review essay

i d a m , eve AND TH€ SERPENT EL7IINE PAGELS VINTAGE BOOKS A d i v i s i o n of Ra n d o m Ho u s e, In c.

N e w York i Copyright © 1988 by Elaine Pagels All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published in the United States by Vintage Books, a divi­ sion o f Random House, Inc., N e w Y o rk , and simultaneously in Canada by Random H ouse of Canada Limited, Toronto. Originally published, in hardcover, by Random House, Inc., N e w Y o rk , in 19 8 8 .

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pagels, Elaine H ., 1 9 4 3 - Adam , Eve, and the serpent / Elaine Pagels.— xst Vintage Books ed.

p. cm.

Bibliography; p.

Includes index.

I S B N 0-679-72232-7 : $8.9 5 1. Sex— Biblical teaching. 2. Bible. N . T . — Criticism, interpretation, etc. 3. Sex— Religious aspects— Christianity— History o f doctrines— Early church, ca. 3 0 -6 0 0 . I. Title.

B S 2 5 4 5 .S 3 6 P 3 4 1989 2 4 i '. 6 6 'o 9 o i 5 — dc20 8 9 -4 0 1 4 7 C IP Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following for permission to reprint previously published material:

H a rv a rd Theological Review: Excerpts from “ Christian Apologists and the ‘ Fall o f the A n g e ls ’: An Attack on Roman Imperial P o w e r? " by Elaine Pagels, which appeared in H a rv a rd Theological Review 78, 3-4 (1985), pp. 3 0 1 - 3 2 5 ; and " T h e Politics of Paradise: A ugustine’s Exegesis o f Genesis 1 - 3 Versus That o f Jo h n Chrysostom,’’ by Elaine Pagels, which appeared in H a rv a rd Theological Review 78, 1 - 2 ( 1 9 8 5 ) , pp. 6 7 - 9 ^ .

Copyright © 19 8 5 by the President and Fellows o f Harvard C ollege.

Reprinted by permission.

Hendrickson Publishers, Inc.: Excerpts from “ Exegesis and Exposition o f the Genesis Creation Accounts in Selected Texts from N a g Ham- m adi," by Elaine Pagels, in N ag Hammadi, Gnosticism, a n d E a rly C h risti­ anity. edited by C. Hedrick and R, Hodgson, pp. 2 5 7 - 2 8 6 . Used by permission o f Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., Peabody, Mass.

T & T Clark Ltd.: Excerpts by Elaine Pagels from The N e w Testament a n d Gnosis: Essays in Honour o f R. McL. Wilson, edited by A .H .B . Logan and A .J.M . W edderburn (Edinburgh, Scotland, 19 8 3 ) , pp. 1 4 6 - 1 7 5 .

National Council o f the Churches o f Christ in the U .S .A .: Scripture quotations are from the Revised Standard Version Bible. Copyright 19 4 6 , 1952, © 197 1 by the Division o f Christian Education o f the National Council o f the Churches o f Christ in the U .S.A . Used by permission.

Manufactured in the United States o f America 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 i i i Ch a p t e r s 1 - 3 (Revised S ta n d a rd Version) I N TH E B E G IN N I N G G o d created the heavens a n d the earth. 2 T h e earth w as w ith o u t fo r m a n d void, a n d d a r k ­ ness w a s upon the f a c e o f the deep; a n d the S p ir it o f G o d w as moving over the f a c e o f the waters.

3 A n d G o d sa id , “ L e t there be l i g h t ” ; a n d there w as light. 4A n d G o d s a w tha t the lig h t w as good; a n d G o d sep arated the lig h t fr o m the darkness.

} G o d c a lle d the lig h t D a y , a n d the d arkn ess he c a lle d N ig h t. A n d there w as evening a n d there w a s morning, one day.

6 A n d G o d sa id , “ L e t there be a firm a m e n t in the midst o f the waters, a n d let it separate the w aters fr o m the waters. ” 7A n d G o d made the f i r m a ­ ment a n d sep a ra ted the w aters w hich were u n d e r the firm a m e n t fr o m the w a ­ ters w h ic h w ere above the firm am en t.

A n d it w as so. 8A n d G o d c a lle d the firm a m e n t H eaven . A n d there w as eve­ n in g a n d there w a s m orning, a second day.

9 A n d G o d sa id , “ L e t the w aters u n d e r the heavens be gath ered together into one place, a n d let the d r y l a n d a p ­ p ear. ’’ And it w a s so. 10G o d c a lle d the d ry l a n d E a r t h , a n d the w aters that were g a th ered together he c a lle d Seas.

A n d G o d s a w th a t it w as good. 1 1 A n dG o d sa id, “ L e t the ea rth p u t f o r t h vege­ tation, p la n ts y ie ld in g seed, a n d f r u i t trees b e a rin g f r u i t in w h ic h is t h e ir seed, each according to its k in d , upon the earth. ” A n d it w as so. l 2 T h e earth brought f o r t h vegetation, p la n ts y ie ld in g seed according to th e ir o w n k in d s, a n d trees b ea rin g f r u i t in w h ic h is th e ir seed, each according to its k in d . A n d G o d s a w that it w as good. 13A n d there w a s eve­ n in g a n d there w as m orning, a t h ir d day.

1 4 A n d G o d sa id , “ L e t there be lights in the firm a m e n t o f the heavens to separate the d a y fr o m the n ig h t; a n d let them be f o r signs a n d f o r seasons a n d f o r days a n d years, 13a n d let them be lights in the firm a m e n t o f the heavens to g iv e lig h t upon the earth. ’’ And it w a s so.

16A n d G o d made the two grea t lights, the g reater lig h t to r u le the day, a n d the lesser lig h t to ru le the n ig h t; he made the stars also. 17A n d G o d set them in the firm a m e n t o f the heavens to g iv e lig h t upon the earth, 18to r u le over the d a y a n d over the night, a n d to separate the lig h t fr o m the darkness. A n d G o d s a w that it w a s good. 19A n d there w a s evening a n d there w a s m orning, a fo u r t h day.

2 0 A n d G o d sa id , “ L e t the w aters b rin g f o r t h sw arm s o f liv in g creatures,­ .e ­ ihe Bookof Ge n esisn i rh 0uki = r n0osh th hnkt ncko the firm am ent o f the heavens. ” 2 1So G o d created the great sea monsters a n d every liv in g creature that moves, w ith w hich the w aters swarm, according to th eir kinds, a n d every w in ged b ird ac­ cording to its k in d . A n d G od sa w that it w as good. 22A n d G od blessed them, saying, “ B e f r u i t f u l a n d m ultiply a n d f i l l the waters in the seas, a n d let birds m ultiply on the earth. ” 23A n d there w as evening a n d there was morning, a f i f t h day.

2 4 A n d G o d said, “ L et the earth b rin g fo r th liv in g creatures according to th eir k in d s: cattle a n d creeping things a n d beasts o f the earth according to their kinds. ’’ And it was so. 25A n d G od made the beasts o f the earth according to th eir kin ds a n d the cattle according to th e ir kinds, a n d everything that creeps upon the gro u n d according to its kind.

A n d G o d sa w that it was good.

