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Pag e 91 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 THE EFFECTS OF A SER VICE -LEARNING INTRODUCTORY DIVERSI TY COURSE ON PRE - SERVICE TEACHERS’ AT TITUDES TOWARD TEACHING DIVERSE STUDENT POPU LATIONS D awn Lucas, Pfeiffer University Bradford Frazier, Pfeiffer University ABSTRACT The present study examines the impact of a service -based course in diversity on pre - service teachers attitudes toward the inclusion of diverse lea rners (special needs students) in the general classroom. We survey 110 students enrolled in the Teacher Education Program, or who have declared it their major program of study, at a private Southern liberal arts university. The instrument, Opinions Relati ve to Integration (ORI), measures pre -service teachers’ attitudes toward including disabled students in the general education classroom. The findings in our study indicate an introductory class has impact in improving a pre -service teachers’ attitude towa rd the inclusion of diverse learners, specifically students with disabilities, in the general education classroom. However, according to review of literature, this factor is not enough to improve the achievement levels of diverse learners whom are taught in the general classroom. Our findings are useful to academicians and educational professionals who are interested in the attitudes and dispositions of teacher candidates as they relate to diverse learners, and improved curricula to better prepare studen ts for the inclusive classroom they will face upon graduation. INTRODUCTION In recent years a top priority within national educational policy has been teacher quality. How to best prepare teachers to meet the needs of the changing classroom continues to be a topic of discussion in schools of education across the country. With the changing face of America’s public schools, teachers are being asked to produce more with less. Pre -service teachers must be armed with the tools necessary for addressing the in crea sing diversity within the public school classroom. The number of students with disabilities receiving a majority of their education in the general education classroom has also dramatically increased. According to the Twenty -seventh Annual Report to Co ngress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Page 92 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 Act (United States Department of Education, 2003), in 2003 ninety -six percent of students with disabilities were served in schools that served general education students. Of these students, just about half (49.9%) were educated for most of their school day , or 79% of the day, in the general education classroom . The inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms comes at a time when teachers are feeling the pressure from the reauthorization of No Child Left Behind to raise students’ achievement levels in various subject areas. The trend with inclusive educational practices due to the IDEA requirements for least restrictive environment s suggests that students with multiple disabilities will be increasingly present in the general education classro om (Byrnes, 2008). The public demand for better K -12 teaching has forced teacher education programs to review their role i n enhancing teacher quality. While d efining teacher quality has been problematic and vague , three terms are used in the l iterature : highly qualified, effective teacher, and, good teacher , none of which adequately summarize the complexity of teacher quality (Liston, Borko, & Whitcomb, 2008). W ithi n the context of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation, the Federal government defines the term highly qualified teacher as a teacher who has a bach elor’s degree, a state teaching certification or a passing score on the state teacher licensing examin ation, and documented subject matter knowledge (Hess & Petrelli, 2006). Criti ques argue that this definition focuses only on teacher cha racteristics and qualifications, sets a minimum for teacher knowledge , but places no regard on teacher practice (Listo n et al. , 2008). The term effective teacher generally refers to teachers’ impact on student achievement. Again, within the context of No Child Left Behind, teacher effectiveness is defined as “teachers’ ability to improve student achievement as measured on standardized tests” (Commission on No Child Left Behind, 2007). This focus on achievement outcomes is a shift from the definition of teacher quality that focused on qualifications. Perhaps the term good teacher , as vague and common as it is, describes what teacher education programs identify with most closely when determining teacher quality. Good teaching, grounded in teaching practices, describe the facilitator (the teacher) as one who connects learners with the world a round them including the ideas and the people, ultimately shaping the lives of the learners. A good teacher is passionate, views students as a resource, is engaged, attentive and participating and at the same time holds the student accountable for learning and understanding the inform ation (Liston et. al, 2008). The terms good teacher/teaching and effective teacher/teaching will be used interchangeably in this discussion . The reader can assume that, based on the characteristics described previously, an effective teacher/teaching is synonymous with a good teacher/ teaching . High stake s testing and performance results are readily available to the public, and when the general public sees unfavorable results, the immediate response is to question teacher quality. Is it possible for teac her education programs to identify students who are predisposed to become good teachers? Until recently the term “dispositions” was rarely used in teacher education. In Pag e 93 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 the 1980’s and 1990’s information from attitudinal surveys suggested that a caring at titude was necessary in order for a teacher to be a good teacher (Helm, 2006). With the current accountability system measuring teacher effectiveness with qualification and test scores, it appears as though we are risking the very core of what it means to be a good teacher. Wayda and Lund (2005) developed rubrics to address students’ suitability for pursuing a teaching career. The key dispositions identified are similar to the principles of the servant leader. The dispositions primarily identified are ca ring, kindness, integrity, initiative, and skill development. In addition, Armistine (1990) identified other key dispositions necessary for the pre -service teacher to be successful in the classroom; fairness, decency, service, pro -social behavior, honest, humility, trust, empathy, healing, and a sense of community. Therefore, based on the literature, the dispositions necessary for pre -service teachers to become effective teachers, or good teachers , are directly correlated to that of the servant leader. Empirical evidence suggests that a teacher’s dispositions are as important for student achievement as pedagogical and content knowledge and skills (Singh & Stoloff, 2008). The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and Interstate Ne w Teachers Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) require that teacher preparation programs assess the dispositions of their teacher candidates when determining their effectiveness. The change in dem ographics of public school students, coupled with t he position accrediting bodies take on the importance pre -service teachers’ dispositions, has motivated teacher education programs to change how teacher preparation is being facilitated (Hammerne ss, 2006). The increased inclusion of diverse learners in the general classroom and the re search involving the exploration of teachers’ attitudes regarding the academic achievement of diverse students in inclusive classrooms indicates that teacher education programs must, not only improv e pre -service teachers’ knowl edge of a wide range of disabilities, but also cultivat e positive and accepting attitudes toward inclusion. According to Delar Singh (2006) there is no sufficient empirical evidence to conclude that the needs of all children can be met in the general educ ation classroom . Y et there is evidence that suggests general education teachers do not believe they are fully prepared for the inclusion of students with disabilities. Because knowledge and skills in implementing inclusive practices for students with disa bilities are preceded by attitudes and beliefs, t eacher education programs must provide curriculum that the impact s pre - service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion of diverse learners . PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This study investigates the effects of service -based diversity training on pre -service teache rs’ attitude regarding the inclusion of diverse learners in the general education classroom. The purpose of this research project is to determine whether or not the offering of one service - based course in d iversity in a teacher education program at one university in North Carolina impacts pre -service teachers’ attitudes toward teaching diverse student populations in the general Page 94 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 education classroom. The intended outcomes of this research study are recommendat ions as to how to properly prepare pre -service teachers with regard to diverse learners. The dynamic field of education is counting on quality research o n teacher preparation in order to guide curriculum changes to meet the needs of pre -service teacher s and future students in our educational system. RESEARCH QUESTION The study was designed to answer the following research question: How does a one three -semester hour service -based introductory course in diversity affect pre -service teachers' atti tude to ward the inclusion of diverse learners in a general education classroom? Null Hypotheses as related to Research Question: 1. Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in diversity will not have significantly different attitu des toward inclusion of students with disabilities than those who do not participate in the course. 2. Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in diversity will not have significantly better understanding of the benefits of integration of students with disabilities in the general classroom than those who do not participate in the course. 3. Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in diversity will not have significantly different attitude s about integrated classroom behavior management than those who do not participate in the course. 4. Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in diversity will not have significantly different attitudes about their perceive d ability to teach students with disabilities than those who do not participate in the course. 5. Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in diversity will not have significantly different attitudes about the qualification s of general versus special educators teaching students with disabilities than those who do not participate in the course. IDENTIFICATION OF VA RIABLES AND DEFINITI ONS The requirements of this study included use of variables and other terms, which were used to formulate the purpose, research question, hypotheses, and methods for this study . 1. Diverse learners - This term served as the independent variable. Students who are formally identified under current IDEA legislations as having high -incidence dis abilities such as mildly intellectually disabled, learning disabled, or mildly emotionally disabled, as well as those having more severe learning challenges related to these three areas. 2. General Education Classroom - While this term is not a variable, it is critical to understanding the focus of this study. The general education classroom is the classroom Pag e 95 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 in which typically -developed students receive their education according to the state standards. In this study, the subject matter of the general educa tion classroom is not specified as participants in the study were enrolled in several different licensure areas. 3. Service -based introductory diversity course – the introductory course in diversity participation in an introductory course in diversity, whic h includes both course work and field experiences, is the independent variable in this study. The course is designed to give the students a broad base of knowledge and skills to work with diverse learners, both culturally diverse and disabled students. T he intent of the course is to improve pre - service teachers’ attitudes toward the inclusion of culturally diverse and disabled students in the general education classroom. The pre -service teacher will study the heritage and culture of high incidence ethni c groups and exceptionalities, as well as principles and strategies that are effective for diverse learners in a general education classroom. The service based portion of the course includes a minimum number of hours sp ent with diverse students in a scho ol setting, as well as participation in a group project based on the identified needs of the school. 4. Demographic Variables - The gender, age, and race of the participants was determined by self -report of the participants on a brief survey instrument. Al so, various aspects of the participants’ background were used as independent variables to control fo r the effect of these factors on the outcomes of the study. a. Gender was identified dichotomously as male or female. b. Age was identified as a ratio variable as number of years. c. Race was categorized as White/Caucasian, Black/African American, Hispanic/Latino, Native American, Asian, and other. Statistically the variable is defined dichotomously as White and Non -White. d. Licensure Area was identified categorical ly as the licensure area the student has declared on their official university record. The licensure areas include; Elementary Education, Special Education, Secondary Education, K -12 Health and Physical Education, and K -12 Music Education. Statistically licensure area is defined dichotomously as Elementary Education and other. e. Participation in the service based introductory course in diversity was identified dichotomously as the completion of EDUC 322 Diversity in Education (Yes or No) f. Participants were asked to identify nominally the number of classes completed in Education, Health and Physical Education, and Special Education over the 400 level. The level 400 is indicative of all methods courses that focus on pedagogical concepts in order to implement developmentally appropriate curriculum standards and concepts. All courses above the 400 level have field experiences included which are a minimum of 15 hours of practical teaching experience at local schools. Course catalogs that included the course li stings were provided for participants to identify classes they had completed at the time of the survey. Page 96 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 g. Background information was collected by identifying dichotomously whether or not the participant was exposed to diversity when growing up, ordinally b y income level when growing up, nominally where in the United States the participant grew up and finally dichotomously whether or not they were educated in a private or public k -12 setting. Participants were asked whether or not they were exposed to peopl e who were ethnically different than themselves, people with disabilities, and people with different socioeconomic status. If the participant answered yes to any of the above statements, they then identified how often (daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly) t his exposure occurred. Parental income was identified as ranges of annual income in intervals from less than $25,000 to more than $100,000. Sections of the United States were provided for the participant to identify where in the United States they grew u p or spent most of their life. Educational experience was determined by asking students if the majority of their K -12 experience was private school, public school or home school. LITERATURE REVIEW Diversity in Today’s General Education Classroom : With the recent emphasis on the globalization of America changing the face of our public schools, pre -service teachers must be armed with the tools necessary for dealing with the increasing diversity within the classrooms in schools. How to prepare teachers t o best deal with the growing diversity in their classrooms so that all students are educated equally is a question teacher education programs are faced with? Disabilities : Diverse learners also include students with disabilities. According to the U.S. Depa rtment of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2006), in the 2003 -2004 school year 13.7% of the entire United States school population had a disability identified under PL 93 -142, also known as Individual with Disabilities Education Act (ID EA). Of this 13.7%, over half (52%) were spending more than 80% included in the regular classroom (U.S.

Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007). As greater numbers of K -12 studen ts with disabilities are included in gene ral education classroom, it is imperative that all teachers develop attitudes and beliefs that are supportive of inclusion teaching practices. High -level beliefs about knowledge and learning, or epistemology beliefs play an important role in successful in clusive teaching (Silverman, 2007). Teachers with this high -level belief are more likely to persist in including students with disabilities fully into class activities (Cook, 2002). Therefore it seems more likely that students with disabilities whose te achers view them positively are more likely to thrive and succeed in general classroom settings. Schools across the United States are moving toward the inclusion of students with disabilities into the general education classroom. The Least Restrictive E nvironment (LRE) provision of Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) requires schools Pag e 97 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 to educate students with disabilities with their non -disabled peers to the greatest extent possible (Singh, 2006). According to the Twenty -sevent h Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (United States Department of Education, 2003), in 2003 ninety -six of students with disabilities were served in regular school bui ldings. Of these students , just about half (49.9%) were educated for most of their school day in the general education classroom. This means they were outside of their assigned general education classroom for less than 21% of the school day. The inclusion of students with disabi lities into general education classrooms comes at a time when teachers are feeling the pressure from the reauthorization of No Child Left Behind to raise students’ achievement levels in various subject areas. The trend with inclusive educational practices due to the IDEA requirements for LRE suggests that more students with multiple disabilities will be present in the general education classroom (Byrnes, 2008). This trend, coupled with the reality that more and more students in American classrooms are eth ically/racially and socio -economically diverse, requires that those entering the field of teaching are effective at facilitating complex material to a group of students with a wide -range of academic and social needs (Darling -Hammond, 2006). The Role of Teacher Education Programs : Teacher quality is at the center of policy discussions about public education in the United States. The role of the effectiveness of teacher education programs in developing high quality teachers has drawn attention in recent years. However, the teacher accountability movement began in the 1980s (Klein, 2008). These issues are pertinent not only because every child deserves to have quality teachers, but also because several initiatives have listed teacher quality as a major fa ctor in improving student achievement. Publications sparked by the teacher accountability movement include A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century by The Carnegie Task Force on Teaching (1986) and What Teachers Should Know and Be Able to Do by Th e National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) (1989) (Klein, 2008). Initiatives that brought national attention and focus to the effectiveness of teacher education programs include Federal mandates with the Tide II - Higher Education Act (HEA) (2001), Goals 2000: Educate America Act (1994), and the No Child Left Behind Act (2002) (Brewer, 2006). Increased public concern fueled by external mandates have brought about the changes in new content standards, changed university curricula, and state licensure requirements, and finally the increased emphasis on the identification and assessment of teacher dispositions (Klein, 2008). Teacher accountability and student achievement have forced teacher education programs across the country to evaluate existing programs and re -envision new programs that prepare teachers to be literate about the students they are teaching. How to best prepare teachers to meet the demands of the changing area of public education is an issue for teacher education programs , not only because of the need to prepare the most qualified teachers, but also because of mandates by accrediting agencies such as the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE, 2006). Page 98 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 The public demands for better K -12 teaching, as well as the growing diversity in the general education classroom , have forced teacher education programs to review their role in enhancing teacher quality. In revisiting their “learn to teach framework” as it relates to diversity, teacher educations programs can focus on three distinct areas: the conceptual framework, the course work, and field (Valentíin, 2006). Conceptual framework . A t eacher education programs identif ies , through empirical studies and t heoretical research aligned with the vi sion and mission of the entire u niversity, a conceptual framework which