Answer the following questions

Reading 2, Introduction: The Physics of Business, by Edward G. Engh

Here you will learn how critical thinking is the basis of science, but also the basis of all

disciplines which apply science, such as engineering and business. Business uses critical

thinking to increase profits, but that is not the only application. It is also used to improve

quality, safety and even employee moral. You will read about the opposition to critical thinking,

specifically dogmatism, as well as ho w critical thinking can be lost or forgotten, as happened in

the dark ages. You will read about how critical thinking increases the value of a degree in

business.

THINGS TO PONDER: Think about the following questions while completing this reading.

Similar or related questions may be included in the module assignment, discussion, and quiz.

 What is the difference between a science and a non -science?

 How can someone reduce confusion?

 Why is education considered humanity’s gr eatest tool?

 How can truth be misused?

 What would cause a whole society to lose critical thinking?

 How can we minimize things that complicate discussions?

 What role does business play in building civilization?

 How is value calculated in Business?

 How do d isciplines (such as Business) rise and fall and evolve?

 What is the value of a Business Degree?

Reading Vocabulary Terms and Definitions

In order to improve your comprehension of this reading, study the following words and their

definitions. You will be re sponsible for knowing these words as part of the module quiz. Deeper

explanations are available in the GLOSSARY --- > Link

 Vocabulary Word Definition

 Accura cy Close to Nature’s truth. “Trueness”. Not the same things as

Precision.

 Asceticism Religious attitude toward modern economics that says to flee or run

away from it.

 Axiom 4 -7 Something true because it is a greed -upon, accepted for the sake of

communication

 Capital Value of a means of production, not wanted for itself but for its

ability to help in produce

 Compound Interest Financial value of an investment Formula: v = P (1 + r/n)nt

 Dark Age thinking Unscientific thinking: that is far behind the times 2 thousand years

old, obsolete,

 Delusion Something not real but accepted as real.

 Dogma 4 -7 unquestionable according to authority but not critical thinking

 Err or analysis Statistical process of identifying all sources of error and minimizing

their impact  Hypothesis A question that has not yet been answered by science.

 Illusion Something not real, but which one wishes was rea l.

 Kinetic energy Energy value of motion: the work needed to accelerate a body

Formula: ke = ½[m(v2)]

 Pietism whatever is real must be part of the divine plan, or it would not exist, so

embrace it.

 Precision Reproducibility of a measurement system

 Predictability goal of all science is to predict an outcome before it happens.

 Provincialism Thinking unique to a state or province that is behind the times, not

current, obso lete,

 Quietism ignore any contradictions between faith and the requirements of one’s

job or profession

 Renunciationism renounce it because it is evil, destroy it if that is not possible,

 Theory Something that has been test ed by science and found to be true.

 Total energy Absolute limit of energy (motion) from any quantity of

matter. Formula: E=m(c2).

 Wealth Psychological value of a possession. Sum of all possessions.

_______________________________ __________________________________

Page: Module 1 Reading 2: The Physics of Business, by Edward G. Engh

PHOTO CAPTION: Professor Engh in 1993 when he was Assistant Vice President of Research

and Development of Hercules Aerospace Corporation.

“Critical thinking is top -of-the -list when business executives go shopping for new employees, especially if they hope to train and groom them for executive management positions.“ - Edward

G. Engh

What is a Science?

Physics is a science. Mathematics is a science. What about Business, Engineering, Economics,

Politics or Sociology, are they sciences too? Academics and scholars make a distinction, and it is

useful. Physics and Math are sciences, but business and engineering are applications of science:

they use the laws discovered elsewhere for their own reasons. Sometimes there is a danger in

using an application without remembering the source. Without keeping the source o f an idea in

one's mind it is easy to make false associations. Every law of nature or theory of science comes

with consequences; and these are not always taught. Or if they are taught, they are too easily

forgotten. Too often the student is left completely on their own to connect a formula with a

consequence. This sometimes causes us to misapply things. For example, shown below is the

formula for kinetic energy:

ke = ½[m(v2)]

Where: ke = kinetic energy, m = mass, and v = velocity

This is a species of formul a (in the mathematical sense) using algebra, like the formula financiers

use for compound interest: shown below.