2 6 Then G o d said, “ .Let us make man in our image, a fter o u r likeness; a n d let them have dominion over the fis h o f the sea, a n d over the birds o f the a ir, a n d over the cattle, a n d over a l l the earth, a n d over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth. ” 27So G od created man in his own image, in the image o f G od he created him ; male a n d fe m a le he created them. 28A n d G od blessed them, a n d G o d s a id to them, “ B e f r u i t f u l a n d m ultiply, a n d f i l l the earth a n d subdue it; a n d have dominion over the f is h o f the sea a n d over the birds o f the a i r a n d over every liv in g thing that moves upon the earth. ” 29A n d G od said, “ Behold, I have given you every p la n t y ield in g seed w hich is upon the fa c e o f a l l the earth, a n d every tree w ith seed in its f r u i t ; you s h a ll have them f o r food. 30A n d to every beast o f the earth,a n d to every b ir d o f the a ir , a n d to every­ thing that creeps on the earth, every­ thing that has the breath o f life, I have given every green p la n t f o r food. ” A n d it was so. 3 1 A n d G o d sa w everything that he h a d made, a n d behold, it was very good. A n d there was evening a n d there w as morning, a six th day.

2 Thus the heavens a n d the earth were fin ish e d , a n d a l l the host o f them. 2A n d on the seventh day G o d f i n ­ ished his w ork w hich he h a d done, a n d he rested on the seventh d a y fro m a l l his work w hich he h a d done. 3So G o d blessed the seventh d a y a n d h a llo w ed it, because on it G od rested fr o m a l l his work w hich he h a d done in creation.

4 These a r e the generations o f the heavens a n d the earth when they were created.

In the da y that the L o r d G o d made the earth a n d the heavens, } when no p la n t o f the f i e ld was yet in the earth a n d no herb o f the f i e l d h a d yet sprung up—f o r the L o r d G o d h a d not caused it to ra in upon the earth, a n d there was no man to t il l the g ro u nd ; 6but a mist went up fro m the earth a n d w atered the whole fa c e o f the grou n d— 7then the L o rd G od fo rm ed man o f dust fr o m the ground, a n d breathed into his nostrils the breath o f life ; a n d man became a liv in g being. 8A n d the L o r d G od p la n ted a garden in Eden, in the east; a n d there he p u t the man whom he h a d formed. 9A n d out o f the gro u n d the L o rd G od made to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight a n d goo dforfood , the tree o f life also in the midst o f the garden, a n d the tree o f the knowledge o f good a n d evil.

1 0 A riv e r flo w e d out o f Eden to w ater the garden, a n d there it d iv id e d­ .ee ­ ihe Book of Gen esisn i 0hcn h # o " k kushk! 9 9 Ith n h o # the fir s t is P isho n ; it is the one which flo w s a ro u n d the whole la n d o f H a v ’- ila h , where there is gold; 12a n d the gold o f that la n d is good; bdellium a n d onyx stone a re there. 1 3 The name o f the sec­ ond riv e r is G ib o n ; it is the one which flo w s a ro u n d the whole la n d o f Cush.

14A n d the name o f the th ird riv er is Tigris, w hich flo w s east o f A ssyria. A n d the fo u r t h riv e r is the E u p h r a ’tes.

1 3 The L o r d G od took the man a n d p u t him in the garden o f Eden to t i l l it a n d keep it. 16A n d the L o rd G od com­ manded the man, saying, “ You may fr e e ly eat o f every tree o f the garden; 1 7but o f the tree o f the knowledge o f good a n d e v il you s h a ll not eat, f o r in the day that you eat o f it you s h a ll die. ” 1 8 Then the L o r d G od said, “ It is not good that the man should be alone; I w i l l make him a helper f i t f o r him. ” 19So out o f the grou n d the L o rd G od fo rm e d every beast o f the f i e l d a n d every b ir d o f the a ir , a n d brought them to the man to see w h a t he w o u ld c a ll them; a n d w hatever the man called every l i v ­ in g creature, that was its name. 20The man gave names to a l l cattle, a n d to the birds o f the a ir , a n d to every beast o f the fie ld ; but f o r the man there was not f o u n d a h elp e rfit f o r him. 2 1So the L o rd G od caused a deep sleep to f a l l upon the man, a n d w h ile he slept took one o f his ribs a n d closed up its place w ith fle s h ; 22a n d the rib w hich the L o r d G od h ad taken fro m the man he made into a woman a n d brought h er to the man.

23Then the man said, “ T h is a t last is bone o f my bones a n d fle s h o f my fle s h ; she s h a ll be called Woman, because she w as taken out o f M a n . ”24Therefore a man leaves his f a t h e r a n d his mother a n d cleaves to his w ife, a n d they become one flesh . 23A n d the man a n d his w ife were both naked, a n d were not ashamed.

3 N o w the serpent was more subtle than a n y other w il d creature that the L o r d G o d h a d made. H e s a id to the woman, “ D id G o d say, ‘ You s h a ll not eat o fa n y tree o f the garden ’? ” 2A n d the woman s a id to the serpent, “ We may eat o f t h e fr u it ofth e trees o f the g a rden ; 3but G od said, ‘ You s h a ll not eat o f the f r u i t o f the tree w hich is in the midst o f the garden, neither s h a ll you touch it, lest you die. ’ ” 4B u t the serpent s a id to the woman, “ You w i l l not die. 5F o r G o d knows that when you eat o f it yo u r eyes w il l be opened, a n d you w i l l be lik e God, knowing good a n d evil. ” 6So when the woman sa w that the tree was good f o r food, a n d that it w as a delight to the eyes, a n d that the tree was to be desired to make one wise, she took o f its f r u i t a n d ate; a n d she also gave some to h er hus­ band, a n d he ate. 7T ben the eyes o f both were opened, a n d they knew that they were naked; a n d they sewed f i g leaves together a n d made themselves aprons.

8 A n d they h ea rd the sound o f the L o rd G o d w a lk in g in the garden in the cool o f the day, a n d the man a n d his w ife h id themselves fr o m the presence o f the L o r d G o d among the trees o f the garden. 9B u t the L o r d G o d called to the man, a n d s a id to him, “ Where are y o u ? ” 10A n d he said, “ I h ea rd the sound o f thee in the garden, a n d I was a fr a id , because I was naked; a n d I h id m yself.” 1 1 H e said, “ Who told you that you were naked? H a v e you eaten o f the tree o f w hich I commanded you not to e a t? ” J 2 The man said, “ The woman­ .eee ­ ihe Bookof Ge n e s iseto to" dnsh o 0h e ut h th gave me f r u i t o f the tree, a n d I ate. ” 1 3 Then the L o r d G od s a id to the woman, “ W hat is this that you have d o n e ? " The woman said, “ The serpent beguiled me, a n d I ate. ” 14 The L o r d G od s a id to the serpent, “ Because you have done this, cursed are you above a l l cattle, a n d above a l l w ild a nim als; upon y o u r belly you s h a ll go, a n d dust you s h a ll eat a l l the days o f y o u r life.

I3l w i l l p u t enmity between you a n d the woman, a n d between yo u r seed a n d her seed; he s h a ll bruise y o u r head, a n d you s h a ll bruise his heel. " l6 To the woman he said, “ I w i l l greatly m ultiply yo u r p a in in ch ild b ea rin g; in p a in you s h a ll bring fo r th children, yet y o u r desire s h a ll be f o r yo u r husband, a n d he s h a ll ru le over you. ’ ’ 17A n d to A d a m he said, “ Because you have listened to the voice o f yo u r wife, a n d have eaten o f the tree o f w hich I commanded you,'Y o u s h a ll not eat o f it, ’ cursed is the ground because o f you; in to il you s h a ll eat o f it a l l the days o f y o u r life ; 18thorns a n d thistles it s h a ll bring fo r th to you; a n d you s h a ll eat the p la n ts o f the fie ld .

