Answer the following questions
Introduction: A Treatise on Government, by Aristotle
Aristotle was born in 384 BCE and died in 322, living to be 62. He developed a systematic
catalog of living and nonliving things. He wrote many books. Aristotle also founded a school and
called it the Lyceum . Later Aristotle became the teacher of Alexander the Great, who conquered
everything from Egypt to India. This allowed Greek philosophy, books, art a nd literature to
spread throughout much of the world. This spreading of Greek ideas is called Hellenism.
Translated From The Greek By William Ellis, A.M. First Issue Of This Edition 1912
While completing this reading, you should think about the following q uestions. Similar or related
questions may be included in the module assignment, discussion, and quiz.
What happens to a person who becomes obsessed with getting money?
What is the difference between efficient use of money and being a “money seeker?”
If mo ney is not “true riches”, what is?
Aside from the moral issues, what is the function of money in a society? What does it do
for us?
How can wealth ever make someone unhappy?
Who was King Midas?
What are money’s proper and improper uses?
How is poverty the same thing as being without money?
When is it wise to speculate (or gamble) with one’s money?
In order to improve your comprehension of this reading, study the following words and their
definitions. You will be responsible for knowing these words as part of the module quiz. Deeper
explanations are available in the [link to glossary] Course Glossary Tab.
Vocabulary
Words Definition
Tokos Classical Greek for the breeding or spreading of money, Profit seeking, greed,
avarice, ambition
Money -getting Profit seeking, greed, avarice, ambition
Natural Economy Doing things natural for natural reasons, not to get rich
True Riches Ample supply of necessary things, not money
Natural
Acquisition Doing things natural for natural reasons, not to get rich
Pecuniary
Acquisition Profit seeking, greed, avarice, ambition
Usury Interest charged for a loan, considered sinful in most ancient cultures
Midas Fabled king who turned everything to gold by touching it, not realising he
would sooner or later touch someone he loved
Reading: A Treatise on Government, by Aristotle
CHAPTER VIII
As a slave is a particular species of property, let us by all means inquire into the nature of
property in general, and the acquisition of money, according to the manner we have proposed. In
the first place then, some one may doubt whether the getting of m oney is the same thing as
economy1, or whether it is a part of it, or something subservient to it; and if so, whether it is as
the art of making shuttles is to the art of weaving, or the art of making brass to that of statue
founding, for they are not of t he same service; for the one supplies the tools, the other the matter:
by the matter I mean the subject out of which the work is finished, as wool for the cloth and
brass for the statue. It is evident then that the getting of money is not the same thing as economy,
for the business of the one is to furnish the means of the other to use them; and what art is there
employed in the management of a family but economy, but whether this is a part of it, or
something of a different species, is a doubt; for if it i s the business of him who is to get money to
find out how riches and possessions may be procured, and both these arise from various causes,
we must first inquire whether the art of husbandry is part of money -getting or something
different, and in general, whether the same is not true of every acquisition and every attention
which relates to provision. But as there are many sorts of provision, so are the methods of living
both of man and the brute creation very various; and as it is impossible to live withou t food, the
difference in that particular makes the lives of animals so different from each other. Of beasts,
some live in herds, others separate, as is most convenient for procuring themselves food; as some
of them live upon flesh, others on fruit, and ot hers on whatsoever they light on, nature having so
distinguished their course of life, that they can very easily procure themselves subsistence; and
as the same things are not agreeable to all, but one animal likes one thing and another another, it
follows that the lives of those beasts who live upon flesh must be different from the lives of those
who live on fruits; so is it with men, their lives differ greatly from each other; and of all these the
shepherd's is the idlest, for they live upon the flesh of tame animals, without any trouble, while
they are obliged to change their habitations on account of their flocks, which they are compelled
to follow, cultivating, as it were, a living farm. Others live exercising violence over living
creatures, one pursuin g this thing, another that, these preying upon men; those who live near
lakes and marshes and rivers, or the sea itself, on fishing, while others are fowlers, or hunters of
wild beasts; but the greater part of mankind live upon the produce of the earth and its cultivated
fruits; and the manner in which all those live who follow the direction of nature, and labour for
their own subsistence, is nearly the same, without ever thinking to procure any provision by way
of exchange or merchandise, such are shepherd s, husbandmen, robbers, fishermen, and hunters:
some join different employments together, and thus live very agreeably; supplying those
deficiencies which were wanting to make their subsistence depend upon themselves only: thus,
for instance, the same pers on shall be a shepherd and a robber, or a husbandman and a hunter;
and so with respect to the rest, they pursue that mode of life which necessity points out. This
provision then nature herself seems to have furnished all animals with, as well immediately u pon
their first origin as also when they are arrived at a state of maturity; for at the first of these
periods some of them are provided in the womb with proper nourishment, which continues till
that which is born can get food for itself, as is the case wi th worms and birds; and as to those
which bring forth their young alive, they have the means for their subsistence for a certain time
within themselves, namely milk. It is evident then that we may conclude of those things that are, that plants are created for the sake of animals, and animals for the sake of men; the tame for our
use and provision; the wild, at least the greater part, for our provision also, or for some other
advantageous purpose, as furnishing us with clothes, and the like. As nature theref ore makes
nothing either imperfect or in vain, it necessarily follows that she has made all these things for
men: for which reason what we gain in war is in a certain degree a natural acquisition; for
hunting is a part of it, which it is necessary for us t o employ against wild beasts; and those men
who being intended by nature for slavery are unwilling to submit to it, on which occasion such a
war is by nature just: that species of acquisition then only which is according to nature is part of
economy; and t his ought to be at hand, or if not, immediately procured, namely, what is
necessary to be kept in store to live upon, and which are useful as well for the state as the family.
And true riches seem to consist in these; and the acquisition of those possessio ns which are
necessary for a happy life is not infinite; though Solon says otherwise in this verse:
"No bounds to riches can be fixed for man;"
for they may be fixed as in other arts; for the instruments of no art whatsoever are infinite, either
in their n umber or their magnitude; but riches are a number of instruments in domestic and civil
economy; it is therefore evident that the acquisition of certain things according to nature is a part
both of domestic and civil economy, and for what reason.
CHAPTER IX
There is also another species of acquisition which they particularly call pecuniary , and with
great propriety; and by this indeed it seems that there are no bounds to riches and wealth. Now
many persons suppose, from their near relation to each other, tha t this is one and the same with
that we have just mentioned, but it is not the same as that, though not very different; one of these
is natural, the other is not, but rather owing to some art and skill; we will enter into a particular
examination of this s ubject. The uses of every possession are two, both dependent upon the thing
itself, but not in the same manner, the one supposing an inseparable connection with it, the other
not; as a shoe, for instance, which may be either worn, or exchanged for somethin g else, both
these are the uses of the shoe; for he who exchanges a shoe with some man who wants one, for
money or provisions, uses the shoe as a shoe, but not according to the original intention, for
shoes were not at first made to be exchanged. The same thing holds true of all other possessions;
for barter, in general, had its original beginning in nature, some men having a surplus, others too
little of what was necessary for them: hence it is evident, that the selling provisions for money is
not accordin g to the natural use of things; for they were obliged to use barter for those things
which they wanted; but it is plain that barter could have no place in the first, that is to say, in
family society; but must have begun when the number of those who compos ed the community
was enlarged: for the first of these had all things in common; but when they came to be separated
they were obliged to exchange with each other many different things which both parties wanted.
Which custom of barter is still preserved amon gst many barbarous nations, who procure one
necessary with another, but never sell anything; as giving and receiving wine for corn and the
like. This sort of barter is not contradictory to nature, nor is it any species of money -getting; but
is necessary in procuring that subsistence which is so consonant thereunto. But this barter
introduced the use of money, as might be expected; for a convenient place from whence to
import what you wanted, or to export what you had a surplus of, being often at a great dis tance, money necessarily made its way into commerce; for it is not everything which is naturally most
useful that is easiest of carriage; for which reason they invented something to exchange with
each other which they should mutually give and take, that be ing really valuable itself, should
have the additional advantage of being of easy conveyance, for the purposes of life, as iron and
silver, or anything else of the same nature: and this at first passed in value simply according to its
weight or size; but i n process of time it had a certain stamp, to save the trouble of weighing,
which stamp expressed its value.