serves as a guide to the development curricular experiences that will produce highly qualified professional teachers (Danielson, 2007). Due to the complexity of teaching, a framework f or professional practice allows for teacher education programs to organize and structure their program s of study to ensure that pre -service teachers become proficient in the knowledge, skills and dispositions needed to become successful teacher s (Darling -Hammond, 2006). Specifically related to preparing pre -service teachers to be successful with the infusion of diverse learners in the general education classroom, the teacher education program can use their conceptual framework as a means through which th e level of commitment the program has to diversity is determined (Valentíin, 2006). For example, the conceptual framework for the teacher education program with specific goals and objectives written throughout dealing directly with diversity emphasizes th e importance of identifying knowledge, skills and dispositions pre - service teachers must be able to exercise in the profession of teaching (Danielson, 2007). Courses. The next level of commitment to divers ity occurs when developing specific course offer ings throughout the program of study. A teacher education program may offer one - stand alone course in diversity or provide for the infusion of diversity concepts in several core courses. According to the research, there are benefits to both models . As i ndicated in a study by Milner, Flowers, Moore, Moore III, & Flowers (2003), the completion of a single course in multicultural education can positively impact the attitudes of the pre -service teacher with regard to the inclusion of diverse learners in the general education classroom. However, the stand -alone class did not significantly impact the pre -service teachers’ attitude with regard to the inclusion of multicultural education concepts in curricula, learning environments or assessments . Brown (2004) and Middleton (2002) also indicate significant improvements in pre -service teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and commitments regarding the awareness of diversity in the gener al education classroom. In this study, however, this change in personal and profession al beliefs did not transfer to the necessary skills needed to enable a diverse group of students to learn complex material in the classroom. Teacher education programs must determine if the desired outcome is for the pre -service teachers to develop inc reased awareness with regard to diversity, or to become culturally responsive teachers (Valentíin, 2006). Stand -alone courses in diversity are the beginning to raising the diversity awareness of pre -service teachers. The transition to culturally responsi ve teaching occurs with the exposure to diverse students during field placements (Darling - Hammond, 2006). Pag e 99 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 Field placements . With the creation of a coherent set of learning experiences that expose students to the nature of diverse learners in an actual classroom setting, teacher education programs are challenging the traditional models of operation for undergraduate teacher education programs. The “learn to teach framework” is extending into the walls of the local schools and onto the shoulders of the i n-service teachers and administrators of the local education agencies. The teacher education program must work closely with the local schools in order to ensure the experience is valuable for the preparation of the culturally responsive teacher (Danielson , 2007). In addition to diversity in education courses, pre -services teachers must have the opportunity to work with diverse students in the classroom. Teacher education programs must periodically examine field placements to ensure that placements for pre -service teachers are truly diverse, and that the placements provide the pre -service teacher with realistic teaching scenarios (Valentíin, 2006). According to Darling -Hammond (2006), effective teacher education programs have a “tight coherence and inte gration among courses and between course work and clinical work in schools” (p. 306). Teachers Attitudes toward the Inclusion of Students with Disabilities: As greater numbers of K -12 students with disabilities are being included in general education cla ssroom, it is imperative that all teachers develop attitudes and beliefs that are supportive of inclusion teaching practices. A review of research indicates three major factors are necessary in order for teachers to possess positive attitudes toward inclu sion. Teachers must believe that students with disabilities can learn and achieve to the best of their abilities . They must have a strong sense of self -efficacy for teaching students with disabilities in an inclusive setting . L astly , general and special e ducators must view one another as equal, mutually supportive partners in educating all students (Silverman, 2007). It is important to note that complexities surrounding the concept of inclusion and teacher attitudes toward inclusion are not straightforwa rd , and depend on a constant interplay of several factors not limited to those mentioned previously (Hsien, 2007). High -level beliefs about knowled ge and learning, or epistemological beliefs play an important role in successful inclusive teaching (Silve rman, 2007). Teachers with this high -level belief are more likely to persist in including students with disabilities fully into class activities (Cook, 2002). Therefore students with disabilities whose teachers view them positively are more likely to th rive and succeed in general classroom settings. In a study to determine the level of epistemological beliefs and attitudes toward inclusion among a sample of pre -service teachers, and the extent to which pre -service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion correlates with their epistemological belief status, Silverman (2007) confirmed that “teachers who hold more positive attitudes toward inclusion also tend to hold higher -level epistemological beliefs” (p. 47). This finding has implications for teacher edu cation programs in that fostering the development of high -level beliefs regarding knowledge and learning may also promote positive attitudes toward inclusion. The second factor teachers must possess in order to have positive attitudes toward inclusion i s a strong sense of self -efficacy for teaching students with disabilities in an inclusive setting. Both generalized and personal dimensions of s elf -efficacy are related to this factor. The Page 100 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 generalized aspect refers to individuals’ expectations that teach ing can influence student learning, whereas the personal aspect refers to individuals’ beliefs that they themselves have the skills necessary to f acilitate student learning (Wolt ers & Daugherty, 2007). Simply stated, self - efficacy in this context relates to a teacher’s confidence that he/she possess the skills to teach students with disabilities effectively (Silverman, 2007). Teachers with high self efficacy are significantly more willing to adapt curriculum and instructions, and are more patient and flex ible with students with disabilities (Cook, 2002). According to Woolfolk & Hoy (1990) (as cited in Brownell and Pajares, 1999), teachers with low self -efficacy tend to give up on students who do not learn quickly and easily, hold a pessimistic view of stu dent motivation, and have a rigid classroom management style. Research studies have shown that general educators have apprehension with regard to their ability to meet the needs of children with disabilities , as well as about the practicality of inclus ion practices (Romano & Chambliss, 2000). Further studies suggest that although teachers may have positive attitudes regarding inclusive educational practices, a teacher’s willingness to accept the included student varied with the severity of the disabili ty (Campbell, Gilmore, & Cuskelly, 2003). Several investigators have explored general educators’ attitudes toward students with disabilities and how teacher education programs are training future teachers for inclusive educational practices. Wolters an d Daugherty (2007) explored teaching experience and grade level with regard to self -efficacy as it relates to instructional strategies, classroom behavior management , and engagement. Results suggest that beginning te achers need support, training, or super vision in order to increase self -efficacy. Specifically, trainings experiences designed to increase teachers’ confidence in their ability to use varied and effective features of instructi on and assessment (Wolters & Daugherty , 2007 ). Hasting and Oakford (2003) validated, as previous research has long suggested, that a teacher’s attitude of acceptance of children with special needs in their classroom is crucial to that child’s success , and to the success of inclusion programs. They investigated student tea chers attitudes towards the inclusion of children with intellectual disabilities , and children with emotional and behavioral problems. Results indicated that a student teachers’ training in an undergraduate program was as important as the children’s speci al needs category in determining attitudes with regard to inclusion (Hasting and Oakford 2003 ). THEORETICAL FRAMEWOR K Social Constructivism : Current research in teacher education, the increasing diversity in the American classroom, and the study of lea rning theory support the use of Lev Vygotsky’s theory of social constructivism as the foundation of this research. Constructivist theorist (Piaget, Dewey, and Vygotsky) maintain that “learners arrive in any learning situation with a range of knowledge and experience that will influence how they respond to new information” (Hyslop - Margison & Stobel, 2008, p. 78). Therefore, pre -service teachers not only arrive in teacher preparation programs with a lifetime of experiences with regard to social interaction t hat has been, more than likely, monitored closely by their parents, but also almost two decades worth of Pag e 101 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 experiences and perceived knowledge about classrooms, schools, and education. Teacher Education programs, in order to meet the increased demands of te acher quality, must discover what the pre -service teachers already believe and then create the required cognitive dissonance that will result in a shift in paradigm of their conceptual und erstandings of diverse learners (Hyslop -Margison & Strobel, 2008). Social constructivism supports that knowledge is a socially negotiated product; simply stated Vygotsky’s theory of social constructivism maintains that knowledge is constructed through cooperating and understandings with others and not solely generated by individuals (Hyslop -Margison & Strobel, 2008). Social Constructivism espouses three assumptions which include culture, language, and social interactions (Louis, 2009). Vygotsky’s theory proposes that cognitive development occurs through these three e lements, of which culture is