I9In the sweat o f y o u r fa c e you s h a ll eat bread t i l l you return to the ground, f o r out o f it you were taken; you are dust, a n d to dust you s h a ll return. ” 2 0 The man called his w if e ’s name Eve, because she was the mother o f a l l livin g. 2 1 A n d the L o r d G o d made f o r A d a m a n d f o r his w ife garments o f skins, a n d clothed them.

2 2 Then the L o r d G o d said, “ B e ­ hold, the man has become lik e one o f us, know ing good a n d e v il; a n d now, lest he p u t fo r th his b a n d a n d take also o f the tree o f life, a n d eat, a n d live f o r e v e r" — 23therefore the L o r d G o d sent him fo r t h fro m the garden o f Eden, to t i l l the gro u n d fro m w hich he was taken. 24He drove out the m an; a n d a t the east o f the garden o f E den he placed the cherubim, a n d a fla m in g sw ord which tu rn ed every way, to g u a rd the w ay to the tree o f life. # | B R U P T C H A N G E S in social attitudes h a v e re c e n tly b e c o m e X j c o m m o n p la c e , e sp e c ia lly w ith resp ect to se x u a lity , in c lu d in g M 1 m a r r ia g e , d iv o r c e , h o m o se x u a lity , a b o rtio n , c o n tra c e p tio n , and g e n d e r . W h e th e r w e w e lc o m e these ch an g e s o r n ot, th ey h a v e a lte re d the w a y w e think o f o th e r p e o p le and o u r s e lv e s , h o w w e act, and h o w w e re sp o n d to the actions o f o th ers. F o r C h ristia n s, in p artic u la r, such ch an g e s m ay seem to c h a lle n g e n ot o n ly trad ition al v a lu e s but the v e r y stru ctu re o f human n ature.

B u t h o w did these tradition al pattern s o f g e n d e r and se x u a l re la tio n sh ip arise in the first place— patterns so o b v io u s and “ natu­ r a l” to th o se w h o h a v e accepted them that n atu re it s e lf se e m e d to h a v e o rd a in e d them ? R e fle c t in g on this q u e stio n , I so o n b e g a n to see that the se x u a l attitudes w e associate w ith C h ristian tra d itio n e v o lv e d in w e ste r n c u ltu re at a specific tim e— d u r in g the first fo u r c e n tu rie s o f the c o m m o n e ra , w h e n the C h ristian m o v e m e n t, w h ich had b e g u n as a d efia n t sect, e v e n tu a lly tran sfo rm ed it s e lf into the r e lig io n o f the R o m a n E m p ire . I saw , too , that these attitudes had n ot p r e v io u s ly e x iste d in th e ir e v e n tu a l C h ristian fo rm ; and that th e y re p re se n te d a d e p a rtu re fro m both p agan practices and J e w i s h trad ition . M a n y C h ristian s o f the first fo u r cen tu ries to o k p rid e in th e ir se x u a l r e ­ straint; th ey e sc h e w e d p o ly g a m y and o ften d iv o r c e as w e ll, w h ich J e w i s h tra d itio n a llo w e d ; and they re p u d ia te d e x tra m a rita l sexu al practices c o m m o n ly accepted a m o n g th e ir p aga n c o n te m p o ra rie s, practices in c lu d in g p ro stitu tion and h o m o se x u a lity .

C e rta in C h ristia n m oralists o f this p e r io d insisted that sexu al in te r c o u r s e sh o u ld n ot be p u rsu ed fo r p le a s u r e , e v e n a m o n g those m o n o g a m o u s ly m a rrie d , but shou ld be r e s e r v e d s o le ly fo r p r o c r e a ­ tion . N o t all these attitudes w e r e o r ig in a l w ith the C h ristia n s, w h o b o r r o w e d m uch fro m J e w i s h and p h ilo so p h ica l, p a rtic u la rly S to ic , trad itio n ; but the C h ristia n m o v em e n t em p h asized and institution al-n esaa n n t r o d u c t i o nV!T "$& # ! - " B - & " !&h e ! "! h h ! + e "h +h' , ! & "h " - ! ! # ! +$ ! h T ! e h & ! T & ! h & B + ! "h)! + ! c T e + , ! h # ! B U ! h # - & B ! "hT B J ! " $ " h T G h $ hT ! 8 ! e +! T B h T - & ! hT $ ! T $ "! & h h ! + ! B h ! & + ! ' U d ! ! + ! ++ & ! $ B t $ $ " ! hT h&$ h T ! & h ! T h " h ! $ " "! 8$ h T ! " ! " ! + + 7 h T ! h + 7 $ # ! "h h " B h T ! h h - $ T h # ! h++!T e " + " "h ! T ! & ! " " " B "h + " hh h T J ! - " & ! e h ! "' M h h h & ! e h ! " + ! ! h "h " !

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- ! ! & ! $ ' s ! f e h "B + ! 8 h e ! B ! h V ! T h T h8!T "$ B e h! h T +! e h ! 9 h T " e ! + !e ! h " ! * h!T T # & ! B h" - ! h" e "! 8 $ h h T "! 8 $ h ! h " "B ! " ! * & h T $ h T ! " & ! & ! B ! &h"! + e h ! T e ! B h" h T # ! " + e +h e h "' . ! - ! - ! # ! " h ! f e h h&&!" e ! & " ! B - ! + T $ " ! # ! " $ e ! $ +h e h $ T 9 - ! e h ! T "e h !T "!! B + ! 8 h e ! B h ! 8 " h T h h T +h " - h" - T ! h T ! h & & ! T T $ ! + " h T "!& T & ! $ ! " + ! & e e ! h B h" - h" ! $ ! "! 8 $ h $"! h T h $ "! + "h#!"' s ! ! 8! h - ! ! & + e "$& h&&!"B - ! ! # ! h B - ! ! - ! ! 8 & T ! + $ " ! # ! " - ! $ " hT B h - ! h ! h++!&!T ! h " + e h * + "! 8 $ h # h $ ! " h "h hT T $ & ! T - ! "! & $ $ !' D e ! + " & ! $ B - ! ! "h e # ! e ! h ! h ! T h" h ! - h T B T ! h T "$ ! " U H ! - T " + ! f e h " h s h & $ " I B $ - &! $ !" + ! " ! & $ B T $ - & " e ! e ! " - ! ! "$ T!& h ! "B $ ! B h T ! 8 ! & $ B !

