Data Analysis Procedures

Journal of Interpersonal Violence2014, Vol. 29(13) 2497 –2508 © The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions:

sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0886260513518436 jiv.sagepub.com Article “I Wish the Hitting Would Stop . . . ” An Assessment of a Domestic Violence Education Program for Elementary Students Thorvald O. Dahle 1 and Carol A. Archbold 1 Abstract School officials across the country have recognized that many of their students live in homes where domestic violence occurs. As a result, seve\ ral elementary schools have implemented education-based programs focused on this issue. The current study evaluates the efficacy of the “I Wish the Hitting Would Stop . . . ” program that was presented to elementary s\ chool children in two school districts in the Midwest. This study examines the\ level of knowledge retention by students who participated in the “I W\ ish the Hitting Would Stop . . . ” program during the 2010-2011 and 2011- 2012 academic years. Fourth- and fifth-grade students responded to open- ended questions regarding their understanding of domestic violence and their retention of the concepts presented in the “I Wish the Hitting \ Would Stop . . . ” curriculum. While the results suggest that students reta\ in the information presented in the program, there also appears to be a gender \ difference in knowledge retention.

Keywords intervention/treatment, domestic violence, assessment, children exposed \ to domestic violence, anything related to domestic violence 1North Dakota State University, Fargo, USA Corresponding Author:

Thorvald O. Dahle, North Dakota State University, NDSU Department 2315, \ 1616 12th Avenue North, Fargo, ND 58108-6050, USA.

Email: [email protected] 518436 JIV XX X 10.1177/0886260513518436Journal of Interpersonal ViolenceDahle and Archbold research-article 2014 2498 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 29(13) It is estimated that between 3.3 and 10 million children are exposed to \ domes- tic violence each year in the United States (Carter, Weithorn, & Behrman, 1999). Research has revealed that people who are exposed to domestic vi\ o- lence as children are more likely to become abusers and victims of domes\ tic violence when they become adults (Hotaling, Straus, & Lincoln, 1989; Widom, 1992). In an effort to prevent future abuse and victimization, some elementary schools in the United States now use education-based programs\ to teach children what to do if they witness or become victims of domest\ ic violence. While some consider children in elementary school too young to be exposed to the problem of domestic violence, others argue that it is important to reach children before they become involved in their own relationships dur - ing middle school and high school (Ehrensaft et al., 2003). According to Hamby (2006), rates of violence during this age are two to three times\ higher than violence among adults. This suggests that providing domestic violence education to children before they reach middle and high school may increase their awareness of this issue and reduce the chances that they will use \ vio- lence or become victims of violence during later stages of their lives. School-based domestic violence programs are important as this may be the only source of information on this topic available to children. But \ do children remember the information that is presented to them in school-ba\ sed domestic violence programs after the programs are over? The study featured in this article examines the level of knowledge retention of elementary school children who participated in the domestic violence education program, “I Wish the Hitting Would Stop . . . ” In addition, this study explores the influ- ence of student race, gender, and living arrangements on knowledge retention of the program and its core lessons.

Efficacy of School-Based Domestic Violence Programs The goal of school-based domestic violence programs is to interrupt the cycle of violence by educating children about domestic violence and assisting \ chil- dren who may already be experiencing violence in their homes. Only a few\ school-based programs that include the topic of domestic violence have b\ een evaluated in the last several decades (see Table 1). In 1988, “My Family and Me: Violence Free” was created by the Minnesota Coalition for Battered Women. The goals of this program include teaching students to label and define different forms of violence in families, establish a safety plan for violent and abusive emergency domestic situations, and teach students assertive skills aimed at problem solving without using Dahle and Archbold 2499 violence (O’Brien, 2001). An evaluation of this program found that students increased their knowledge of violence; however, there was no change in their attitudes toward violence (Gamache & Snapp, 1995). This study did not spe- cifically examine student characteristics. The London, Ontario (Canada) Family Court Clinic developed “A School- Based Anti-Violence Program” (A.S.A.P.), which focuses on violence pre- vention (Jaffe, Sudermann, Reitzel, & Killip, 1992). A portion of the A.S.A.P.

