id ual D if fe re nces a nd W hit e -C olla r C rim e.” In F ra ncis T . C ulle n a nd P a m ela W ilc ox, e ds., E ncy clo pedia o f C rim in olo gic a l T heory ( p p. 4 69–4 73). T housa nd O aks, C A: S age.

L ilie nfe ld , S cott, a nd B ria n A ndre w s. 2 010. “ D evelo pm ent a nd P re lim in ary V alid atio n o f a S elf - R eport M easu re o f P sy chopath ic P e rs o nalit y T ra it s in N oncrim in al P o pula tio n.” Jo urn al o f P ers o nalit y A sse ssm ent, 6 6: 4 88–52 4.

M aru na, S hadd, a nd H eit h C opes. 2 005. “ W hat H ave W e L e arn ed F ro m F iv e D ecades o f N eutr a liz atio n R ese arc h?” C rim e a nd Ju stic e , 3 2: 2 21–3 20.

M ille r, Jo sh ua, a nd D onald L y nam . 2 001. “ S tr u ctu ra l M odels o f P e rs o nalit y a nd T heir R ela tio n to A ntis o cia l B ehavio r:

A M eta -A naly tic R evie w .” Crim in olo gy, 3 9: 7 65–7 98. T he P sycho lo gy o f W hit e -C olla r O ffe nd in g Pag e 1 1 o f 1 2 PR IN TE D F R OM O XFO RD H AN DBOOKS O N LIN E ( w ww.o xfo rd han dbooks.c om ). ( c ) O xfo rd U niv ersity P re ss, 2 014. A ll R ig hts Rese rv ed . U nder th e te rm s o f th e lic en ce a g re em en t, a n in div id ual u se r m ay p rin t o u t a P D F o f a s in gle c h apte r o f a ti tl e in O xfo rd Han dbooks O nlin e fo r p erso n al u se ( fo r d eta ils s e e Priv acy P olic y ).

Subsc rib er: U niv ersity o f C in cin nati ; d ate : 3 0 J an uary 2 015 M ills , Je re m y, D ary l K ro ner, a nd A delle F o rth . 2 002. “ M easu re s o f C rim in al A ttit u des a nd A sso cia te s ( M CAA):

D evelo pm ent, F a cto r S tr u ctu re , R elia bilit y a nd V alid it y .” Asse ssm ent, 9 : 2 40–2 53 .

M offit t, T errie , A vsh alo m C asp i, H onale e H arrin gto n, a nd B arry M iln e. 2 002. “ M ale s o n th e L if e -C ours e P e rs is te nt a nd A dole sc ence-L im it e d A ntis o cia l P a th w ays: F o llo w -U p a t A ge 2 6 Y e ars .” Develo pm ent a nd P sy ch opath olo gy, 1 4: 1 79–2 07.

P e rri, F ra nk. S . ( 2 013). “ V is io narie s o r F a ls e P ro phets .” Jo urn al o f C onte m pora ry C rim in al Ju stic e , 2 9: 3 31–3 50 .

P o ortin ga, E rn est, C ra ig L e m men, a nd M ic hael Jib so n. 2 006. “ A C ase C ontr o l S tu dy: W hit e C olla r D efe ndants C om pare d w it h O th er D efe ndants C harg ed w it h N onvio le nt T heft.” Jo urn al o f t h e A m eric a n A ca dem y o f P sy ch ia try a nd t h e L a w , 3 4: 8 2–8 9.

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D em ogra phic s, C rim in al T hin kin g, P e rs o nalit y T ra it s , a nd P sy chopath olo gy.” Crim in al Ju stic e a nd B ehavio r, o nlin e f ir s t.

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S ara h M . M an chak S ara h M anch ak is a n a ssis ta nt p ro fe sso r in th e S ch ool o f C rim in al J ustic e a t th e U niv e rs ity o f C in cin nati. S he r e ce iv e d h er P h.D . in P sych olo gy a nd S ocia l B ehavio r in 2 011 fr o m th e U niv e rs ity o f C alifo rn ia , Ir v in e w here s h e w ork e d u nder th e m ento rs h ip o f D r.

J ennife r S ke em . S ara h’s r e se arc h fo cu se s p rim arily o n th e a sse ssm ent a nd m anage m ent o f r is k fo r c rim e a nd v io le nce a m ong in div id uals w ith c o -o ccu rrin g s u bsta nce a nd m enta l d is o rd er.