e # ! e ! & $ ! T - ' s ! 5 0 5 & & $ ! T h ! # ! + & h & $ h ! " +& h &! 7 ! & # ! " " h + ! ! e * ! "h ! 9 h T + e h e !B - h - % ! h ! $ * T $ ! ! + ! + ! ! h h ! e ! J $ h B &h!T ! t " h ! B "h & ! h " !&h e ! ! ++&h ! + ! ! e ! ' t & & e h ! " !hT + "h 7 h $ B h" &h""&h " h " !e T $ "B e !T 7 - h" h ! # $ "!8$ h h$ T !" h T h&&!"' . ! - ! - ! ! 8 ! J ! - " h T "h - ! " + e ! + " & ! $ ! " + ! & e e ! h B - ! + T h ! "! T e h) T ! & h $ "! 8 $ h ! h # B h T ! "! T e - ! !h"!" "$& &" !"hhh n t r o d u c t i o nh" e h h ! B T # & ! B h T ! T ! ' I "!hT ! +! h) h $ t T h e B k # ! B h T ! "! ! 7 ! " + & ! h 7 h T - ! ! T B ! ! $" - h ! ) h $ "! 8 $ h e h! "' D e h $ = : : d' 'k' H ! + ! ! & e e ! h I B ! " + & ! h ! & h e ! B + &! h J ! - " B h T h ! + "h "B h e h e !h " + ! # ! h * h T T ! +! T h"& h$T!" h T # h $ ! "' u $ " $ h h &!" " h $ ! T h T " !&$ h!T # ! - r T hT & e e h T ! T ! + " eh h T - e h B ! + $ +$ h T e $ B h T + ! ! h BU h T - ! "$!T ! + " e h h ! 9 - t T h e B h +! ! + $ T h e !

h e h" B ! ! + + e U H r ! ! " " = > = : I B e ! k # ! B - - !% ) - h T T "h" $ " & "!P $ ! & !"' o$ & ! ! h " + ! + " ! ! & h ! " + r ! ! " " B h" - ! &h "!!B ! h ! T ! "! h&&h & & ! " h T h &$ h!T T ! ! +! h$T!"' t " I # ! " h ! T !"! J ! - " h T "h " $ & ! "B I + $ T e " ! + +h"& h!T - ! " + t T h e B k # ! B h T ! "! ! B - ! T - e ! e ! " + , ! ! - !" h $ ! ! $"h T ! h " h B h T h T + ! ! h " ! + ! h' I hT h - h " h""$e !T h " h & h& " - ! T " h ! 8 h T h +$ ! &! $ - ! "! & $ $ ! B $ h" e - ) ! " " ! T I - h" "$ "! T T " & # ! - & e ! 8 h T ! 8 ! "# ! " !++!& h" ! ! ' s ! h " ++ T r ! ! V T ! + ! " & $ $ ! h" an historically transmitted pattern o f meaning em bodied in sym ­ bols; a system o f inherited conceptions expressed in sym bolic form, by means o f which men communicate, perpetuate, and d e v e lo p th e ir k n o w le d g e ab o u t and attitudes toward life .1 I f a n y o f us c o u ld c o m e to o u r o w n c u ltu re as a fo r e i g n a n t h r o p o lo ­ g ist and o b s e r v e trad itio n al C h ristian attitudes to w a rd se x u a lity and g e n d e r , and h o w w e v ie w “ hum an n a t u r e ” in re la tio n to po litics, p h ilo s o p h y , and p s y c h o lo g y , w e m ight w e li b e asto n ish ed at attitudes that w e take f o r g r a n te d . A u g u stin e , o n e o f the g r e a t e s t teac h ers o f w estern C h ristia n ity , d e r iv e d m an y o f these attitu des fro m the story o f A d a m and E v e : that sexu al d e sire is sin fu l; that in fan ts a re in fe c te d fro m the m o m en t o f c o n c e p tio n with the d ise a se o f o r ig in a l sin; and that A d a m ’ s sin c o rru p te d the w h o le o f n atu re itself. E v e n th o se w h o think o f G e n e s is o n ly as lite ra tu re , and those w h o a re n ot C h ristian , liv e in a c u ltu re in d e lib ly shaped by such in te rp re ta tio n s as these.

B u t the G e n e s is accounts o f creatio n in tro d u c e d in to G r a e c o - R o m a n c u ltu re m an y v a lu e s o th e r than se x u a l o nes— fo r e x a m p le , the in trin sic w o rth o f e v e r y hum an b e in g , m ad e in G o d ’s im a g e ( G e n e s is 1 : 2 6 ) . O fte n these o th e r v a lu e s w o u ld p r o v e im m e n se lyn eae n n t r o d u c t i o n +$ ! h' t $ ! ! h "h " $ + " & # & + $ e h - e h7 " &h & h 7 ! e "B "h " # e ! h ++!! $ T ! T ! h " h ! - $ T # ) ! " T ! h ! h "+ e ! h- "B !&"B h T & h "$ " + !

O !"' I 0<<; ! h$ " + ! 3 ! & h h + I T ! ! T ! & ! * # ) ! T ! & h h&& $ + & !h T ! & h ! h B - ! T !"!

$" ! " ! +%! # T ! B h h e ! h ! & ! h ! T ! P $ h ' ' ' U 7 h T ! h " +h e h h - ! e h h # ! T++&$ " ! ! h " ! e & h $ # h ! 9 t " ! B h e ! "B - $ T h # ! & " T ! ! T h * "$ T ' t " - ! "h "! ! B ! T ! h + $e h e h ! P $ h + $ " ! T h e & # ! " "h B e h + - e B ! " ! & h "h # ! " h T - e ! B - ! ! h $ !P $ h $ T ! f e h h- ' o e ! "h " T h B + & $ "! B # ) ! r ! ! " " h h " !

! + ! # $ B & & V ! &he " + "&! +& T! & # h T ! ! h # ! # h $ ! " ! h"" &h! - B "! & $ h $ e h " e E E 9 e h "" h ! & !h " # h T h ! " ! - " &h h T "! 8 $ h h$ T!"' / ! h & &" h&&$"! "$& ! ! ! " + ! h "e 9 h T " $ ! h "$& ! ! # ! " +! "" h ! $ T ! "h T ! +! & - ! - h B ! d ! "h "BU - $ & " T ! h - h they as­ su m e it m ean s m ay d iffe r e n tir e ly fro m w h at o th ers— e v e n th eir C h ristia n p r e d e c e s s o r s — h a v e taken it to m ean. Y e t such e v a n g e lic a l C h ristian s in tu itiv e ly u n d erstan d o n e th in g that th e ir c ritics o fte n miss: that the b ib lica l cre atio n sto ry, lik e the c re a tio n sto rie s o f o th e r c u ltu re s, c o m m u n icates social and re lig io u s v a lu e s and p re se n ts them as i f t h e y w e r e u n i v e r s a l l y v a lid . M a n y p e o p l e w h o h a v e — in te lle c tu ­ a lly , at least— d isc a rd e d the creation sto ry as a m e r e fo lk tale n e v e r ­ theless find th e m se lv e s e n g a g e d w ith its m o ra l im p licatio n s c o n c e r n in g p ro c re a tio n , anim als, w o r k , m a rr ia g e , and th e hum an striv in g to “ s u b d u e ” the e arth and “ h a v e d o m in io n ” o v e r all its c re a tu re s ( G e n e s is 1 : 2 8 ) .