program focused on domestic and dating violence was assessed using pre- tests, immediate post-tests, and another follow-up test 6 weeks later. Results of the evaluation found that students made significant gains in their at\ titudes, knowledge, and behavioral intentions from the pre-test to the post-test,\ and were able to retain this information 6 weeks after participating in the \ program (Jaffe et al., 1992). Both male and female students increased their overall awareness of violence in intimate relationships and family violence; how\ - ever, female students reported attitudes less accepting of domestic violence than male students both before and after participating in the program (\ Jaffe et al., 1992). Student race was not examined in this evaluation. In the late 1980s, the “Expect Respect” program was created in Austin, Texas, to provide information on violence (dating, domestic, bullying) \ and sexual harassment to elementary students. The goal of this program is to pre- pare children for safe and healthy future relationships that do not incl\ ude violence (Sanchez et al., 2001). Sanchez et al. (2001) evaluated thi\ s program using a pre-test–post-test design with six elementary schools receivi\ ng the intervention curriculum and six control schools that did not. The evaluation revealed an improvement in scores related to awareness and knowledge of Table 1. Evaluations of Violence/Domestic Violence Education Programs.

Program GradesIntensity Results My Family and Me Elementary Two 50-min sessions for 6 weeks Increased student knowledge and awareness. No change in student attitudes toward violence (Gamache & Snapp, 1995).

A.S.A.P. Elementary, middle, and high school 65 lessons in six topics on violence prevention Increased student knowledge and awareness. Positive changes in student attitudes toward violence (Jaffe, Sudermann, Reitzel, & Killip, 1992).

Expect Respect Elementary 12-week curriculum Increased student knowledge and awareness (Sanchez et al., 2001).

Note. A.S.A.P. = A School-Based Anti-Violence Program. 2500 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 29(13) sexual harassment, while there was less improvement in knowledge about violence. Despite a lack of improvement in knowledge of violence, some students reported that they would be more likely to intervene if they wi\ t- nessed acts of violence in the future. Both boys and girls showed positive changes in their attitudes, although girls scored higher than boys both \ before and after the training. Results from the evaluations of the domestic violence education programs\ in Table 1 suggest that this type of program can increase student awareness of domestic violence, and in some cases, may change students’ attitudes toward violence (Jaffe et al., 1992). Gender differences were noted for both the A.S.A.P. and Expect Respect programs; specifically, that girls had more posi- tive changes in their attitudes, but both boys and girls showed improvement overall after the training programs. Student race was not examined in an\ y of the evaluations. Additional research is needed to better understand the impact of school-\ based domestic violence programs on children. The study presented in this article contributes to this limited body of research by evaluating stude\ nt knowledge retention of the school-based domestic violence program, “I\ Wish the Hitting Would Stop . . . ” The “I Wish the Hitting Would Stop . . . ” Program In 1990, the Rape and Abuse Crisis Center of Fargo-Moorhead created the “I Wish the Hitting Would Stop . . . ” program (“I Wish” hereafter). This pro- gram is designed to help elementary students identify acts of violence a\ nd domestic violence (including physical violence and verbal abuse) and t\ o teach students what to do if they witness violence in their homes. This pro- gram teaches children to report acts of violence that they may encounter\ to a trusted adult, and that it is never okay to keep violence a secret. The curricu- lum is designed for children who may or may not be experiencing domestic\ violence at home. An instructor from the Rape and Abuse Crisis Center presents the “I Wish” program material to students in a classroom setting in two 45-min sessions.