v = P (1 + r/n)nt

Where: v = value, P= the principle (or beginning amount or initial investment), r = rate of

interest, n = periods of times co mpounding occurs per period of time, t = number of years

invested)

Kinetic energy is real, it exists in the Universe, it can be measured, quantified, maximized,

minimized, etc. Does this also mean that financial abstractions are real? Yes, but not in the s ame

sense. Value exists in the mind, whereas energy (like entropy) exist in the Universe. This may

seem like a subtle distinction: it is like comparing love to gravity, one exists in the mind, the

other everywhere. Nevertheless it is very common to find pe ople who treat the 'laws' of Finance

(banking and mortgages) as if they were laws of nature! They are not! They work, but only if one

makes certain assumptions which are difficult to define scientifically. If one treats compound

interest as if it were foun ded on physics there is great risk. If a nation makes important decisions

on this kind of assumption, no one should be surprised if the results are not what was hoped for:

collapsed economies, bankrupt companies, laid -off workers, defunct households. As wi th Politics

and political science, Economics is scientific, but it is not a science, even if it uses the tools of

calculus. It will remain a non -science until it adopts a fundamental theorem founded on empirical

evidence, using the scientific method of hyp othesis testing, in order to become a predictive

tool.[1] Every discipline suffers from this disconnection of consequence.

What is Not a Science? Kinetic energy is real, but Wealth is purely in man's head, it is not equivalent to kinetic energy.

Too often this is painfully made clear when the books of a business are opened in court,

revealing that the capital (or wealth) was purely imaginary! Hindsight is always perfect 20/20

vision. Why do not we see these things in advance? How many times must we see many

investors accept a purely abstract accounting of their capital? Seeing a mathematical formula

often implies a mathematical law of absolute predictability. Kinetic energy can be predicted. As

Einstein later demonstrated kinetic energy can even be magnified exponentially until one derives

the famous formula for total energy possible E=m(c2). Physicists know that perpetual motion is

not possible and that energy is not infinite, but investors treat capital as if it were perpetual and

infinite. Investors assume that their interest and capital are just as real as the laws of physics.

They are not! These errors may lead to war, recession, depression, and even to damaged

ecosystems. Value may be infinite in the mind, but the supply of fossil fuel in the ground in

finite. Building an economy on the assumption of infinite value sounds wonderful. Who would

argue against it? If it rests on the assumption that fossil fuels are infinite there is some danger

ahead. Of course the danger may be ignored (or even denied) for a time.

Falseness is Good

In the minds of humans, Finance and Economics may strive for equality with Physics and

Mathematics; but these useful, clever and imaginative laws are not equivalent to those of

science.[2] What constitutes a science? Testable hypot heses, Predictable results, Precision ,

Accuracy, Error Analysis : these are the hallmarks of a Science. Even so, science is always

improving old theories. Whenever an idea needs to be tested to see if it is true, it is formulated as

a hypothesis. If someth ing is a question we call it a hypothesis . If the question has been

answered, and repeated, then we say it is a theory . This is important because many people use

these words incorrectly, saying something is “ . . merely a theory.” If something is true, such as

gravity, then we call it “the theory of gravity.” If something is still a question it is appropriate to

refer to it as a hypothesis. Using these words correctly will go a long way toward reducing

errors in communications between people. After a hypothesis is formulated, a desired

confidence level is assigned as a goal. Then the test is designed in such a way that there is as

little doubt as possible about the results of the test. After the test is completed, the hypothesis

must be rejected or not rejected, those are the only possible outcomes. You may be pleased to

know that most scientists, when formulating their hypotheses word it as follows: “Ho: assume

my hypothesis is probably wrong. . . “ That method of writing a hypothesis is called t he

“scientific null hypothesis”. Another principle of science is this: no theory is perfect.[3] In

science, we assume that human knowledge is imperfect, but imperfect knowledge is far better

than total ignorance. Every time a law of Physics is defined, it is inevitably shown to be in error

by some factor. For example, it was once thought that Newton’s laws of mechanical motion also

implied that the universe was completely predictable upon those laws. This led to the hope that

subatomic mechanics would also work identically, predictably, and that atoms were just little

machines that work with perfect predictability. Every electron would then move in a precise ,

predictable orbit around every nucleus. All this was proven to be false. Electrons are not

complete ly predictable; in fact, this is a proof of the now widely accepted Uncertainty Principle.