Money then being established as the necessary medium of exchange, another species of money -
getting soon took place, namely, by buying and selling, a t probably first in a simple manner,
afterwards with more skill and experience, where and how the greatest profits might be made.
For which reason the art of money -getting seems to be chiefly conversant about trade, and the
business of it to be able to tel l where the greatest profits can be made, being the means of
procuring abundance of wealth and possessions: and thus wealth is very often supposed to
consist in the quantity of money which any one possesses, as this is the medium by which all
trade is cond ucted and a fortune made, others again regard it as of no value, as being of none by
nature, but arbitrarily made so by compact; so that if those who use it should alter their
sentiments, it would be worth nothing, as being of no service for any necessary purpose. Besides,
he who abounds in money often wants necessary food; and it is impossible to say that any person
is in good circumstances when with all his possessions he may perish with hunger.
Like Midas in the fable, who from his insatiable wish had ev erything he touched turned into
gold.
For which reason others endeavour to procure other riches and other property, and rightly, for
there are other riches and property in nature; and these are the proper objects of economy: while
trade only procures mone y, not by all means, but by the exchange of it, and for that purpose it is
this which it is chiefly employed about, for money is the first principle and the end of trade; nor
are there any bounds to be set to what is thereby acquired. Thus also there are n o limits to the art
of medicine, with respect to the health which it attempts to procure; the same also is true of all
other arts; no line can be drawn to terminate their bounds, the several professors of them being
desirous to extend them as far as possib le. (But still the means to be employed for that purpose
are limited; and these are the limits beyond which the art cannot proceed.) Thus in the art of
acquiring riches there are no limits, for the object of that is money and possessions; but economy
has a boundary, though this has not: for acquiring riches is not the business of that, for which
reason it should seem that some boundary should be set to riches, though we see the contrary to
this is what is practised; for all those who get riches add to their money without end; the cause of
which is the near connection of these two arts with each other, which sometimes occasions the
one to change employments with the other, as getting of money is their common object: for
economy requires the possession of weal th, but not on its own account but with another view, to
purchase things necessary therewith; but the other procures it merely to increase it: so that some
persons are confirmed in their belief, that this is the proper object of economy, and think that for
this purpose money should be saved and hoarded up without end; the reason for which
disposition is, that they are intent upon living, but not upon living well; and this desire being
boundless in its extent, the means which they aim at for that purpose are boundless also; and
those who propose to live well, often confine that to the enjoyment of the pleasures of sense; so that as this also seems to depend upon what a man has, all their care is to get money, and hence
arises the other cause for this art; for as this enjoyment is excessive in its degree, they endeavour
to procure means proportionate to supply it; and if they cannot do this merely by the art of
dealing in money, they will endeavour to do it by other ways, and apply all their powers to a
purpose they were not by nature intended for. Thus, for instance, courage was intended to inspire
fortitude, not to get money by; neither is this the end of the soldier's or the physician's art, but
victory and health. But such persons make everything subservient to money -getting, as if this
was the only end; and to the end everything ought to refer.
We have now considered that art of money -getting which is not necessary, and have seen in what
manner we became in want of it; and also that which is necessary, which is different from it; for
that economy which is natural , and whose object is to provide food, is not like this unlimited in
its extent, but has its bounds.