Instructors use a 13.5-min video and a 29-page workbook to help children\ learn the main concepts of the program. The workbook contains both written descriptions and pictures of acts of violence to generate discussion and\ ques- tions from students. The “I Wish” program has been presented in elementary schools in Eastern North Dakota for over two decades, but has not been studied until now. The current study answers the following research questions: Is student knowl\ edge Dahle and Archbold 2501 retention of the “I Wish” program and its core lessons influenced by the amount of time that passes since participation in the program? Do studen\ t characteristics influence knowledge retention of the “I Wish” program and its core lessons?

Method Survey data were collected from eight elementary schools in two school d\ is- tricts in Eastern North Dakota. The community within the first district con- sists of 2,329 residents, most of whom are White (97.3%) and the median household income is $51,250 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). The elementary school in the first district houses kindergarten through fifth-grade (339 stu- dents total; Public School Review, 2012). The community within the second school district consists of 25,830 residents, most of whom are White (93.5%), and the median household income is $61,000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).\ The seven elementary schools in the second district consist of 2,540 stu\ dents (Elementary Schools.org, 2012). All fourth- and fifth-grade students in both school districts have parti\ ci- pated in the “I Wish” program every year for the last two decades. Surveys were distributed to fourth- and fifth-grade classes in all of the elemen\ tary schools in both school districts (18 classrooms) between November 2011 and April 2012. Each of the questions on the survey required the students to write out their own response without any structured options provided. Fourth g\ rad- ers completed the program 3 months prior to completing the survey, while fifth graders had completed the program 1 year earlier. The response rate was 74% (314/427). Most of the students who completed surveys were White (94%) and lived with both parents at home (81%). There were more girls (53.2%) in the sample than boys (46.8%), and more fourth graders (57.3%) than fifth graders (42.7%). The survey instrument contained questions inquiring about student demo- graphic information and questions based on the “I Wish” program curricu- lum. The survey was reviewed by an elementary school teacher to ensure that questions were cognitively appropriate for children in fourth and fifth \ grade.

An “I Wish” program instructor also reviewed the survey to verify that the questions represent the goals and core lessons from the program.

Dependent Variables To measure general recollection of the program, the survey contains the ques- tion, “Do you remember the ‘I Wish the Hitting Would Stop’ program from the fourth grade?” (no = 0; yes = 1). The survey also contained questions that 2502 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 29(13) measured student knowledge of the core lessons from the “I Wish” program including: “What does the word violence mean?” (physical violence\ = 0; both physical and verbal violence = 1; and responses that did not fit into the first two categories were coded as missing); “What is domestic violence?”\ (all other answers = 0; violence involving family/relatives = 1); “When s\ hould children keep secrets about violence?” (all other answers = 0; never\ keep violence a secret = 1); and “What should you do if you tell someone \ about violence but they do not listen to you?” (all other answers = 0; kee\ p telling someone until they listen to you = 1).

Independent Variables Student grade (0 = fourth grade; 1 = fifth grade) was used to measure \ short term (3 months) and long-term (1 year) knowledge retention. To examine the influence of student characteristics on knowledge retention of the “I Wish” program and core lessons, student gender was coded 0 = girl, 1 = boy; st\ udent race was coded 0 = White, 1 = all other races; and student living arrangement was coded 0 = both parents living in household, 1 = all other living arrangements.

Findings The first research question asks as follows: Research Question 1: Is student knowledge retention of the “I Wish” program and its core lessons influenced by the amount of time that has passed since participation in the program?

Overall, most (83%) students remembered the “I Wish” program. More fourth graders were able to recall the program and all core lessons comp\ ared with fifth-grade students (see Table 2). A statistically significant relationship was revealed between student grade and remembering the “I Wish” program and three of four core lessons. The second research question asks as follows:

Research Question 2: Do student characteristics influence knowledge retention of the “I Wish” program and its core lessons?