The Uncertainty Principle is taken for granted by every science except those related to

economics, such as business management. Why would a mathematician have the sa me faith in

the value of his investments as he applies to sub -atomic particle predictions? He does not! It is shown here that he should not have any such faith. Some of the formulas used by scientists

include values that are called ‘imaginary’ numbers. Thi s is not the same kind of imagination

necessary to believe in the value of an investment. In fact, they are completely different. If the

average investor knew of, or applied the uncertainty principle he would discount any promise of

interest or value by as much as ninety -nine percent.

Why People Confuse Things

There are reasons for the confusion in people’s minds. One reason has already been mentioned,

that most people imply a scientific basis to anything which is calculated from a formula. The

other reasons are more fundamental; and require some historical background to understand, and

then some awareness of the principles of Philosophy, and logic, and a little psychology. The

initial world of each person is based completely on perception. We perceive things before birth

inside the womb, though these are not recalled as memories afterward. Once we are born, we

begin to store information and process it. Our perception is through five senses, seeing, hearing,

touching, tasting and smelling. All information from these senses pass to the brain. Disconnect a

sense from the brain and that sense is gone.[4] Reality is quite different. It exists whether we are

aware of it or not, whether we perceive it or not.[5] Mo st infants perceive early on that those orbs

suspended above them contain food; and they are not aware of the monster lurking under the

bed. They experience firsthand perception of the one, and no evidence of the other. They will

never perceive a monster, but they will hear of such things from others whom they are taught to

place in authority, and they will trust them. There are no monsters. What we think we know is

not always true. More important, there are things real, of which we have no perception. Othe r

things are true even though we are ignorant of them. Below is Figure 1 which you saw in

Reading one of this module, in the part concerning asymmetry. It is repeated here to give you

the opportunity of refreshing your mind. Notice that everything human s perceive happen in the

mind, whereas the things perceived are outside the mind, and there are two ways we can get

things wrong.

Quandary of Reality

This leaves us in a quandary. Everyone would like to know the future. We want to know what is

going to happen. We think about it all the time. Unfortunately, until the future becomes the past

it i s not real. We imagine things we want to happen, but will they happen? How can I be sure

that I perceive things real? How can I prevent myself from misperceiving things which are not

real? A man named Epicurus pondered these questions 23 centuries ago; in Athens, Greece, at

that time a great center of learning.[6] Epicurus saw that most people believed things that defy

logic. Why should people worry about an afterlife, or beings of awesome power? He realized it

would do no good to tell them they believed i n monsters -under -the -bed , forms of illusions or

even delusions . He chose instead to explore and write about the way people think; and he sought

to perfect it. Venn Diagram 1 below shows the universe according to his early science. It requires

some nerve to look at it carefully, and ask all the necessary questions.

Do I accept things that are not real? Are there real things, which I know nothing about? Cou ld

there be things harmful to me lurking out there? Some look at this situation and conclude that

man is unable, or not meant to know some things. Others look at this and decide to improve their

perceptions. Science (or critical thinking) follows the latte r method, doing all possible to

minimize the possibility of misperception. This is an appropriate place to bring up misperception

as it applies to the game of business. As a business owner I may use deception to increase my

profits, by causing mispercepti on in consumer’s minds or in the mind of the competition: but I

never want to confuse myself. Never. This is the reason business has always had an unsavory

reputation in most cultures throughout history, especially in societies that have very high moral

standards derived from their religion. In pagan times when there were many gods, many cultures

had a god of business, and he was always a trickster a gambler, a deceiver, even a lier: such as

Hermes for the ancient Greeks and Mercury for the ancient Roman s. Oh these cultures thought

lying was uncivilized and any honest man should never lie. For this same reason they thought

that business was for the uncivilized classes in society. Aristocrats would not conduct business,

it was beneath them. They would let the freedmen or slaves do that, and let the slaves suffer any

consequences in the next life. That is how they accommodated the moral conflict created by

trying to make a huge profit and trying to keep one’s soul pure and untarnished. In the twenty -

first century we do not have the same means of moral accommodation. This makes it a difficult

game to maximize modern profits and also maximize one’s righteousness, especially if one must

deceive others to maximize profits. Modern religious society has re acted four ways to this

pressure. See Figure 2 below.