T h is b o o k e x p lo r e s , a m o n g o th e r th in gs, h o w th ese C h ristia n in te rp re ta tio n s o f G e n e s is e m e r g e d in the first fo u r c e n tu rie s , and h o w C h ristia n s in v o k e d the sto ry o f A d a m and E v e to ju stify and estab lish th e ir b e lie fs ; h o w they saw th e ir o w n situ ation s, th e ir su f­ fe r in g s , and th e ir h o p e s m ir ro re d in the story o f th e c re a tio n and the fa ll. I h a v e n ot, b y an y m ean s, w ritten a h isto ry o f e a r ly C h ris tia n ity ; in stea d , I am in tereste d in a p ro cess o f in te lle c tu a l h is to r y — h o w th ese id e as o f se x u a lity and m o ral e q u a lity , a m o n g o t h e r s , cam e ab o u t; and I am in te re ste d in the h e rm e n e u tic a l p ro c e ss— h o w C h r is ­ tians read the sto ry o f A d a m and E v e , and o fte n p r o je c t e d th e m se lv e sn ee n n t r o d u c t i o n B h" h - h + ! +! & $ "$& e h! " h" " ! 8 $ h B $ e h + ! ! T e B h T $e h h$ !' t " I ! h ! 8 ! !"! P $ !" "B "$ "h # ! h T ! e ! ! $ & h B I " T " & # ! ! T h J ! - " h T "h " # h $ " e !" h T h&!" h # ! !hT ! & !h " 7 h T " h & & h e * &h "7 P $ ! T ++! ! B " e !e !" ! # ! h ! & h ' O h "h " "! ! B &he "!!B r ! ! " " 0 % 5 & h ! T h" ! & $ & " ! + & h ! T + e h T ""T ! J ! - " "!& h $ h e # ! e ! ! "! & $ ! T ! f e h # ! e ! B h T & h ! T +$ ! h" " e # ! e ! & ! h " h ! T e !e ! " $ $ f e h " & ! B $ + h ! # ! ! f e h ! e ! e " ! + & # ! ! T ! ! - +h h T " h !&he ! ! ++&h ! + ! f e h k e ! ' 3 $ ! & ! T ! & h T ! "B " ! # ! h T " $ " ! T "& h "B &$ T * G +! " " " f ! M ' r h B r ! ! " T ! o !' 8 B f h e "h M h & M $ ! B O h ! M ! ! ) " B h T G h $ i ! ! B h # ! ! T $ h "h " - ! ! e h - h " "e h ! h h ! " '= s ! - ) " T & $ e ! B h e ! "B " & h B & h B ! & * e & B h T &$ $ h h h ! " h I h#! ! # ! - ! T ! ! ' I "!hT I + & $ " $ - h " - & "h " d iffe re d fr o m p a g a n s, o r cla im e d to d iffe r — w h at m ade them , in o th e r w o r d s , sp e c ific ally C h ristia n w ith in the p agan w o r ld ; I am in te re ste d , in T e r t u llia n ’ s w o r d s , in the “ p e c u lia ritie s o f the C h ristian s o c ie t y .” 3 In each c h a p te r I take up a them e that C h ristian s a tte m p ted to u n d e rsta n d o r ju stify b y m eans o f the c re a tio n sto ry. J e w i s h teach ers o f J e s u s ’ tim e and e a r lie r , as I sh o w in C h a p te r 1 , o ft e n in v o k e d the sto r y o f A d a m and E v e to d e fe n d J e w i s h sexu al p ractices r a n g in g fr o m a b h o r r e n c e o f p u b lic n aked n ess ( f o r G o d c lo th e d A d a m and E v e in P a r a d is e ) to m arital practices d e s ig n e d to fa c ilita te r e p r o d u c ­ tion ( f o r h a d n ’t G o d said, “ B e fru itfu l and m u ltip ly , an d fill the e a r t h ” ?). T h e s e J e w i s h teachers noted that G e n e s is c on tain s n ot o n e but tw o distin ct accou n ts o f c re atio n , o f w h ich the first b e g in s w ith the o p e n in g c h a p te r o f G e n e s is and tells h o w G o d c re a te d the w o rld in six d a y s, c r o w n in g his a c h ie v e m e n t b y c re a tin g a d a m— that is, h u m an ity— in his im a g e ( G e n e s is 1 : 2 6 ) . B u t this accou n t en d s w ith G e n e s is 2 : 3 ; and the fo llo w in g v e r s e , G e n e s is 2 : 4 , b e g in s a d iffe re n t n a rra tiv e . T h is sec o n d sto ry tells h o w the L o rd m a d e a m an o u t o f earth , a n d , a ft e r m a k in g all the anim als and fin d in g n o n e o f them a su ita b le c o m p a n io n f o r A d a m , he pu t A d a m to s le e p , b ro u g h t w o m a n o u t o f his sid e , and p re se n te d h e r to A d a m as his w ife . T h en eea n n t r o d u c t i o n- e h ! ! " $ h T ! T ! $"h T T " ! T # ! h- h T ! h ! T - e ! ! 8 $ " + e G h h T "! ' M " & h "& h " T h h ! ! h ! - & ! h h&* & $ "B h "! h h !B - ! ! h ! T ! T e h) ! $ ! + " ! ! & h ! " + r ! ! " " ' s ! " + t T h e h T k # ! H r ! ! " " = > 4 : B T ! h $ h ! + + ) ! B " & "T ! ! T ! T ! + !

- h&& $ "B T h 1 0 0 0 - 9 0 0 B .C . E .; the accou n t n o w p la c e d first ( G e n e s is 1:1 - 2 : 3 ) d ates to p o ste x ilic th e o lo g ia n s (c . 4 0 0 B . C . E . ) .

J e w i s h te a c h e rs in an tiq u ity , lik e m an y C h ristian s a fte r th em , tu rn ed to t h e o lo g ic a l in g e n u ity ra th e r than h isto rical o r lite ra ry an alysis to ac c o u n t f o r c o n trad ic tio n s in the texts.

A c c o r d i n g to N e w T e sta m e n t accou n ts, J e s u s h im s e lf m e n ­ tio n e d th e sto ry o f A d a m and E v e o n ly o n c e ; a n d , lik e m an y o th e r J e w i s h te a c h e rs, J e s u s u sed G e n e s is to m ake a m o ral p o in t— sp e c ifi­ c a lly , to a n s w e r a p ractical q u estio n p u t to him b y the P h a r is e e s , the in te rp r e te rs o f J e w i s h la w , ab o u t the le g itim a te g r o u n d s f o r d iv o r c e .

J e s u s ’ r e p ly — that w hat G o d has jo in e d t o g e th e r, let n o o n e p u t a su n d e r— sh o c k e d his q u e s tio n e rs, fo r instead o f a n s w e r in g the q u e s ­ tion h e had b e e n asked a b o u t t h e g ro u n d s f o r d iv o r c e , h e sim p ly ru le d o u t d iv o r c e a lto g e th e r. S in c e p r o c re a tio n was assu m ed b y m an y J e w s to b e th e p u r p o s e o f m a r r ia g e , and sin ce J e w i s h tra d itio n had taken d iv o r c e f o r g r a n te d as a m ale p r e r o g a t iv e — and so m e tim e s as a n e c e s­ sity, in cases o f a w i f e ’ s in fe rtility —J e s u s ’ a n s w e r to the P h a r is e e s b r o k e w ith J e w i s h teach in g. W h e n e v e n his o w n fo llo w e r s o b je c te d ( “ I f s u c h is th e c a s e o f a m a n w i t h his w i f e , it is n o t e x p e d i e n t to m a r r y ’ ’ ), J e s u s m ust h a v e startled them e v e n m o re than h e had the P h a ris e e s b y s u g g e s tin g that c e iib a c y “ fo r the sak e o f the K in g d o m o f H e a v e n ’ ’ m a y , in fact, b e p r e fe r a b le to m a r r ia g e ( M a t th e w 1 9 : 1 0 - 1 2 ) . F o r g e n e r a tio n s — e v e n m illen n ia— e v e r sin ce, C h ristia n s h a v e b e e n try in g to w o r k o u t the p ractical im p licatio n s o f such sa y in g s , and th o se o f P a u l, J e s u s ’ zealo u s d iscip le.