Student race did not have a statistically significant relationship with \ stu- dent knowledge retention of the program or its core lessons. Student liv\ ing arrangement only had a statistically significant relationship with knowi\ ng Dahle and Archbold 2503 that violence consists of both physical and verbal components (χ 2 = 4.391, p < .05). Students who lived with both parents in the household were more\ likely to define violence with both a physical and verbal component. The only student characteristic that was consistently found to have a st\ a- tistically significant relationship with knowledge retention of the “\ I Wish” program, both in general and with most of its core lessons is gender (s\ ee Table 3). Most girls (89%) remembered the “I Wish” program compared with 76% of the boys. A higher percentage of boys (57%) identified violence as a physical act only and did not mention verbal abuse compared with girls (39%). In addition, a higher percentage of boys (27%) reported that \ they would keep violence a secret compared with girls (16%). More girls (8\ 8%) reported that they would keep telling an adult about incidents of violen\ ce Table 2. Knowledge Retention of the “I Wish” Program/Core Lessons and Student Grade.

Dependent variable Fourth grade (%) Fifth grade (%) χ 2 Remember the program 9567χ 2 = 41.70, p < .05* Physical violence and verbal abuse 35 29χ2 = 1.675, p = .196 Define domestic violence 7151χ 2 = 12.807, p < .05* Never keep secrets about violence 85 71χ2 = 0.057, p < .05* Keep telling until someone listens 88 78χ 2 = 4.316, p < .05* *Significant at .05.

Table 3. Knowledge Retention of the “I Wish” Program/Core Lessons.

Dependent Variable Female (%)Male (%) χ 2 Remember the program 8976χ 2 = 9.061, p < .05* Physical violence and verbal abuse 57 39χ2 = 13.126, p < .05* Define domestic violence 6460χ 2 = 0.588, p = .443 Never keep secrets about violence 84 73χ2 = 5.723, p < .05* Keep telling until someone listens 88 78χ 2 = 7.054, p < .05* *Significant at .05. 2504 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 29(13) until someone listened compared with 78% of the boys. There was no rela- tionship between student gender and being able to correctly define domes\ tic violence.

Discussion Statistical analyses used in this study revealed that the passing of tim\ e (stu- dent grade) influenced student knowledge retention of the “I Wish” program and its core lessons. Nearly all (95%) fourth graders remembered the p\ ro- gram compared with 67% of fifth graders. This is evidence of some short- term (3 months) and long-term (1 year) knowledge retention. The issue of knowledge retention is a concern for any educational program, but it is \ par - ticularly important for programs that are intended to educate children a\ bout domestic violence with the hope that they will not become abusers or vic\ tims of domestic violence later on in their adult lives. One study found that\ knowl- edge from violence prevention education programs can decrease in as litt\ le as 2 years after participating in such programs (Foshee et al., 2004). This study also examined the relationship between student characteristic\ s and knowledge retention of the “I Wish” program and its core lessons. Student living arrangement was only significant in students understanding that v\ io- lence consists of a physical component and verbal abuse, while student r\ ace was not statistically significant in any of the analyses (this could be\ the result of a small sample of students from all races other than White). Student gender was significant to students remembering the “I Wish” pro- gram and all but one of its core lessons. There was no gender difference in survey responses regarding the definition of domestic violence. It is likely that some students (38%) erred in their definition of domestic violenc\ e because they are unfamiliar with the word “domestic” as it may not\ be com- monly used by elementary school children. In addition, the “I Wish” program workbook does not specifically define this word; instead, it presents ex\ am- ples of conflict and violence between family members. A difference in knowledge retention of three out of four of the core lessons \ of the “I Wish” program was found among boys and girls. For example, more boys defined violence as physical acts only (without mentioning anything about verbal abuse) when compared with girls. These findings are not sur - prising if we consider traditional gender roles for males. Boys are ofte\ n socialized to believe that aggressive, physical behavior is just part of the male experience (Milkie, 1994). Encouragement to verbally express thoughts \ and feelings is typically not part of the traditional male gender role socia\ lization process (O’Neil, 1981). Dahle and Archbold 2505 In addition, when compared with girls, fewer boys reported that they would keep telling an adult about incidents of violence until someone li\ s- tened to them, and that it is never ok to keep violence a secret. Another part of the traditional male gender role is that males are supposed to be sel\ f-reliant and do not need to seek out help from others (McCarthy & Holliday, 2004).