the most important. However, language and social interaction are the means through which “culture drives cognitive development” (Louis, 2009, p. 20). Teacher education programs, therefore, must prepare pre -service teachers to understand the developmental level of the learner, as well as the socio -cultural environment within which the learner functions. However, as with all learning, the pre -service teacher must understand themselves and others around them before they can lear n more global concepts such as curriculum, best practices and pedagogy for learning (Powell & Kalina, 2009). Based on the theory of social constructivism, effective social interaction for cognitive development is fostered through three concepts; Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), Cognitive Scaffolding, and psychological tools (Louis, 2009). Vygotsky uses ZPD as a term for the range of tasks that are linked to the learner’s psychological functions as developme nt takes place (Powell & Kalina (2009), San truck (2006), Schuerman (1995). This is explained as the optimal learning zone where students are given tasks that are too difficult to complete alone but successfully completed with the guidance and assistance from someone more knowledgeable (Louis (2009 ). Vygotsky believes that culture is a by -product of human social interaction. Therefore, when a learner actively constructs knowledge in a social context, this optimal learning zone has the potential to transform the learner’s cultural reality (St. Pie rre Hirtle, 1996). With regard to the pre -service teacher, the ZPD refers to aim toward the pre -service teachers’ potential development rather than the current ability. Specifically related to this research, ZPD posits that with guidance and assistance from teacher education programs, pre - service teachers can gain the cognitive skills as well as the epistemological belief to educate all students equally by recognizing and embracing the individual differences of their students. This is represented in th e practice of pre -service teachers overcoming hurdles related to diverse learners while learning to teach, and captures epistemological changes in pre -service teacher’s pedagogical thinking as it develops throughout the course of study (Scheurman, 1995). The second concept, scaffolding, is a process that supports ZPD. Cognitive scaffolding refers to a progression of learning that takes places when the learner achieves independence from others (Beck, 2008). According to Vygotsky’s social constructivism theory, an intentional support system put in place will ultimately allow the learner to successfully complete tasks that have meaning to them (Powell & Kalina, 2009). In regard to teacher education programs, as pre -service teachers complete courses and m ove onto more complex issues related to pedagogy, Page 102 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 cognitive development is greatest if the level of assistance is large at first and then gradually reduced as the pre -service teacher progresses through the course of study. As the pre -service teacher compl etes coursework, cognitive development will only occur if the upper -level courses are more complex and force the pre -service teacher to enter a new ZPD (Louis, 2009). The third and final concept found within Vygotsky’s social constructivism theory is th at of psychological tools. Examples of psychological tools which are used to examine the environment and interact socially include written and oral language (Louis (2009), Santruck (2006), Powell & Kalina (2009). According to Powell and Kalina (2009), co mmunication and language usage enable the learner to develop a more complex understanding of the world around them and are the most important process in the social constructivist setting. From this point of view, teacher education programs must maintain t he teacher educator -pre -service teacher relationship through formal and informal communication in order to provide the pre -service teacher the opportunity to reflect on motivation, self -image, and to ultimately enhance learning (Beck, 2008). The theory of social constructivism is based on the notion that cognitive skills have origins in social interactions and are embedded in the wider environment within which we live (Santruck 2006) . Also, social interactions with other students and teacher s along with personal or individual critical thinking generate ideas and knowledge. Therefore to prepare pre -service teachers to become more culturally literate, or improve cognitive skills directly related to the diverse learner, teacher education programs should pr ovide a program of study with emphasis on systematically developed social interactions with diverse learners, varied activities with extensive use of language (reading, writing, and speaking), opportunities for collaboration as tasks and abilities permit ( Louis, 2009). Through the use of Vygotsky’s social constructivism, teacher education programs can use scaffolding to assist pre -service teachers with the completion of tasks within their Zone of Proximal Development. Through this, the pre -service teach er will acquire the necessary psychological tools needed to explore their environment and interact with diverse learners. Social Constructivism adapts the learning process by transforming the learner from a passive recipient of information to an active participant. (Kok -Aun Toh, Chew, & Riley II, 2003). Rather than obtaining information from teacher or textbook, the learner (which in this case is the pre -service teacher), is guided by the teacher educator in the construction of and processing of new kn owledge. As mentioned previously, the pre -service teacher comes with decades of experiences and prior knowledge that, according to social constructivism, must be linked to new knowledge through meaningful social interactions. (Alesandrini & Larson, 2002) . In essence, according to Kok -Aun Toh et al. (2003), “learning involves the rejection of pre - existing knowledge for new knowledge (p. 202). Specifically related to pre -service teachers and diverse learners, the new knowledge must be intelligible (fully comprehended), plausible (believable and consistent with pre -existing knowledge), and fruitful (something of value) (Hyslop -Margison & Strobel, 2008). Pag e 103 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 According to social construct theory, social interaction and culturally organized activities are nec essary in teacher education so that pre -service teachers can develop properly with regard to diverse learners (Powell & Kalina, 2009). With the scaffolding approach, the teacher educator is the person with more knowledge than the pre -service teacher there fore they must be involved in the prescribed activities. This allows for the pre -service teacher to experience their own level of understanding of diverse learners and seek the assistance of the teacher educator in order to complete the more complex tasks related to equally educating all students (Powell & Kalina). Pre -service teachers, in order to critique and transform current social conditions that exists in public schools today with regard to marginalized students, must substantially understand what the conditions are for diverse learners, how these conditions developed, what possible alternative exists, and how to reshape the conditions (Hyslop -Margison & Sobel, 2008). Therefore, u sing extensions of conventional teaching strategies will not facilit ate learning with regard diverse students. Pre -service teachers need to learn take a more humanistic and constructivist approach to teaching to meet the diverse needs of these students (Gray and Fleischman, 2004). In order for teacher education programs to prepare pre -service teachers for effective social interaction with diverse learners’ one theme being infused is that of Servant Leadership. Servant Leadership : Servant Leadership is not a recent concept or fad but a philosophy with rich historic roots as old as the scriptures. The term was coined in a 1970 essay by Robert Greenleaf (as cited in Spears, 2004) and has been the springboard for the evolution of leadership in many facets of today’s’ society including businesses, schools and churches. The idea of servant as leader, at the very core of its meaning, includes the premise that true leadership stems from a deep desire for one to help and serve others (Spears, 2004). The servant leader is driven by the deep satisfaction he/she feels from making a difference, and from making sure the needs of others are being served first and foremost. Some of the principles of servant leadership include humility, honesty, trust, empathy, healing, community, and service (Bowman 2005). The profession of teachi ng is readily paralleled to the concept of servant leader. According to research (Hammerness , 2006 ), the motivating factors for teachers entering the profession are intrinsic, extrinsic and altruistic. Stu dies showed overwhelmingly that pre -service teach ers’ perception of their teaching abilities, the intrinsic career value of teaching and the prior teaching and learning experiences highly influenced the decision to choose teacher education. Federal policies, low salaried wages, and the disappointments a nd hardships of teaching do not change the important work of teachers. From the first day of their career to their final exit, teachers connect with students personally and make differences in the individual lives of students. Servant leadership emp hasizes collaboration, trust, empat hy and an ethical use of power. By nature, the servant leader embarks on a process of transforming the environment within which he/she chooses to serve. Patterson (2003) (as cited in Waddell, 2005) describes a theory in which the servant leader is guided by virtuous constructs of which the first is " agapao love". Page 104 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 The Greek word agapao , "refers to a moral love, doing the right thing at the right time for the right reason" (Winston, 2002). Connecting this concept directl y to teaching, the basis for agapao love would be to consider each student as a total person with needs, wants and desires. Patterson (2003) (as cited in Waddell, 2005) suggests that agapao love is consistent with servant leadership to the extent that serv ant leaders "must have such great love for the followers that they are willing to learn the gifting and talents of each one of the followers" (Waddell, 2005). The leader, whic h for the purpose of this discussion is the teacher, would focus on the student first and take care of the students needs before anything else. A teacher’s primary function is to serve others. Teachers do not teach for material outcomes nor to fulfill selfish needs, but because of the willingness to demonstrate agapao love to student s and partake in the awesome responsibility to care for and serve the students who have been entrusted to them. The test of these principles in the classroom today is to address the impact teachers have on students by asking, “Do those served grow as pers ons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, and