CHAPTER X
We have now determined what was before doubtful, whether or not the art of getting money is
his business who is at the head of a family or a state, and though not strictly so, it is however
very necessary; for as a politician does not make men, but receiving them from the hand of
nature employs them to proper purposes; thus the earth, or the s ea, or something else ought to
supply them with provisions, and this it is the business of the master of the family to manage
properly; for it is not the weaver's business to make yarn, but to use it, and to distinguish what is
good and useful from what is bad and of no service; and indeed some one may inquire why
getting money should be a part of economy when the art of healing is not, as it is as requisite that
the family should be in health as that they should eat, or have anything else which is necessar y;
and as it is indeed in some particulars the business both of the master of the family, and he to
whom the government of the state is entrusted, to see after the health of those under their care,
but in others not, but the physician's; so also as to mone y; in some respects it is the business of
the master of the family, in others not, but of the servant; but as we have already said, it is
chiefly nature, for it is her part to supply her offspring with food; for everything finds
nourishment left for it in what produced it; for which reason the natural riches of all men arise
from fruits and animals. Now money -making, as we say, being twofold, it may be applied to two
purposes, the service of the house or retail trade; of which the first is necessary and
com mendable, the other justly censurable; for it has not its origin in nature, but by it men gain
from each other; for usury is most reasonably detested, as it is increasing our fortune by money
itself, and not employing it for the purpose it was originally i ntended, namely exchange.
And this is the explanation of the name ( TOKOS ), which means the breeding of money. For as
offspring resemble their parents, so usury is money bred of money. Whence of all forms of
money -making it is most against nature.
CHAPTER X I
Having already sufficiently considered the general principles of this subject, let us now go into
the practical part thereof; the one is a liberal employment for the mind, the other necessary. These things are useful in the management of one's affairs; t o be skilful in the nature of cattle,
which are most profitable, and where, and how; as for instance, what advantage will arise from
keeping horses, or oxen, or sheep, or any other livestock; it is also necessary to be acquainted
with the comparative value of these things, and which of them in particular places are worth
most; for some do better in one place, some in another. Agriculture also should be understood,
and the management of arable grounds and orchards; and also the care of bees, and fish, and
birds, from whence any profit may arise; these are the first and most proper parts of domestic
management.
With respect to gaining money by exchange, the principal method of doing this is by
merchandise, which is carried on in three different ways, either by sending the commodity for
sale by sea or by land, or else selling it on the place where it grows; and these differ from each
other in this, that the one is more profitable, the other safer. The second method is by usury. The
third by receiving wages for w ork done, and this either by being employed in some mean art, or
else in mere bodily labour. There is also a third species of improving a fortune, that is something
between this and the first; for it partly depends upon nature, partly upon exchange; the su bject of
which is, things that are immediately from the earth, or their produce, which, though they bear no
fruit, are yet useful, such as selling of timber and the whole art of metallurgy, which includes
many different species, for there are various sorts of things dug out of the earth.
These we have now mentioned in general, but to enter into particulars concerning each of them,
though it might be useful to the artist, would be tiresome to dwell on. Now of all the works of
art, those are the most excellen t wherein chance has the least to do, and those are the meanest
which deprave the body, those the most servile in which bodily strength alone is chiefly wanted,
those most illiberal which require least skill; but as there are books written on these subject s by
some persons, as by Chares the Panian, and Apollodorus the Lemnian, upon husbandry and
planting; and by others on other matters, let those who have occasion consult them thereon;
besides, every person should collect together whatsoever he hears occasi onally mentioned, by
means of which many of those who aimed at making a fortune have succeeded in their
intentions; for all these are useful to those who make a point of getting money, as in the
contrivance of Thales the Milesian (which was certainly a gai nful one, but as it was his it was
attributed to his wisdom, though the method he used was a general one, and would universally
succeed), when they reviled him for his poverty, as if the study of philosophy was useless: for
they say that he, perceiving by his skill in astrology that there would be great plenty of olives
that year, while it was yet winter, having got a little money, he gave earnest for all the oil works
that were in Miletus and Chios, which he hired at a low price, there being no one to bid against
him; but when the season came for making oil, many persons wanting them, he all at once let
them upon what terms he pleased; and raising a large sum of money by that means, convinced
them that it was easy for philosophers to be rich if they chose i t, but that that was not what they
aimed at; in this manner is Thales said to have shown his wisdom.