This message is one that is expressed to boys at an early age and is rei\ nforced over the course of their lives (Pederson & Vogel, 2007). Stolz (2005) argues that boys and girls respond differently to violence prevention programming, and that the origin of these differences lies in the socialization of masculinity.

Limitations This study is not without limitations. First, this study found that seve\ ral stu- dents could remember the program and most of its lessons for up to 1 yea\ r after participation in the program; however, there is no way to know if the students actually use or apply the skills they learn from the program. The cross-sectional design of this study does not allow us to determine whet\ her students apply skills from the program at a later time (only longitudinal data would allow for this determination). Second, the sample used in this study represents schools in only one state and lacks variation in student race\ ; thus, the findings from this study may not be generalizable to schools in othe\ r states that have more racially diverse student populations. Finally, because this evaluation is nonexperimental, it lacks a control group of students\ not in the program to use for comparison. Additional research is needed on this topic to better understand the impact of these programs.

Conclusions and Recommendations Despite any limitations of this study, the findings are important as they sug- gest that some children can retain information presented to them in dome\ stic violence prevention programs. To ensure an educational program of this nature is successful, Foshee and colleagues (2004) suggest booster ses\ sions would assist students in maintaining their knowledge of domestic violence prevention. Booster sessions are brief reviews of previously learned pro\ gram material at several points in time after participating in the program. These short sessions are not as detailed or in-depth as the original program; instead, they provide a brief overview of the main concepts from the program. Boo\ ster sessions must contain updated, age-appropriate material to have an impac\ t (Wolfe & Jaffe, 2003). It is possible that students who participate in the “I 2506 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 29(13) Wish” program could benefit from the use of booster sessions during bo\ th middle school and high school. A second recommendation is that the “I Wish” program workbook would benefit from some revision to address the issue of students not adequate\ ly understanding the concept of the word “domestic.” The workbook revision should include an age-appropriate definition that coincides with the ill\ ustra- tions in the workbook. Finally, due to the differences experienced during gender socialization for boys and girls, some have argued that it may be worthwhile to custom- ize the presentation of violence prevention programs for boys and girls (Hickman, Jaycox, & Aronoff, 2004). The “I Wish” program and similar domestic violence curriculum could also benefit from this type of gender\ customization.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect\ to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for\ the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The initial study was pa\ rtially funded by the Fargo-Moorhead Rape and Abuse Crisis Center.

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Available from http://www.vawnet.org Author Biographies Thorvald O. Dahle is a doctoral student and teaching assistant in criminal justice at North Dakota State University, Fargo, United States. He earned a master’s degree in public and human service administration from Minnesota State University \ Moorhead in 1999. He spent 24 years in law enforcement and retired as a chief of \ police. His research interests primarily involve policing and particularly law enfor\ cement ethics. 2508 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 29(13) Carol A. Archbold is an associate professor of Criminal Justice at North Dakota State University, Fargo, United States. Her research interests center pr\ imarily on the police. She has published more than 20 journal articles in policing and \ criminal justice journals. She wrote Police Accountability, Risk Management and Legal Advising (LFB Scholarly Publishing, 2004), which features the first study of th\ e use of risk management by American police agencies. In collaboration with Dorothy Mo\ ses Schulz and Kimberly Hassell, she authored Women and Policing in America: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Aspen Publishing, 2011). She recently wrote Policing:

A Text/Reader (Sage Publications, 2012) and is currently working on the second edi- tion of The New World of Police Accountability with Samuel Walker. Her current research projects include a study of the processing of sexual assault ca\ ses by police officers, and a study of the impact of the oil boom on police agencies i\ n Western North Dakota.