more likely themselves to become servants?” (Greenleaf, 1977) . A good teacher, with the framework of Servant Leadership, will answer, “Yes.” Strategies Used in Teach er Education Programs : Teacher education programs are faced with identifying and developing theoretical frameworks and pedagogical strategies to impact teacher attitudes and sense of self -efficacy toward diverse learners in the contemporary classroom. Thes e strategies include service learning, reflection, and c ollaboration as key strategies. Service Learning : In order for teacher education programs to teach particular virtues, pre - service teachers must be made aware of the key dispositions, and these dispos itions must be modeled throughout the program of study (Helm, 2006). Field experience is extremely important for observation of such dispositions within the environment within which the pre - service teacher will serve. Service –learning in teacher educatio n has noticeably increased over the last decade. According to a survey in 1998 by the National Service Learning in Teacher Education Partnership, “nearly one fifth of the teacher education programs in the nation offer service -learning opportunities and ma ny others were interested in developing these programs” (Vaughn, Seifer, & Mihalynuk, 2004). According to the National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993, service learning i s a “teaching strategy by which students learn and develop through active pa rticipation in a thoughtfully organized service” (Geleta & Gilliam, 2003). Service learning enriches educational objectives while engaging students in meaningful experiences. It allows pre -service teachers to connect what they are learning in the classro om to an identified community need which enhances both the community within which the student serves as well as the personal and professional growth of the student ( NCATE , 2002). There are distinct difference s between service learning, community service, internships and field practicum. Community service has a primary focus of providing a service (direct or Pag e 105 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 indirect) to a service beneficiary while internships and field practicum focus on students’ learning with the primary beneficiary being the service pr ovider. Service learning, on the other hand, blends the key elements of both community service and internships so both the provider and the recipient benefit (Anderson, 1999). The value of applying knowledge gained in classroom content to real life si tuations is central to service learning. It allows students the opportunity to “internalize and experience content first -hand” (Geleta and Gilliam, 2003). This approach equalizes the concept of service being provided and the learning that is taking place . The benefits of infusing service learning with instruction of pre -service teachers include the obtainment of knowledge and skills necessary to facilitate effective learning experiences (Vaughn et. al 2004). While r esearch indicates that subject matter knowledge is necessary for effe ctive teaching , knowing content alone does not make one an effective teacher. The pre -service teacher needs the content knowledge and the skills in how to teach the subject matter (Goldhaber, 2006). An example of service le arning in teacher education that would improve teacher effectiveness with regard to content is pre -service teachers enrolled in a language arts methods class tutoring diverse learners at a local elementary school on various linguistics skills. The gains f rom this experience are two -fold . First the diverse learner gains extra time for skill development . Second, the pre -service teacher is provided the opportunity to use appropriate instructional techniques for diverse learners, improves content knowledge r elated to language , reading and writing, and also enhances social and civic responsibility in a real life situation. Service learning parallels the social interaction concepts as discussed in Vygotsky’s social construct theory. Through the use of effect ive social interaction, the creation of relationships between the diverse learner and the pre -service teacher will result in cognitive development (Powell & Kalina, 2009). Through the use of field placement, pre -service teachers have the opportunity to ta ke an active role in the construction of knowledge as well as the development of concepts and deep understanding through authentic tasks regarding diverse learners (Yilmaz, 2008). The creation of a constructivist learning environment, which includes serv ice learning, the pre -service teacher has the opportunity to develop deep understandings about pedagogy and diverse learners. This will, in theory, assist with forming habits that are mindful of educating all students equally (Yilmaz). Service learning in teacher education can contribute not only to the development of quality teacher cand idates and the community, but also play s an important role in meeting standards for National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education standards (NCATE, 2002). Acc ording to Standard one, “Candidates know and demonstrate content, pedagogical, and professional knowledge, skills , and dispositions necessary to help all students learn ” (NCATE, 2002 , p. 16 ). Service learning, as a pedagogical strategy for pre -service tea ch ers placed in schools, supported with critical dialogue facilitated by teacher education faculty , brings students closer to the content and assists with applying such concepts into real life situations (Enos and Troppe, 1996). The value of the education al goal, pre -service teachers increase student Page 106 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 achievement, is linked through service learning, however the focus remains academic with regard to focusing on the curricular standards of the students being served . Reflection: A critical component of serv ice learning is reflection. Wade and Saxe (1996) defined high quality teacher education programs with service learning as having strong reflective components. For the service learning experience to be successful, the pre -service teacher needs to reflect b efore, during and after the project is complete (Root, 2000 ). Such reflection may not only include content knowledge and best instructional strategies for diverse learners , but also honest self reflection that would allow teachers to be cognizant of their own cultural beliefs and how those beliefs affect their actions and teaching practices. Critical reflectio n allows the student to take service and turn it into conscious learning (Zlotkowski, 1999). One of the reasons that teacher educators use for inte grating service learning into their courses is “to enhance pre -service teachers’ ability to reflect critically on current educational practices and their own teaching (Anderson, 1999). Such reflection may include not only content knowledge and best instruc tional strategies for diverse learners but also honest self reflection that would allow teachers to be cognizant of their own cultural beliefs and how those beliefs affect their actions and teaching practices. Sobel and Taylor (2005) examined pre -servic e teachers’ feedback about teacher education curriculum and pedagogy grounded in the Professional Development School (PDS) model. The major focus of this study was to research “pre -service teacher’s beliefs and behaviors relevant to addressing the needs o f students whose backgrounds and abilities differ from their own” (p. 83). The participants were asked to identif y: ”What elements of the teacher education curriculum and pedagogy affected knowledge and understanding as it relates to multicultural, multil ingual, and inclusive classroom contexts?” , and “What elements affected your knowledge and understanding of how to provide effective instruction in these classroom contexts” (p . 84). The research results indicated that the pre -service teachers found value in guided exposure to real -world experiences, experiencing the application of t heory into practice, and observations and interactions with the clinical teacher (Sobel and Taylor, 2005). The literature does not suggest a best practice model for implem enting service learning into teacher education programs. In order to assist educators in creating high -quality service learning opportunities, a set of principles has been established that can be used as a guide to create a model that meets the variety of situations within which teacher education programs function. The Service Learning Center (2000) identified seven common elements found within the most successful service learning programs; integrated learning, high quality service, effective collaboratio n, ongoing student voice, promotion of civic responsibility, multiple opportunities for reflection, and intentional evaluation. Also, Root (2000) identified three important elements of integrated learning in teacher education can b e identified as the follo wing : 1. The service - learning project has clearly articulated knowledge, skill or value goals that arise from broader classroom and school goals, 2. The service informs the academic learning content, and the academic learning content informs the service, a nd 3. Life skills learned outside the classroom Pag e 107 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 are integrated back into classroom learning (Root, 2000). To be of h igh quality service , a service learning project should respond to a need that is recognized by the community to be served . It should be ag e-appropriate , well organized , and designed to achieve significant benefits for students and community (Root, 2000). COLLABORATION Collaboration amongst the teacher education program and the local community schools is imperative. Setting up professi onal development school designs or learning communities within schools in order to provide the pre -service teacher appropriate field experience opportunity where they can apply what they have learned in a real -life setting is essential. Without this equal partnership, the future of teacher education and teacher preparation is in grave danger. All partners benefit from the collaboration and contribute to its planning (Trubowitz, 2005). In order for the pre -service teacher to fully understand and embrace the concept of and pedagogy of service learning, they must have a voice in the planning, implementation, reflection, evaluation, and celebration of the service learning project. W hen infusing service learning into the class, the teacher educator must be c ognizant of the pre -service teacher’s knowledge and skill levels with regard to all of these tasks in order for the experience to be most beneficial (Karayan and Gathercoal, 2005). The civic responsibility , and /or civic engagement , element aims at engagi ng our pre - service teachers as productive citizens within the community they currently serve, and hopefully the community within which they wi ll continuously serve. Civic eng agement is not limited to elementary education (content) and secondary social stu dies (curricular