Education May be the Best Tool of All

Tools are necessary to expand our ability to sense things. M an seems to have pursued tool

making from ancient times. In fact we now define a culture by the tools it makes. Tools range

from the first, most primitive machines; the plain, the lever, the pulley, the wheel, and the axle,

to roads, cities, trade and warf are. A great tool is one, which systematically tests new tools; this

is Science. Another great tool is one, which designs better tools, this is Engineering. Finally,

there are tools, which efficiently build other tools for use; this is Manufacturing or Ind ustry. In

spite of all these advances toward improved reality man is plagued by two problems; ignorance

and attitudes, which linger for thousands of years, effectively retarding human progress. One

cure for this is another tool, Education. Improved Educati on seeks to make all men reasonable;

that is, it tries to guide all people to improve their perceptions of reality. This way humankind

may be free from some of the effects of disease, early death, starvation or pain. Ignorance is

treated with healthy doses of Education. How do we cure the plague of human attitudes, which hold millions of people hostage? Throughout history people are led to build up massive cultural

efforts as monuments, but many times in retrospect, these efforts seem to be founded on bad

thinking. Sometimes they depart from common sense and wage war against neighboring

countries. It makes me sad knowing man is capable of such bitter attitudes as to destroy one’s

own people. Nevertheless, these attitudes come in many forms from genocide, to ethnic

repression, racism, and complexes of gender superiority. Solving the problem of human attitudes

is difficult but not impossible. Again, it starts with education. This means fundamental education

of millions. Yet, it is very difficult to predict when a single ignorant man or woman will rise to

persuade millions to pursue a destructive course. How many times must humanity suffer when

just a few lunatics cleverly rise through the ranks of tolerance and democracy only to reveal their

true colors after th ey are already firmly seated in power, which seemingly no one can defeat?[7]

Anything Can be Misused

Reality can be misused by anyone, but the misuse often begins with malicious or selfish people.

Anyone who uses the facts to mislead is a difficult opponen t, especially if they are supported by

a population who are generally poorly educated. Widespread ignorance facilitates abuse by

others, making it more likely for abusive people to rise to great influence. Even the most well -

meaning nations find they are b ankrupt at some point in their history. By ‘bankrupt’, we mean a

whole range of disasters.[8] For example: the ancient Romans believed the worst thing a people

could do was to fight an unjust war. For this reason they set up a democratic system of

governme nt, because they did not trust such decisions to kings or autocrats. The Republican

mind of ancient Rome believed one should never put someone in power who cannot also be

removed from power. Roman ideas of Justice made them very careful about putting peopl e in

charge, made them cautious when electing someone to lead. Many times this belief kept them out

of trouble. However, the Romans were not immune to corruption or misuse of power. Over a

long period of successful wars this lead to national arrogance and pride. Arrogance and pride

have a long history of handicapping a society’s ability to use critical thinking. After a thousand

years of hard work and good luck, the Roman -mind eventually fell, not to overwhelming odds

against invaders; but to rising fear of science -and -the -natural -world [10] carried into the Empire

by well -meaning people of a new faith. Perhaps it is better to call it “The Fall of Critical

Thinking” rather than the “Fall of Rome”. [You will learn more about this in the second part of

Module two.]

Fall of Critical Thinking (But Only for a Time)

The time after the fall of Rome is called the dark ages, primarily because it was a period of

intellectual -intolerance. People prospered under a thousand years of Roman law, and they

benefited from the freedom to mingle and assemble in private intellectual conversation: but when

things fell the people began to believe that this life was evil. They were taught to moderate the

evidence of their own senses. This life did not matter because this life is not the one that matters:

This life is a deception, put forward to tempt mankind into thinking the physical Universe

mattered, it does not matter because the only life that matters is the next one. This kind of

thinking was quite foreign to Romans. It had a st range effect: it led them to believe that

civilization -building the old way was unnecessary. Instead of using debate and consensus,

instead of using the evidence of one’s senses, unquestioned belief swept away discussion and new systems of loyalty quickly rose. As a side effect the libraries were burned, the colleges and

academies destroyed, and the philosophers and teachers put to death, and progress halted. The

fall of critical thinking had other, more practical effects. Western civilization soon forgot h ow to

make concrete and cement. Metallurgy and mining collapsed. Medicine became a lost art. They

forgot how to navigate ships across the seas. The world became flat in people's minds, even

though the ancient Greeks and Romans knew it was round. The maps v anished with the books.