P a u l h im se lf, som e tw en ty y e a rs a fte r J e s u s ' d e a th , u r g e d an e v e n m o re a u ste re d isc ip lin e u p o n his fo llo w e r s than J e s u s had p r e a c h e d . A lt h o u g h P a u l a c k n o w le d g e d that m a r r ia g e w as n ot sin ( 1 C o r in th ia n s 7 : 3 ) , he e n c o u ra g e d th ose w h o w e r e a b le to r e n o u n c e it to d o so. P a u l in v o k e d the c re a tio n accou n t to u r g e C h ristia n s to a v o id p ro stitu tio n ( 1 C o rin th ia n s 6 : 1 5 - 2 0 ) , and la te r to a r g u e that w o m e n m ust v e i l th eir head s in c h u rc h , a p p a re n tly to a c k n o w le d g e th e ir s u b o rd in a tio n to m en as a kind o f d iv in e o r d e r g i v e n in n atu re ( “ F o r m an w as n ot m ad e fro m w o m a n , but w o m a n fr o m m an. N e i ­ th e r w a s m an c re a te d f o r w o m a n , but w o m an f o r m a n ,’ ’ 1 C o r in t h i­n ee aa n n t r o d u c t i o nh " 00>5%0;I' I ! ! ! h " + - G h $ B "h " +! & ! T ! h ! T - h ! h "! e !h ' o e ! ""!T h "! - B $ T ! " + t T h e h T k # ! U h & & & ! h & 7 ! # ! - e h h ! 7 &h $ h&&! ! " ! ' u ! " B - - ! ! ! T e h ! - ! e h T + & $ & !"B ! T! & ! T "$& h$ "! h T & e " ! T B G h $ E " he !B ! ! ! "B h ! & h ! T ! n ! - s ! " h e ! h" + G h $ e " ! + hT - ! !e B - & $"!T ! " + t T h e h T k # ! "$ hT h e h h ! h T # ! h - e ! B ! h$ h $ ! B h ! $ + + h ! $ h" & T ! h T ) ! ! $ "! H" ! ! B + ! 8 h e ! B 0 s e =>0070@I9 $" ! " + k T ! - h" e hT ! ! + & ! ! h h * &h " $ &$ ! + & e e $ +!' d $ ! e h T + "h "B h" I h" " - h ! 0 B ! T! & ! T ! &he e h T ! hT &h "h " h ! " + t T h e h T k # ! - h " "! 8 $ h 7 h ! + T T ! B + $ + ! ! ! + ) - * ! T ! U & # ! ! T B h # ! hB c a r n a l k n o w le d g e . O n th e c o n tra ry , said C le m e n t o f A le x a n d r ia (c. 1 8 0 C . E . ) , c o n sc io u s p artic ip a tio n in p r o ­ c re a tio n is “ c o o p e ra tio n w ith G o d in the w o r k o f c r e a t io n .” A d a m ’s sin w as n o t se x u a l in d u lg e n c e but d is o b e d ie n c e ; thus C le m e n t a g r e e d w ith m ost o f his J e w i s h and C h ristian c o n te m p o ra rie s that the real th em e o f the sto ry o f A d a m and E v e is m o ral fr e e d o m and m o ral re sp o n sib ility . Its p o in t is to sh o w that w e a re r e s p o n s ib le f o r the c h o ices w e f r e e ly m ak e— g o o d o r e v il— ju st as A d a m w as.

In C h a p t e r 2 I sh o w h o w C h ristian s also b e g a n to a p p ly the c re a tio n accou n t to th e ir o w n p re c a rio u s p o litic a l situ a tio n , in w h ich th ey w e r e con stan tly su b ject to p e rse c u tio n b y the R o m a n a u th orities. A b o u t o n e h u n d re d y ears a fte r J e s u s ’ d e a th , w h e n m an y C h ristian s liv e d in fe a r o f a sim ilar fate— a rre st, t o r tu r e , and e x e c u ­ tion— fo r re fu s in g o rd in a ry a lle g ia n c e to the e m p e r o r and the g o d s , the C h ristian p h ilo s o p h e r Ju s t in in v o k e d G e n e s is to a r g u e that h u m an k in d o w e s a lle g ia n c e o n ly to the G o d w h o c re a te d a il h u m an ­ ity— the G o d o f Is r a e l, n o w the G o d o f the C h ristian s— and n o t to the g o d s o f R o m e , w h o m Ju s t in d e n o u n c e d as d e m o n s. J u s t in turn ed G e n e s is 6 , w h ich tells o f the fall o f the a n g e ls , in to an in d ic tm e n t o f the R o m a n e m p e ro r s and th eir g o d s ; f o r these d ig n ita rie s w e r e , J u s t in said , n o n e o th e r than the d e m o n o ffs p rin g o f the fa lle n a n g e ls.

A b o u t tw e n ty y ears a fte r Ju s t in had b een b e h e a d e d f o r re fu s in g to w o rs h ip the R o m a n g o d s , C le m e n t o f A le x a n d r ia to o k the state­ m en t that G o d had c reated hu m an ity in his im a g e as e v id e n c e o f hum an e q u a lity — and as an in d ictm en t o f the im p e r ia l cult. F ro m such b e g in n in g s , in o p e n d efia n ce o f the totalitarian R o m a n state,n eeaaa n n t r o d u c t i o nh T +! e ! - $h # ! & ! B "h " + ! T ! h"" + - h - $ T ! & e ! B & ! $ ! " h ! B ! - ! "! T !h" + + ! ! T e h T + ! + ! # h $ ! + !h& $e h +!' ! e ! ! h V ! T B B h &! h P $ h T !"!"" " * h " "h- ! r ! ! " " " "! 8 $ h h T & h e & h * " $ T " $ " & h h T ! $ " ! " h" - ! ' , - & $ T h h % - ! +$ r T h # ! & ! h ! T ! - T B T U - ! - ! + T " e $& "$ ++! F O ! & ! & he ! ! "! ! F O T T r T ! $ T ! t T h e h T k # ! ! ) - ! T ! h ! # ! ! hT e !T - $ T e h ) ! !e B ) ! ! + $ " U H r ! ! " " 5 > = = I F o$ & P $ ! " "B h T ! $ T ! ! B u n d e m alum ( “ W h e n c e is e v i l ? ” ), w e r e , the C h ristia n w r it e r T e r t u llia n said , “ the q u estio n s that m a k e p e o p le h e r e t ic s .” In C h a p t e r 3 I e x p lo r e h o w so m e o f these fo llo w e r s o f Je s u s , o fte n c a lle d g n o stic s, read the sto ry o f A d a m and E v e in w a y s that d ism a y e d and o u t r a g e d o r t h o d o x C h ristian s. F o r g n o s tic C h ristian s d e c la r e d that the s to r y , taken lite ra lly , m ad e n o sen se; thus th ey t h e m se lv e s set o u t to read it sy m b o lic a lly , o fte n a lle g o r ic a lly . T h e m ost ra d ic a l g n o stic s turn ed the story u p sid e d o w n and told it, in e ffe c t, fr o m the s e r p e n t ’s p o in t o f v ie w : so m e said he w as “ w is e r ” than all the o th e r anim als and so tried d e sp e ra te ly to p e r s u a d e A d a m an d E v e to p a rta k e o f the tree o f k n o w le d g e , d e f y in g th e ir je a lo u s an d h o stile c r e a to r; this w ise se rp e n t, so m e d a re d say, w as a m a n ife s­ tation o f C h ris t h im se lf! O t h e r gn ostics read the sto ry o f A d a m and E v e as an a l l e g o r y o f r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , as r e l a t i n g th e d i s c o v e r y o f the au th en tic sp iritu al s e lf ( E v e ) h id d e n w ith in the so u l ( A d a m ) .