objectives) licensure areas. I n fact, civic engagement encompasses all teacher education majors as it promotes caring for others and contributing to the community, impact on society and making a difference, and acting as a change agent wi thin the walls of the schools as well as society in general (Swick, 2001). Summary: The public demand for better quality teachers and public K -12 education, the change in accreditation, and the change in the demographics of public school student populati on have all motivated teacher education programs to change how teacher preparation is being facilitated (Hammerness, 2006). All teachers should be prepared to address the social, cultural, and economic backgrounds of all students and understand the divers e cultural patterns of the students served in the American school system today. It is one thing for teacher educators to teach content and theory; however, taking that theory and content and putting it into action is another thing altogether. Through mo deling and planting the seeds of the principles of servant leadership, and by using high yield strategies such as service learning, reflection, and collaboration, pre -service teachers might be equipped to effectively teach the diverse student population in the contemporary classroom, thus providing for improved teaching practice and ultimately increased student learning. Page 108 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 METHODOLOGY This study investigated the effects of a 3 -semester hour course on pre -service teachers’ dispositional attitude toward the inclusion of two groups of students in the general education classroom : culturally diverse students and students with disabilities. The methodological details of this research study include the following: the pa rticipants, the description of the setting, the instrumentation, the procedures used for data collection, the design of the study, and the procedures used for data analyses. The study was designed to answer the following research questions: How does a one three -semester hour service -based introdu ctory course in diversity affect pre -service teachers' attitude toward the inclusion of diverse learners in a general education classroom? The population identified for this study will consist of students enrolled in the teacher education program at the university the study is being conducted. The experimental group is defined as students that have completed a course titled Diversity in Educa tion while the control group included students who were enrolled in any EDUC, HPED, or SPED course whom have decla red education as their major but have not taken the diversity course. The anticipated number of students in the experimental group is 70 and 70 -100 teacher education students for the control group. The research took place at a multi -faceted, United Meth odist Church -related university with multiple campuses and delivery systems. The main campus is a 340 -acre campus located in a rural county located northeast of Charlotte, North Carolina. The population of the county is just under 60,000 with the major i ndustry being manufacturing. According to the 2008 Census data , 85% of the population is Caucasian, 12% African American, and the remaining 3% are identified at Asian, Native American/Alaskan Native, or pers ons who reported multi -racial . The undergraduate college serves 500 resident students and 350 com muter students. Students in the undergraduate c ollege earn Bachelor of Arts degrees in 19 majors and Bachelor of Science degrees in 16 majors ( Office of Institutional Research and Assessment) . While over 80 % of the traditional undergraduates are in -state students, students come from 33 states and 28 other countries. On the main campus, 61% of the students are Caucasian, 28.5% are African - American, 2% are Hispanic/Latino and the remaining 6.5% are from other ethnic/race groups (University Fact Book (2010). While the student body of the university is somewhat diverse; the pre -service teacher candidate pool is not diverse. A majority of the education majors enrolled in the program are white, middle class fem ales. Also, the college is located in a very rural, non -diverse setting. Therefore, the local schools immediately surrounding the university echo the demographics of the area in that most of the students are Caucasian. However, the teacher education prog ram’s director of field placement works very closely with the licensure area faculty to ensure that the students are placed in diverse settings for field placements that correlate with specific classes.

All field placement hours are built into the courses so that the instructor of the course has to Pag e 109 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 approve the placement of the pre -service teacher. This procedure ensures that the pre -service teacher is exposed to diverse populations at some point during practicum hours, and that experiences are guided and c oherent with theory and practice discussed in course lecture. The specific course being studied , Diversity in Education (see Appendix A for syllabus ), is a required course for all undergraduate teacher education majors. Teacher candidates are advised t o take this course during their juni or year of study in either the fall or s pring semester. In addition, all students enrolled in the course are required to have been admitted to the Teacher Education Program (TEP). Each semester consists of 15 weeks, 4 5 contact hours (3 SH weekly). Two different instructors taught the course during the three semesters when the study was being conducted, with the instructor during the last two semesters being the same person. This course is designed to equip prospectiv e teachers with a broad base of knowledge and skills for teaching diverse learners. The pre -service teachers enrolled are required to complete their service hours all at a middle school that houses grades 6 -9, and enrolls 532 students. The demographics o f the student body where the pre -service teacher completed the service learning requirements are very different from the schools immediately surrounding the university as a large plurality (44%) of the student population is African American, while the rema inder are Caucasian (42%), Hispanic/Latino (5%), Asian (5%), and American Indian (< 1%). According to Education First, NC School Report Cards (2010 -2011), the school where the pre -service teachers were placed had 60 -80% of students performing at grade l evel. Additionally, 61.1% of the student population passed both math and reading end of grade tests; well below the district (70.1%) and the State of NC (67.0%). Specifically, 64% of students passed the Reading End -of -Grade test while 85.4% passed the M ath End -of-Grade test. For one hour each week, the pre -service teacher candidate would work with an assigned group of identified (by teachers and principal) students whom were at risk either academically or socially. The pre -service teacher would work w ith the same students on a weekly basis in order to develop relationships with students as well as to help them with any academic subject needs. Some examples of activities which the pre -service teachers may have facilitated were tutoring for specific aca demic subject, group study for exam, assistance with homework, and possible critical thinking activities developed by pre -service teacher. To enrich the experience, pre - service teachers were also required to interview students, parents and teachers in ord er to provide context to the students they would be working with as well as their surroundings (life at home, family, friends..). INSTRUMENTATION Pre -service Teachers’ Attitudes toward the Inclusion of Students with Disabilities. Disability refers to broad categories including learning disabilities, students with development handicaps, multiple handicaps, and with severe beha vioral handicaps (Cook, 2002). To assess the participants’ attitudes toward the inclusion of students with disabilities, the Opinions Relative to Integration of Students with Disabilities (ORI) Scale (Cook, 2002) was Page 110 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 used . (See Appendix B.) The scale is designed to measure responders’ attitudes toward the inclusion of students with disabilities in a general education classroom setting. The ORI contains 25 statements . The participants use a 7 -point Likert scale to respond to statements regarding various aspects of inclusion. Four factors are addressed in the ORI scale: Benefits of Inclusion, Integrated Classroom Behavior Manage ment, Perceived Ability to Teach Students with Disabilities, and Special vs. Integrated General Education. The validity of the instrument is supported by findings that ORI scores were “significantly and positively related to measures of attitudes toward p eople with disabilities and were unrelated to respondent sex, age, ethnicity, or education level” (Cook, 2002, p. 266). Cronbach coefficient alpha was reported to be 0.88 for the entire scale. All of the students involved in the research study will be asked to complete simple demographics surveys that will include information such as gender, age, and race. This is done to determine if other factors related to demographics effect attitudes related to the inclusion of diverse learners. Demographic Dat a All participants complete d a simple demographics survey that asked them to specify their age, gender, race , licensure area, exposure to diverse learners when growing up, frequency of exposure to diverse learners when growing up, income level when growin g up, location in United States raised, and educational experience. Th is survey provided a means to disaggregate the data based on these demographics. (See Appendix B.) Procedures Upon receipt of IRB the research began . The researcher contacted all stu dents enrolled in the teacher education program by email and other social mediums (Facebook and Falconn, the University’s system for dissemination of information to students) to inform them of the research. The researcher visited all courses prefixed with EDUC/HPED/SPED and distributed the informed consent to the students (Appendix C) 1 week prior to data collection. W ith two weeks left in the semester the students were given the simple demographics survey upon which they identified race, gender, and age and whether or not he/she has taken the EDUC 322 Diversity in Education class. Following the demographics survey during the same class period, the researcher administered the PADAA and the ORI. No incentive was provided for taking the survey. Anonymity a ssured no risks. Design A quasi -experimental nonrandomized control group posttest design was used . The experimental group consist ed of pre -ser vice teacher candidates who were either near completion of or who had already completed the introductory dive rsity course. The control group was randomly selected from the group of surveys of teacher education candidates who had not taken Pag e 111 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 the course in diversity at the time the research was taking place. This type of research design was