The world of the mind suddenly became very small, dark, and superstitious. None of this was to

be questioned.

Complications for Critical Thinking

This makes it difficult to have a discussion. What is modern humanity supposed to do? Twenty -

first century earth is a post -industrial, global society, but with tradition, superstition and authority

from a pre -industrial time. To get people to accept things without question: to put things beyond

rational testing, modern systems of authority employ a very old strategy. They make uncritical

thinking socially acceptable, and then a social requirement. They teach uncritical thinking while

they are young and impressionable, and make the belief system a precondition to sex. They

create a sense of p ride and then appeal to it. Modern examples of authoritative societies from

around the world work this way: controlling the system of education and the system of marriage.

In many places where society is not controlled by an authority -system this is not so , and people

are not afraid of critical -thinking. In societies where people are opposed to critical -thinking,

there are controls on education and marriage rights. What example is more obvious than I.S.I.S.

or Islamic State? All of these problems face the t ypical modern, multinational corporation, trying

to do business all over the world. If a modern multinational corporation collapses due to

bankruptcy, it can cause many thousands of people to lose their jobs, to lose their life savings, it

can destroy whol e economies. Thus if modern businesses make poor decisions, the hazards are

very high. The need for critical thinking is very high. However, presently many aspects of

business are political, and therefore outside of science, and unpredictable.[9] Neverthel ess,

things are improving all the time.

Societies Rise and Fall

In reality, civilization building is necessary. Business is civilization building, and civilization is

business building. Things must get done. Society must profit. Without it things begin to crumble

back into the dust. This principle has a name in Physics: it is called the law of Entropy, or the

Second Law of Thermodynamics. We either b uild up order in the form of Civilization, or we

succumb to the laws of nature and decay. Some people, not a majority, do not want to understand

how nature works. They also do not want others to discover how the Universe works. Luckily

this is a minority. Some even prevent their children from getting a good education. Fortunately

you are here to get an education and will not be denied it. There is great risk that while humanity

is preoccupied by an unnatural struggle against understanding Nature, the danger s of nature

herself may be ignored or obscured. Climate change may be an example. How strange that fossil

fuels, which made the modern industrial revolution possible, should turn out to be a danger and a

threat to our prosperity and survival? How odd that we would use fossil fuels so vigorously that

the generation that discovered them might also live to see them run out. To profit in the business

of life we probably ought to use our best thinking. That is what we teach. How you use it is a

choice, something you determine by your own free will.

How "Value" is Calculated in Business Consider this: what is the value of a big pay check if one loses your family to get it? What is the

value of a profitable business if the profits are achieved by underpaying those doing the hard

work? What is the value of a cheap product if the manufacturer harms the environment and

nowhere includes environmental degradation in the cost/profitability analysis? What is the value

of anything in business if the accounting formula does not account for these True costs? What is

the value of any "asset" if the measure of "value" is unscientific? If "value" cannot be measured

scientifically the other means of measurement is to use emotion or rhetoric. When we look at

how "value" is defined in contemporary society, it is so vague, so confusing, that we must

conclude that the definition depends on the situation, whatever that means --- a meaningless

answer. Why does it matter? Answer: it matters because a discipline (or profession) that cannot

demonstrate results needs to be discarded as an obsolete tool. Science has always done this.

Someday we will have better tools to describe what happens in business and economics. Some

of those tools are being developed right now. Some of you may choose to study business as a

science and become one of the pioneers of Business Analytics. Meanwhile, those who value

their conscience should distance themselves from business situations where profits put too much

pressure on ethics and morals. High profits are v aluable, but not at the cost of one’s respect and

conscience.

