Biopsychology Literature Review Course Paper

Running head: PARKINSON’S DISEASE 1

Parkinson’s Disease

PSYC 325 Biopsychology

Name

American Military University

Prof Name

May 17, 2017

Topic: Parkinson’s Disease

Parkinson’s Disease is known to be a long-term degenerative disease that is associated with the central nervous system and affects the motor system. Considering the symptoms, they usually show up in slow rates over time. Some of these symptoms include slowness in movement, shaking, rigidity and affected individuals will experience difficulties while walking (Pahwa & Lyons, 2013). Some people may also experience thinking and behavioral problems. As the disease advances, Dementia becomes common among the individuals. This means that the affected individuals will experience a gradual decrease in the ability to think and write. Their daily activities will also be affected. Other common problems include problems with language, emotional issues and decrease in motivation (Schapira & Olanow, 2012). More than a third of the people that are affected have reported to experience depression and anxiety. For the motor symptoms, they are collectively referred to Parkinsonian syndrome.

Considering the cause of Parkinson’s Disease, it has not been known for long, although, it’s believed that it’s as a result of environmental and genetic factors. Some of the affected people have reported to have had one of their family members being affected by Parkinson’s Disease (Kauffman, Scott, Barr, & Moran, 2014). Therefore, if one of the family members get affected by the disease, another is likely to be affected by the same. On the environmental factors, individuals that are exposed to certain pesticides can be at higher risks of getting affected. The other group that has been affected are those that have had some prior head injuries. The condition is known for affecting most of the people that are sixty years and older. They experience problems in sleep, sensory and develop emotional problems. However, there is a group of people that have reported to be safe; they include tobacco smokers and those that drink coffee and tea. The motor symptoms of the Parkinson’s Disease are as a result of the death of the cells that are in substantia nigra, a region that is at the midbrain causing there to not to be enough dopamine in these areas. There is no clear reason of what leads to the death of the cells, and therefore, their death has been poorly understood. From the studies, it has been noted to have caused by the buildup of the proteins, which occurs at the Lewy bodies in the neurons. For the aged people that are affected by the disease, their diagnosis is based on the symptoms, and some tests such as the neuroimaging have been used in ruling out other conditions (Jankovic & Tolosa, 2015).

Currently, there is no cure of the Parkinson’s Disease; only medications used meant to reduce the adverse effects of the disease. There is initial treatment that involves antiparkinson medication L-DOPA. The medication has proven to be less efficient; there is the use of the dopamine agonists. As the disease continues to spread in the human’s body, the body neurons continue to get lost. The medication that is used becomes less efficient, and at the same time, they start producing some complications that results to involuntary writhing movements. There have been some tireless efforts that are meant at improving the conditions of the affected individuals. There are some specific diets that have been suggested to help those with the condition. There is also rehabilitation that is specifically meant for the people with these circumstances and these have shown some positive effects at improving the symptoms. For the most severe cases where the drugs used have proved to be less effective, surgeries have been applied to place microelectrodes that are meant for deep brain stimulation. After the surgery, there some changes that have been noted. Sleep disturbances and emotional problems have been reduced for those that have agreed to undergo the treatment (Ahlskog, 2015).

Thesis

Parkinson’s Disease is that motor disease, a motor system disorder that affects major parts of the brain that controls movement. The condition is incurable but to some extent, there is development of the physiotherapy and exercises that have proven to be helpful, and there is improvement of physical functioning and balance.

Annotated Bibliography:

Goodwin, V. A. et al., (2008). The effectiveness of exercise interventions for people with

Parkinson's disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. In Wiley, Online Library.