chosen because the resear cher cannot randomize the experimental group. The posttest only design was chosen, as opposed to the pretest -posttest design, because the research shows that when using attitudinal scales, administration of a pretest can cause pretest sensitization (Ary, D, Jacobs, L., Razavieh, A., & Sorenson, C., 2006). Data Analysis The s tatistical procedure used was independent samples T -test, analyzing the difference in means between the posttests of the participants for both the PADAA and the ORI. The T -test provi ded the researcher a means to determine if there was a statistically significant difference in the means between the post -test from which inferences can be made as to whether or not the 3 - semester hour course did or did not have impact on the participant s’ attitudes. RESULTS This study investigated the effect of a three -credit hour, service -based course in diversity on pre -service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion of diverse student populations , both culturally diverse and students with disabilit ies, in the general education classroom. This study focused on pre -service teachers who have completed the course through the use of validated attitudinal instruments and a short demographics survey. The researcher administered an attitudinal survey to st udents in 15 education prefix courses. The total number of surveys completed was 110 , and no student completed the survey twice. DEMOGRAPHIC AND DESC RIPTIVE DATA The sample included within this study was a representation of the students enrolled in a liberal arts university in North Carolina who have identified Teacher Education as their major. All students for the spring 2011 semester enrolled in a course with the prefix EDUC, HPED, and/or SPED were invited to participate in this study. Although th e researcher may have visited more than one class in which a student was enrolled, students were asked to complete the survey only once. The researcher, during the last 2 weeks of classes, attended all 15 courses with the identified prefixes to administer consent forms and surveys. The total number of surveys completed was 110.. Of the 110 respondents, 70% (77) were 18 -25 years of age, 43% (47) had taken the service -based introductory class in diversity, 60% (65) identified Elementary Education as their licensure area, 92% (101) identified as white/Caucasian, and 77% (85) were female. When participants were asked the number of EDUC/HPED/SPED classes at or over level 400 (all methods classes are coded as 400 or higher and the intended curriculum specifie s the infusion of diversity concepts) they had taken, 49% (55) of the participants reported they had taken none (0); Page 112 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 13% (14) reported that they had taken two (2); 8% (9) reported that they taken three (3); and 30% (21) reported that they had taken four (4 ). Eighty -five percent (77) of the participants reported that they had grown up (spent more than 10 consecutive years) in the Southeast, 41% (45) grew up with an average household income of $51,000 or higher, and 93% (102) reported that they had attende d public school during K-12. Participants were also asked if they were exposed to diversity when growing up, and if so, how often. With regard to ethnic/racial diversity, 90% (98) of participants indicated exposure to people of different ethnical/racia l backgrounds when growing up, with 83% (93) indicating frequency of more than once a week. Eighty -eight percent of pre -service teachers reported were exposed to people with disabilities, when growing up,, with 70% indicating frequency of more than once a week. Finally, participants were asked if they were exposed to people with different socioeconomic status. Ninety -five percent (104) indicated they were. Eighty -nine percent (98) indicated this exposure occurred more than once a week. The researcher performed analysis to test each of the null hypotheses. The results are organized by the instrument as well as sub -scores of the surveys. Levene Homogeneity of Variance Test Prior to running the independent t -tests, the researcher chose to conduct Le vene Homogeneity of Variance test in each of the test groups (taken the class and not taken the class based on each factor). The purpose of the Levene Homogeneity of Variance test is to ensure that the assumption of equal variance is valid. In order to ass ume that all groups are of equal variance, the significance level had to be above 0.05. The researcher reviewed the information to determine if the difference between the two groups was significant (<.05) in order to determine which group to use (assumed o r not assumed). After reviewing the information from SPSS and performing the Levene Test for Homogeneity of Variance, all but two groups were above the 0.05. Therefore, the independent sample t -tests were performed assuming homogeneity. The two instances in which the Levene’s Tests for Homogeneity of Variance were below .05 were in ORI Factor 1 and ORI factor 4. Opinions Relative to Integration of Students with Disabilities (ORI) The ORI Composite score was computed by positively scoring the 12 items t hat are worded negatively, and adding a constant of 75. The scores range from 0 -150 with the higher score representing a more favorable attitude toward the integration of students with disabilities into a general education classroom. The ORI is also divi ded into four (4) subscales: Benefits of Inclusion, Integrated Classroom Behavior Management, Perceived Ability to Teach Students with Disabilities, and Special versus Integrated General Education. Specific questions are assigned to each subscale area. Th e sum of the positively scored items was used and a range of Pag e 113 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 scores determined the value the respondent placed on the area. Independent sample t -tests were run for the composite score, and for each of the subscales. The results are as follows. Composi te score (ORI) . Hypothesis 1: Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in diversity will not have significantly different attitudes toward inclusion of students with disabilities than those who do not participate in the course. Table 1 shows mean composite scores for both independent groups : those who participated in the diversity course and those who did not participate in the diversity course. The scores indicate that the respondents that completed the three -semester hour service based introductory course in diversity scored higher than the respondents that did not in the ORI composite score. Therefore, they have a slightly more favorable attitude toward the inclusion of students with disabilities into the general edu cation classroom. Table 1 Mean Scores for ORI Composite Score Have you taken Diversity in Education N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean ORI results Yes 47 94.83 15.439 2.252 No 63 87.97 18.097 2.280 Table 2 shows that, based on the independent samples t -tests analyses, the difference in the means was statistically significant at the .05 level. Table 2 Independent Samples t -tests Results for ORI Composite Score Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig.

(2- tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper ORI results Equal variances assumed 1.617 .206 2.092 108 .039 6.862 3.280 .361 13.362 Based on the information presented, the research er rejects the null hypothesis. Benefits of integration (ORI Factor 1). Hypothesis 2: Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in diversity will not have significantly better understanding of the benefits of integration of students with disabilities in the general classroom Page 114 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 than those who do not participate in the course. Table 3 shows the mean for the two independent groups. The scores indicate the respondents had participated in the three -semester hour introductory se rvice -based course in diversity have a slightly higher mean than the respondents who had not participated in the course. Based on this analysis, the pre -service teacher who participated in the course understand and verify the benefits of integration margin ally better than those who did not participate in the course. TABLE 3 Mean Scores for ORI Factor 1 Have you taken Diversity in Education N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Benefits of integration Yes 47 14.02 5.261 .767 No 63 10.21 7.090 .893 Table 4 shows that based on the independent samples t -test analyses, the differences in the means was statistically significant at the .01 level. Table 4 Independent Samples t -tests Results for ORI Factor 1 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig.

(2- tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Benefits of Integration Equal variances not assumed 4.331 .040 3.240 107.999 .002 3.815 1.17 8 1.481 6.149 Based on the information presented, the researcher rejects the null hypotheses. Integrated classroom behavior management (ORI Factor 2). Hypothesis 3: Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in divers ity will not have significantly different attitudes about integrated classroom behavior management than those who do not participate in the course. Table 5 shows mean composite scores for both independent groups. Pag e 115 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 Table 5 Mean Scores for ORI Factor 2 Have you taken Diversity in Education N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Integrated classroom behavior management Yes 47 6.06 8.573 1.250 No 63 4.35 8.126 1.024 Table 6 shows that based on the independent samples t -test analyses, the differences in the means was not statistically significant at the .05 level. Table 6 Independent Samples t -tests Results for ORI Factor 2 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig.

(2- tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Integrated classroom behavior management Equal variances assumed .320 .573 1.069 108 .287 1.715 1.604 -1.464 4.893 Based on the information presented, the researcher accepts the n ull hypothesis. Perceived ability to teach students with disabilities (ORI Factor 3). Hypothesis 4 : Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in diversity will not have significantly different attitudes about their per ceived ability to teach students with disabilities than those who do not participate in the course. Table 7 shows mean composite scores for both independent groups; those who had participated in the diversity class and those who had not. Page 116 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 Table 7 Mean s cores for ORI Factor 3 Have you taken Diversity in Education N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Perceived ability to teach students with disabilities Yes 47 .43 2.940 .429 No 63 -.41 3.532 .445 Table 8 shows that based on independent samples t -test analyses, the difference in the means was not statistically significant at the .05 level. Table 8 Independent Samples t -tests Results for ORI Factor 3 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig.