Disciplines Rise, Disciplines Fall

Once upon a time there was a theory of energy called "The Phlogistonic Theory," in which they

thought that energy was a substance, and that when the substance ran out the engine would stop

running. In spite of a complete lack of evidence this theory was upheld for over a century, and

was used to make decisions (all with bad results). The Phlogiston theory was even used to make

arguments in treaties affecting wor ld peace and in legislatures: all for nothing. Academic

disciplines such as politics and business (or economics) have always had trouble demonstrating

scientifically credible results. This was embarrassing to them, so they began to defend

themselves by try ing to make a distinction: they tried to divide science into two classes of

science: the hard sciences and the "soft" ones. Hard science meant the real ones like physics,

chemistry, mathematics, biochemistry, genetics, which were scientific only because th e

fundamental theory had been tested over and over again, and no one had yet been able to produce

statistically significant results to cause us to question it, it worked every time. Soft science meant

things like politics, which even went so far as to call itself "political science", as if the rules of

scientific evidence were somehow different. Of course this was all nonsense. A science is either

scientific or not. If a discipline cannot be used to make a prediction, and then see that prediction

verified i n measurable results, it is not scientific.

Disciplines Evolve

Occasionally the academic world does some house cleaning, just like nature does, and it is

usually loud and angry: whole disciplines are thrown out, they are no longer taught in accredited

scho ols, colleges and universities. Phlogistonic Energy Theory is an example. This gives us hope

rather than concern, because all science must be self -critical, self -correcting, able to abandon

ideas that cannot pass the test of evidence. Science is founded on critical thinking which avoids

all Type One errors: recall that a Type One error is rejecting something that is true. Science also avoids all Type Two errors which occur when you believe something that you should not

believe, because it is false.

Value of a Business Degree

If Business students are interested in making a lot of money, it might seem strange that they

would avoid the highest paying disciplines and professions when they actually go to college or

university. Through years of research we know ma ny college students choose to study business

not because they know what they really want to do, or can explain their interest in business, but

because they are mortally afraid of science and math. Aversion -to-science, not love of business is

their motive t o avoid many of the highest paying professions. Why do students shun math and

science? Many grow up in an environment hostile to science and critical thinking, and this makes

it hard to develop scientific attitudes and interests. This might explain why peo ple avoid certain

things, but does it explain why they would drift toward a certain discipline, such as business?

Perhaps they are thinking: “of all the professions that do not require science and math, business

is the highest paying.” Unfortunately this i s poor reason to choose a profession that will impact

one’s career for a lifetime. Fear is not a motivator in long term career planning, it is an inhibitor,

something that holds you back, it blocks pathways. Curiosity is a motivator in long term career

pla nning, with sufficient curiosity one can break through all kinds of barriers. Business is

evolving, becoming more reliant on scientific methods all the time, especially large enterprises

relying on statistical quality control, logistics, supply chain manag ement, and information

systems. Fear of science can inhibit anyone going into these fields, but curiosity can motivate

one to value science and critical thinking in business. Apparently many students have grown up

with the idea that business is not very ma thematical, and that critical thinking and science are not

part of the course of study to become a professional business person. The reality is quite the

opposite: business uses critical thinking, mathematics, statistics, calculus, psychology, history,

eve n biology. In fact critical thinking is top of the list when business executives go shopping for

new employees, especially if they hope to train and groom them for executive management

positions.

_____________________

Notes and Bibliography:

[1] Game Theory, discovered by Dr. John Nash, et al, has opened the path to what may become a new science. Game Theory combined w ith a new branch of modern Biology may lead to the development of a predictive science of economy. It will have little or no resemb lance to the old schools of Social Economics or Political Economy. Someday, those schools will seem as useful as alchemy is today, interesting , humorous in a tragic sense, until one remembers how many generations have suffered under the ignorance so often put forward as truth. As humanity progresses and discovers new things, old ideas often seen naive, but this is the nature of progress.

[2] Nations wage war over the firm belief in the so -called value of things: setting more value on capital than anything e lse, yet capital is not scientific. Unless there is a scientific justification for something, it is very hard to come up with a reason to support it.

[3] In science, something that is true is called a theory. Theory = truth. A question is called a hypothes is. Students must not use the word 'theory' in such a way as to imply the subject is not true. Speaking that way causes confusion. Nothing becomes a theory in science un til it has been tested, again and again. If a student wants to refer to something untru e, or untested, they should use the word “hypothesis”. [4] The range of our senses seems to be infinite until we begin to understand the world of science. Science displays a cosmos far beyond our ordinary senses, but well within our perception; if we use a tool to extend the power of our senses. Microscopes permit us to see the very small, telescopes the very far, distant or weak.