T h e g n o s t ic a u th o r o f the In terp reta tio n o f the S o u l saw E v e as r e p r e ­ s e n tin g th e alie n a te d soul s e e k in g spiritu al u n io n ; the a u th o r o f T h u n d e r : Perfect M i n d saw h e r as the d iv in e e n e r g y u n d e r ly in g ail e x is t e n c e , h u m an and d iv in e . G n o s tic C h ristian s, w h o d is a g r e e d w ith o n e a n o th e r on a lm o st e v e r y t h in g e lse , a g re e d that this n a iv e sto ry hid p r o fo u n d truths a b o u t hum an n a tu re , and th ey v ie d w ith o n e a n o th e r to c o m e u p with in g e n io u s and im a g in a tiv e in te rp re ta tio n s o f its d e e p e r m e a n in g .

L e a d e r s o f th e ch u rch w h o c alled th e m se lv e s o r t h o d o x ( lit e r a lly , “ stra ig h t-th in k in g ” ) C h ristian s d e n o u n c e d such in te rp re ta tio n s and a c c u se d g n o stic s o f p r o je c t in g th eir o w n b iz a rre fan tasies u p o n the te xt. A b o v e all, th ey said, g n o stic C h ristian s d e n y th e p r im a r y re a lity o f the G e n e s is acco u n t— n a m e ly , that it d ep icts h u m a n ity c re a te d m o r a lly f r e e and e n tru ste d w ith fr e e w ill. G n o s tic C h ris tia n s, w h o d e n ie d that the h u m an w ill has the p o w e r to p r e v e n t e r r o r andn e e a s n n t r o d u c t i o n"$ ++! B h" T ! ! T B !++!&B h h "e +$ T ! # ! " $" + e " h T " $ ++! h T ! " ! " $ e h + ! ! T e B h T + " ! h " B h e ! " B ! "& " - ! ! ! 8 ! ! T ! ! h T ! " + !

& $ & h T & " ! T # ' t " ! "h e # !e ! & ! h " h ! T & # ! " $ $ f e h " & ! T $ ! T h T + $ & ! $ ! "B " e ! + ! e " h T ! "h " ""!T h ! h V ! ! ! h ! " + ! ! T e ! e$" B ! $ & ! ! - T E E h T & " ! # ! h T & ! h & ' D &! h "h "B & ! h & - h" h - h + ! T! & f e h " &h +! ' I r ! ! " " 0%5B - ! ! J ! - " 7 h T e h " * h "B + h e h! 7 hT h "h- r T E" ! T " ! e ! + e h * h ! h T & ! h B h"&!& "h " "h- ! "! > t T h e h T k # ! - ! ! # " G h h T "! h T " $T h # ! ! e h ! T " 9 h" r ! * + n " " h ! 8 h ! T B r T & $ T h # ! h h ! T + ! $e h h& !

B e $ U & e ! ! "!8 $ h - h "B h" h ! " T ' d $ - ! ! f e h e ) B J # h B h $ e " ! + & ! h ! B !T # ! + e ! o & $ ! " h & ! h! "h " - ! ! ! h ! e h ! T ""! " h T ! "B J ! e ! B t e " ! B h T t $ $ " ! B ! ! +$ $ ! "h " + ! & $ & B hh&)!T e B - ! G ! o & $ " + f e ! T ! $ & ! T h T !8 & e e $ & h ! T J # h + " B ! ! " 'U I h ! 4 I ! 8 ! - h e #h!T e ! 7 h T ! " ! & h - e ! 7 ! e h & ! h h"&!& +! 9 h T - h ) T " + + ! ! T e " h T # & h ! " T T T ! ! T + T & " & ! h & ' D e !"! ! 8 h " I &he ! "!! h + ! h ! + " + $ $ T ! T ! h " + $ ! h B "h " ! h T ! T free d o m as the p rim a ry m e ssa g e o f G e n e s is 1 - 3 — fre e d o m in its m an y fo rm s, in c lu d ­ in g fr e e w ill, fr e e d o m fro m d e m o n ic p o w e r s , fr e e d o m fro m social and se x u a l o b lig a tio n s , fre e d o m fro m tyran n ical g o v e r n m e n t and fro m fa te ; and self-m astery as the so u rce o f such fr e e d o m . W ith A u g u s t in e , as I sh o w in C h a p te r 5, this m essa g e c h a n g e d . In the late fo u rth c e n tu ry , A u g u s t in e w as liv in g in an e n tir e ly d iffe r e n t C h r is ­ tian w o r ld — o n e that Ju s t in and his c o n te m p o ra rie s c o u ld h a rd ly h ave im a g in e d — fo r C h ristian ity w as no lo n g e r a d issid e n t sect. T h e C h ristian m o v e m e n t, h a v in g b een o p p re sse d and p e rse c u te d by R o m e fo r so m e th re e h u n d re d y e a rs, o v e r s e v e ra l g e n e r a tio n s , w ith C o n s t a n tin e ’ s c o n v e r s io n in 313, cam e in to im p e r ia l f a v o r an d, t h ro u g h o u t the la te r fo u rth c e n tu ry , c o n so lid a te d its n e w p o sitio n as the official r e lig io n o f the e m p ire. C h ristian b ish o p s, o n c e ta rg e ts fo r a rre st, to r tu r e , and e x e c u tio n , n o w r e c e iv e d tax e x e m p t io n s , g ifts fro m the im p e ria l tre a su ry , p r e s tig e , and e v e n in flu e n c e at c o u rt; th e ir c h u rch es g a in e d n e w w e a lth , p o w e r , and p ro m in e n c e . S o m ex ees n n t r o d u c t i o n "h "B - & ! T !+h & h e ! T ! + ! ! T e h h " ! ! "! & $ "B - + $ T h ! T ! & 7 h T ! # ! ! h T h $ T ! " h T + $e h h$ ! h T " ! h " &h h T & h T ! 7 ! h ! T " ! - & &$ e "h &! B - & e hT ! !e h!" + ! ! e ! ' I h - T - & " * h " - ! ! + ! ! + - ! +h $ - ! ! ++& h ! & $ h ! T T " B t $ $ " ! &he ! !hT ! " + t T h e h T k # ! # ! T ++! ! h hT ! e h T + " J ! - " h T "h ! T ! & ! " " " ' O h ! hT !hT + & ! $ !" h" h " + $e h + ! ! T e ! & h e ! B " h T"B h " + $e h T h ! ' M " J ! - " h T "h " hT h ! ! T h r T h # ! $ e h ) T & ! h !