Retrieved May 2017, from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mds.21922/full

Some of the primary objectives of the study is systematic review of the randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that is meant for reporting on the effectiveness of the exercise intervention on outcome. For this reason, the author has chosen the RTCs on the basis of an extensive search of the electronic databases. From the research, it has been proven that exercises are useful especially at improving the strength of the legs. There is also improvement in strength of their legs, and there is also physical functioning. However, the book does not explain the actual effects of Parkinson’s disease. From the study, it has made some suggestions that regards the future research on the elements that constitutes some optimal exercise on the intervention for the Parkinson’s disease. The author, therefore, insists that individuals that are affected should consider taking the prescribed medication be ready to make some exercises. In this way, the effects of Parkinson’s disease will be reduced. Some of the major effects such as the loss of sleep as well as adverse emotions are reduced.

Schrag, A. et al., (2015). What contributes to quality of life in patients with Parkinson’s disease?

In BMJ. Retrieved May 2017, from http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/69/3/308.full.pdf+html

The research that is done by Schrag et al. is focused at identifying the factors that have contributed to the quality of life as in the case of the Parkinson’s disease. The Parkinson’s disease has been known for getting complicated in the advanced stages as a result of the additional problems that are associated with it. From the research, it concluded that it’s the depression, disability, cognitive impairment, and disease severity that determines the quality of life in the Parkinson’s disease. For those individuals that experience, less disabilities, as well as the depression, have proven to experience reduced adverse effects that are as a result of the disease. There are those individuals that experienced negative cognitive impairment these are the people that have experienced hardships in their lives because of Parkinson’s disease. Similarly, there are benefits that results from proper medication and regular exercises. The main limitation that was experienced in the study was the complexity of the concept of Quality of Life Technologies.

Tomlinson, C. L. (2012). Physiotherapy intervention in Parkinson’s disease: systematic review

and meta-analysis. In BMJ. Retrieved May 2017, from

http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e5004.full

The main aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness that is brought about by physiotherapy as in comparison with no intervention in patients that are affected by Parkinson’s disease. From the study, it was evident that physiotherapy helps in providing short-term benefits to those to the patients the condition. The study also explains that although in some cases there is a large range that involves physiotherapy techniques employed there is very little difference that occur as a result of the treatment effects. There are various reasons that are aimed at when performing physiotherapy for the cases of Parkinson’s disease. Some of the primary reasons include maximizing the independence of the individuals and the functional potential. This means that people that are affected by the illness are advised to undergo for the physiotherapy so that they can reduce the burden that they have exposed to the family members. They start undertaking own duties, and in this way, they are not a bother anymore to the other people around them. Their memory is no longer affected, they start experiencing good sleep, and their emotions are improved. The long-term adverse effects are also reduced, and the affected individuals live for more years that as result of physiotherapy. The secondary complications are also reduced after the physiotherapy intervention. Some of the significant improvements that are evident are in walking outcomes.

There are improvements that have been reported from the people that undergone the physiotherapy. Their walking speed have improved, and they are also able to walk for long distances. The physiotherapy intervention has also proven to help in mobility and balance. Some of the tests were conducted to help in testing the mobility. There was the use of Times Up and Go test. This involves the time that an individual takes to get up from the chair, take a walk to a certain distance and then walk back to the same seat and sit down. There was also a test of balance that involved how far a person could walk before he or she lost the balance. For the patients that were exposed to the physiotherapy could show some improvements in all the test that were undertaken. This helped in proving the short-term benefits that are. As a result physiotherapy in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. The study also made some suggestions for the future research to help in accessing the efficacy and the cost-effectiveness that is associated in treating of Parkinson’s disease in the long term.

Ahlskog, J. E. (2015). The new Parkinson's disease treatment book. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

Jankovic, J., & Tolosa, E. (2015). Parkinson's disease & movement disorders. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Kauffman, T. L., Scott, R. W., Barr, J. O., & Moran, M. L. (2014). A comprehensive guide to geriatric rehabilitation. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier.

Pahwa, R., & Lyons, K. E. (2013). Handbook of Parkinson's disease. New York: Informa Healthcare.

Schapira, A. H., & Olanow, C. W. (2012). Principles of treatment in Parkinson's disease. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.