[5] The purpose here is not to be trapped in pointless rhetoric or worse, dialectics. Defenders of so -called soft sciences often cling to rhetoric and dialectic to suggest that all science suffers under the handicap of their own discipline. This is not true.

[6] The Encyclopedia of World History, Sixth Edition, Peter N. Stearns, General Editor, see under Epicurus.

[7] See Adolph Hi tler, in The Encyclopedia of World History, Sixth Edition, Peter N. Stearns, General Editor.

[8] Disaster comes from an ancient word for ‘contradiction’, Dis; and the ancient word for ‘star’, Aster. In other words, sta r-crossed. Stars were believed to have influence in the affairs of humankind, because they might just be gods of some kind. Therefore, when two stars crossed each other it can only mean one of two things they are in love, or in conflict. Today a disaster is comparable to a type two error , thin king something is true when it is not true at all. “Someone will save us!” may be the sentiment of millions, but reality may be there is no one to save us but ourselves.

[9] At the present time, Political Science is anything but a predictive science, and t herefore of very limited use. There is hope on the horizon. A new science is budding inside the science of Biology, called the Science of Social Organisms. This is very exciting. Humans a re not the only species to survive by working together in communities , there are many. Scientific study of these phenomena is leading to incredible discoveries that some of these issues are determined genetically, others are determined cognitively, and yet others by the collective con sciousness of the society. This new scie nce will likely displace the old political science. The old political science is already a subset of history, Political Histo ry rather than a science. The new discipline will probably be of great use in managing the roll of humans in wider biosphere. So met hing similar is happening in other areas: Psychology and Psychiatry are being replaced by Neuroscience. What a fascinating world we live in?!

[10] Gibbons, Edward, “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,” Vol 1, published in 1776 CE.

HOMEWORK

 PART A: Te n Vocabulary words. As you read the text above select 10 vocabulary

words (minimum). You select the words new to you, or words used in a way new to

you. List each word and then a definition that fits the usage of the word. Look up the

definition in an academic dictionary (such as Oxford or Miriam Webster's New

Collegiate , but not Google.) Then write the definition IN YOUR OWN WORDS. Select

as many vocabulary words as needed to fill up the requirement of 10.

 PART B: Answer the following questions. Follow the same procedure you used in

Reading 1 "Critical Thinking". Do NOT retype the question .

1. Explain the danger of confusing a formula for a law of science.

2. Explain why laws of science are self correcting. How does this benefit us?

3. Explain why laws based on dogma and axiom are not self correcting.

4. Explain the danger of unchanging laws based on dogma and axiom.

5. Describe how ignorance and human attitudes retard human progress.

6. Outline how education is a tool to cure human errors.

7. Explain how barbari an invaders did not cause the fall of Rome, and something else

did. What caused it?

8. How did the dark ages, from the fall of Rome get started? How could everyone forget

things?

9. Has modern society fully recovered from the dark ages?

10. At the end of this ques tion is a link to the Chronology folder. PLEASE DO NOT OPEN

THE LINK IN THIS WINDOW. OPEN IT IN A NEW WINDOW SO THAT YOU CAN USE THE GLOSSARY TOOL OVER THERE AND INPUT YOUR ANSWERS

HERE. It also appears on the Course Homepage under Tools. HOVER over the link,

RIGHT CLICK, select OPEN IN A NEW WINDOW. Then in the new window type

CONTROL F, a word -search box appears. Type "energy" in the box, use the arrows to

search up and down for entries about energy . Read them. They are very brief. Come

back to thi s assignment and Explain where energy comes from, how old it is, and how it

got to be in a material form on Earth. Link

11. Explain the roll of energy in the Industria l Revolution (where factories replace human

labor with machine labor and machines require some form of energy).

12. Speculate on the difference and/or differences between e nergy and economic -value .

13. Explain why people get confused by formulas: such as those for Kinetic Energy and for

Capital.

14. Explain at least two examples of dark age thinking in our time? NOTE: In answering this

question, many students jump to North Korea as an answer. It is always better to look

INWARD at your own community --your own state, not outward whenever answering

questions like this. Is there a difference between the "dark ages" of North Korea and that

"dark age thinking" of Utahns? The scientific term for this phenomena is provincialism .

Try to answer this question by using examples around you. Who around you uses Dark

Age thinking?