It indeed is, as we have said, generally gainful for a person to Did contrive to make a monopoly
of anything; for which reason some cities also take this method when they want money, and
monopolise their commodities. There was a certain person in Sicily who laid out a sum of money
which was deposited in his hand in buying up all the iron from the iron merchants; so that when
the dealers came from the market s to purchase, there was no one had any to sell but himself; and though he put no great advance upon it, yet by laying out fifty talents he made an hundred. When
Dionysius heard this he permitted him to take his money with him, but forbid him to continue
any longer in Sicily, as being one who contrived means for getting money inconsistent with his
affairs. This man's view and Thales's was exactly the same; both of them contrived to procure a
monopoly for themselves: it is useful also for politicians to unde rstand these things, for many
states want to raise money and by such means, as well as private families, nay more so; for
which reason some persons who are employed in the management of public affairs confine
themselves to this province only.
CHAPTER XII
There are then three parts of domestic government, the masters, of which we have already
treated, the fathers, and the husbands; now the government of the wife and children should both
be that of free persons, but not the same; for the wife should be treate d as a citizen of a free state,
the children should be under kingly power; for the male is by nature superior to the female,
except when something happens contrary to the usual course of nature, as is the elder and perfect
to the younger and imperfect. Now in the generality of free states, the governors and the
governed alternately change place; for an equality without any preference is what nature
chooses; however, when one governs and another is governed, she endeavours that there should
be a distinction between them in forms, expressions, and honours; according to what Amasis said
of his lover. This then should be the established rule between the man and the woman. The
government of children should be kingly; for the power of the father over the child is founded in
affection and seniority, which is a species of kingly government; for which reason Homer very
properly calls Zeus "the father of gods and men," who was king of both these; for nature requires
that a king should be of the same species with those whom he governs, though superior in some
particulars, as is the case between the elder and the younger, the father and the son.
CHAPTER XIII
It is evident then that in the due government of a family, greater attention should be paid to the
several members of it and their virtues than to the possessions or riches of it; and greater to the
freemen than the slaves.
[ . . .]
Notes
1. “Economy” meant something different when this was translated into English. Here the
word seems to mean “economical,” “efficient,” o r “money -saving”. The point seems to
be that there is a difference between making efficient use of money and becoming a
money -seeker. - E.G. Engh
Your assignment. PART A: Ten Vocabulary words. As you read the text above select 10 vocabulary words
(minimum). You select the words new to you, or words used in a way new to you. List each word and
then a definition that fits the usage of the word. Look up the definition in an academic dictionary (such as
Oxford or Miriam Webster's New Collegiate , but not Google.) Then write the definition IN YOUR OWN
WORDS. Select as many vocabulary words as needed to fill up the requirement of 10.
PART B: Answer the following questions. Do NOT retype the question.
1. Explain who Aristotle was. When and where did he live? What influence did he have on intellectual
traditions of the world? [Hint: see the link at the very top of the reading. ]
2. According to Aristotle, what are the two kinds of arts of acquisition?
3. What is the difference between necessit ies and wants? Which is the basis of wealth, needs or wants: and
how is wealth measured?
4. Explain the two kinds of value that goods can offer people.
5. The arts of acquisition, explain how some are bounded and some unlimited?
6. What is usury, and why is it a problem?
7. Aristotle says it is easy for philosophers to get wealth. If so, why do they not do it more
frequently? Explain this in your own words.
8. Aristotle has a lengthy passage on the benefits of monopolies. In our socie ty we consider monopolies to be
bad for society. Explain in your own words what Aristotle means. [Hint: the passage is highlighted in this
color.]
9. What is the appropriate role of a woman in a family, according to Aristotle? Explain where this role
origi nates, where it comes from.
10. What is the appropriate role of a woman in a family really? Explain where the appropriate role comes
from, where it originates? How do you know if your view of "appropriate" is correct?
11. How do you reconcile the difference betw een gender roles in Aristotle's time and today?
12. What will gender roles be in the future? [Forget for the minute that many local people have a religious
view that the world will come to an end and thus none of this matters: please set that aside. Imagin e that
society will continue indefinitely, not merely for another 30 years (for your career to occur from beginning
to end). Imagine society in 1000 years.] What will gender roles be in the future?
13. What is Aristotle's view of children in a family? Where does this come from?
14. What is the contemporary role of children, are they still considered property of a king? Is this what
modern law says? Explain yourself?