+ + e h + ! ! T e B h T h t T h e E" e "$ "! + $ T !h $ " ! ' d $ t $ $ " ! - ! +$ ! > t T h e E " " &h$ "!T $ e h $ & " $" $ e h + ! ! T e B ! # ! " & $ ! T $ ! 8 ! ! & ! + "! 8 $ h H- & t $ $ " ! ! T ! T T ! + - h " IB h T e hT! $" &h h ! + ! $ ! & h + ! ! T e ' D $ ! e ! B t $ $ " ! !hT h&) G h $ E " !! " " - ! h & + ! e h e ! & ! + ! $e h - B4 h - " "! 8 $ h V ! T ! !h + " ' t $ $ " ! E" ! + h " # ! T & h ! 8 ! T ! B " &! ! "$ h T ! T e h + " & ! e h ! " h $e h ! " $ # ! " h !!T ! 8 ! h # ! e ! 7 - & e ! h B ! & h"!B h "h "h! h T h e ! h "$ ! T & $ & 7 $ h" ++! ! T h h h "" + $e h h$ ! h ! & h e ! B + ! ! h T - " ! B ! ! h ! + h "$ "!P $ ! ! ! h " + - ! " ! " * h " h T ! e h T +$ ! &! ! " & & h h T & h ) ' k # ! T h B e h ! ! B h & " h T G ! "h " h ) ! B ! h T ! " + t T h e h T k # ! h" # $ h " e $ " - h " ' 3 $ t $ $ " ! E " - +! e ! B h" - ! " h "! ! B # h * $ " "h " T! & ! T " hT&h ! B h T ! " ! & !"! T 9 $ - ! !8 +! - ! ! h " B "h " - ! T e ! hT h # ! - " + $e h + ! ! T e - ! ! ! e "! # ! " & T ! e ! T h" ! !&"' t $ $ " ! " ! ! h" - ! # ! ! h " + " +! h + " ! ! h + r ! ! " " hh " h $ "h " B J $ h + k & h $ e B - hh&)!T h T & &V!T " ! + h " h" h h $ T ! h $ ! + e T 8 "h $ $ h" M h & h ! h ! ! " B ! # ! ! ! " h t $ $ " ! hT & ! h T * e ! T h T h ! hh&)!T' O ! J $ h & h ! ! T t $ $ " ! T ! + ! - h " B h $ ! U 7 $e h h$ ! h T h $ ! ! ! h 7 t $ $ " ! ! ! T h e h h T "! 8 $ h T ! " ! h ! B h $ h U 9 ! ! " h n t r o d u c t i o n B ! """B ! ! ! T $e h ! 8 ! ! & ! $ " t T h e E " " ' h ! ; & "T ! " " T ! h ! ! h $ ! + h$ !

h T "$ ! "" - h " - & t $ $ " ! E" # ! - " 7 h h$ h h T ! # ! ! " ! $ " h" ! - h ! h e h ! h T ! "7 ! # ! ! ! " " ! * &he ! T ! ! ! T $ &$ $ h h$T!" - h T " $ ++! h T T!h' u ! + e & ! h $ ! " B e "$ T ! "h T ! # ! - ! * "! !T ! ! h T e ! # $ " ) B T h e G no stic Gospels, has o b ­ je cte d that r e lig io u s id eas cannot b e re d u c e d to p ractical ( o r , in his w o r d s , p o litic a l) a g e n d a s. O n this I w h o le h e a r t e d ly a g r e e w ith him .

I am n ot s a y in g that re lig io u s ideas a re n o th in g b u t a c o v e r f o r p o litical m o tiv e s , as if, fo r e x a m p le , C h ristian s in the fo u rth c e n tu ry first c h o se to jo in fo rc e s w ith the R o m a n state and then a d o p te d the d o c trin e o f o r ig in a l sin to ju stify th eir n e w p o litic a l d ire c tio n . I n ­ stead , I in ten d to sh o w that re lig io u s in sigh ts and m o ra l c h o ic e s, in actual e x p e r ie n c e , c o in c id e with p ractical o n e s. S c h o la rs and t h e o lo ­ g ia n s m ay se p a ra te them th e o retic a lly , but at the cost o f d is to rtin g o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g : in o u r actual e x p e r ie n c e — as in that o f C h ristia n s in the first f o u r c en tu ries— m oral c h o ices o fte n a re p o litic a l c h o ice s.

A n act o f r e lig io u s affirm ation is a lw ay s, in so m e sen se, a p rac tic al and c o n se q u e n tia l act.

S o m e re a d e rs m ay ask, “ A r e y o u s a y in g , th e n , that b ib lica l in te rp re ta tio n is n o th in g but p ro je c tio n ? Is exegesis (w h a t o n e re a d s o u t o f the te x t) m e r e ly eisegesis (r e a d in g in to the t e x t ) ? ” C e r t a in ly not; but a n y o n e c o n c e rn e d w ith the h isto ry o f h e rm e n e u tic s c o n ­ fro n ts the q u e stio n o f in te rp re ta tio n , a q u e stio n b ib lic a l in te rp re te r s sh are w ith la w y e rs w h o d e b a te the m ean in g o f the C o n stitu tio n , w ith psychiatrists as th ey re fle c t u pon th eir in te rp re ta tio n o f case h isto rie s, and w ith a n th ro p o lo g is ts and historians w h o p o n d e r th e ir data. W h at I am th in k in g o f is w h a t the a n th ro p o lo g is t F o u c a u lt calls “ the p o li­ tics o f tru th ” — that is, that w hat each o f us p e r c e iv e s and acts u p o n as tru e has m uch to d o w ith o u r situation , social, p o litic a l, c u ltu ra l, re lig io u s , o r p h ilo so p h ica l.

T h o s e w h o a re u n fam iliar w ith b ib lical in te rp re ta tio n o r c y n ic al a b o u t it m ay assu m e that the c o n tro v e rs ie s and d i v e r g i n g in te r p r e ta ­ tions d e sc rib e d h e r e m e re ly con firm w h at th ey h a v e su sp ected all a lo n g : that b ib lica l in te rp re ta tio n is no m o r e than id e o lo g y u n d e r a d iffe re n t n am e. Y e t th o se w h o se rio u s ly c o n fro n t the B i b l e w ill r e a liz e that g e n u in e in terp reta tio n has alw a y s r e q u ir e d that the r e a d e r a c tiv e ly and im a g in a tiv e ly e n g a g e the texts. T h r o u g h the p ro c e ss o f in te rp re ta tio n , the r e a d e r ’ s liv in g e x p e r ie n c e c o m e s to b en e e s aa n n t r o d u c t i o n- # ! h & ! !8"B " h - h - h" B T ! h T ! ! U h h & e ! " +! ' O h I ! T " - " ) " - & ! h T !h"7 h & $ h B T ! h " & & ! " ! 8 $ h B e h + ! ! T e B h T $ e h # h $ ! 7 ) ! T ! + # ! + e T $ ! + " + $ & ! $ ! " h" ! ! h " + ! r ! ! " " & ! h " !"B h T - ! h # ! & $ ! T h++!& $ & $ $ ! h T ! # ! ! B " h B ! # ! " &!' !! " hhh