(2- tai led) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Perceived ability to teach students with disabilities Equal variances assumed 3.451 .066 1.321 108 .189 .838 .635 -.420 2.096 Based on the informat ion presented, the researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Special versus general integrated education (ORI Factor 4). Hypothesis 5: Undergraduate students who participate in a three -hour service -based course in diversity will not have significantly diff erent attitudes about the qualifications of general versus special educators teaching students with disabilities than those who do not participate in the course. Table 9 shows mean composite scores for both independent groups : those who had participated in the diversity course and those who had not. Pag e 117 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 TABLE 9 Mean scores for ORI Factor 4 Have you taken Diversity in Education N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Special vs.

general integrated education Yes 47 -.68 3.330 .486 No 63 -1.17 4.412 .556 Table 10 shows that the difference in the means, based on independent samples t -test analyses, was not statistically significant at the .05 level. Table 10 Independent Samples t -tests Results for ORI Factor 4 Levene's Test for Equality of Variance s t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig.

(2- tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper ORI4 Equal variances not assumed 7.119 .009 .669 107.978 .505 .494 .738 -.970 1.957 Based o n the information presented, the researcher accepts the null hypothesis. SUMMARY OF RESULTS After analysis of independent samples t -tests of the ORI, the researcher found significant difference in the means between the ORI composite score and the two independent groups: those who had participated in the diversity course and those who had not. Upon further analysis of the 4 subscales of the ORI, the researcher found statistical difference in the means between the independent groups in one subscale; ben efits of integration (ORI Factor 1). Therefore, the researcher rejects null hypothesis 1 (Participation in a service -based introductory course in diversity has no impact on pre -service teachers’ perception of their attitude regarding the inclusion of stud ents with disabilities in the general education classroom.). Page 118 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 DISCUSSION The goal of this research study was to investigate the impact of participation in a three - semester hour service -based introductory course in diversity on pre -service teacher’s perc eption of their attitudes toward the inclusion of diverse learners into the general education classroom. The design of curricular features that help prepare contemporary teachers to teach diverse student populations is a critical task for a teacher educat ion program. The available body of research is mixed as to whether this preparation is best done through the offering of one course in diversity or through the infusion of concepts related to diversity in several courses. SUMMARY OF THE FINDI NGS Inclus ion of Students with Disabilities The researcher found the completion of the three -semester hour service -based introductory course in diversity had some impact on the pre -service teachers overall perception of their attitudes toward the inclusion of stude nts with disabilities into the general classroom. Specifically, the data showed that the respondents who did complete the class had a slightly more favorable attitude toward to the inclusion of students with disabilities into the general education classro om as opposed to those who did not take the class. Also, the respondents who had completed the class had a slightly better understanding of the benefits of integration of students with disabilities into the general education classroom than those who did n ot take the course. Demographic Variables The researcher found the demographic variables that had a large effect on the pre -service teacher’s attitudes toward the integration of students with disabilities included the participation in the three -semeste r hour introductory service based course in diversity, and the age of the participant. The gender, licensure area, exposure to diverse learners, frequency of exposure when growing up, household income, where in the United States participants were raised, and race/ethnicity of the respondent had little impact on the attitude toward the integration of disabled students. Upon analyses of the demographic variables with regard to the inclusion of diverse learners, the demographic variables had little to no imp act on the attitudes toward the inclusion of diverse learners. DISCUSSION OF THE FI NDINGS All children in the United States , regardless of ability, deserve to have quality teachers. Student learning is the ultimate goal of the teacher . H owever , many f actors intercede with this variable such as student background, teacher attitudes, and how teachers are prepared and licensed in university teacher preparation programs. Where there is no “one size fits all” method Pag e 119 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 for preparing pre -service teachers, the common goal of teacher education is to prepare teachers to meet the academic standards for all students for whom they are chosen t o serve. A review of the research indicates a mixed response to the effectiveness of offering one course specifically relate d to diversity or to infuse the concepts of diversity into all classes taken by pre -service teachers. The findings of this study show that the three -semester hour service - based course in diversity impacts the perception of the pre -service teacher’s attitu de toward the inclusion of diverse learners both with regard to ethnicity and disability. However, changing the attitudes of pre -service teachers is just the first step. Pre -Service Teacher Attitudes Toward Inclusion of Students with Disabilities Ac cording to this study, the completion of the three -semester hour service -based introductory course in diversity had an impact on the pre -service teacher’s perceived attitude toward the inclusion of students with disabilities into the general classroom. Spe cifically the course facilitated a better understanding of the benefits of inclusion. This is one leg of the three - legged stool necessary for successful inclusive practices. The additional legs are a strong self - efficacy toward teaching students with dis abilities, and mutual respect between special educators and general classroom teachers. The results of this study show that the course did not impact the perceived ability to teach students with disabilities. According to research, teachers who understa nd and believe in integration are more likely to practice inclusive behaviors. Research also indicates increased self -efficacy relates to the willingness to adapt the curriculum and instruction to meet the need of the included student. Therefore, teacher education programs must realize that simply changing the attitude of the pre -service teacher is not enough. The preparation program must facilitate a level of deep self -actualization of the pre -service teacher related to the inclusion of students with disabilities in order to increase pedagogical confidence. This study also showed that that the completion of the introductory, service -based course had no impact on the pre -service teachers’ attitude toward integrated classroom behavior management. Once again this forces teacher education programs to ask that although there was increased understanding of the benefits of integration, is this enough to change instructional strategies in order to serve students regardless of ability. Preparing Pre -service Teachers for Diverse Learners According to this research, the pre -service teacher already has an attitude that favors the inclusion of students with disabilities into the general classroom. However, this predisposed favorable attitude is not likely to manifest itself into research -based best pedagogy for diverse learners. Whereas the research is mixed regarding how to change attitudes related to diverse learners enrolled in teacher preparation programs, the research is solid in espousing that teacher education programs have to do more than change attitudes in order for teachers to implement pedagogical pract ices that support inclusion. Page 120 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 Although the research did not suggest significant differences in data, the researcher still believes that a service -based introductory course in diversity that addresses students with disabilities is important. It allows the pre -service teacher to put into context their attitudes and perceptions of diversity and gain an understanding as to how this relates to being a te acher of diverse learners. Having put the pre -service teachers’ personal attitudes regarding diverse learners into perspective will then offer an opportunity for the upper level methodology courses to integrate best teaching practices for the diverse lear ner. Teacher education programs must continue to focus on and provide courses and experiences that impact pre -service teacher’s pedagogical practices so diverse learners are not marginalized in the general education classroom. In addition to a shift in p aradigm for teaching diverse learners, this model may also facilitate a deep -self actualization of the pre -service teacher related to the inclusion of students with disab ilities. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIO NS The public demand for better quality teachers and pu blic K -12 education, the change in accreditation , and the change in the demographics of America’s public school student population have all motivated teacher education programs to change how teacher preparation is being facilitated (Hammerness, 2006). Th is study is responsive to addressing these three priorities in American public education. Also, among educational administrators, there is serious concern about the historically high rate of teacher turnover a mid the pressures of high -stakes testing and ac countability. The novice teacher’s success with the diverse population in the general education classroom is undoubtedly a factor in addressing this problem (Darling -Hammond, 2006). The globalization of the American classroom is not a phenomenon that will disappear . It is the responsibility of teacher education programs across the country to prepare teacher candidates to best serve the students in American schools. With this responsibility comes the challenge of meeting state and national accreditation r equirements. The intended outcomes of this research study are recommendations as to how to properly prepare pre -service teachers with regard to diverse learners. The dynamic field of education is counting on quality research of teacher preparation in ord er to guide curriculum changes that meet the needs of pre -service teachers and future students in our educational system. STUDY LIMITATIONS This study had limitations that may have influenced the results. The findings of this research s tudy rely heavi ly on self assessment which poses a threat to external validity. Other limitations include selection effect (the students are enrolled in a small Methodist Liberal Arts University located in rural NC), setting e ffect (the schools in which the students are placed for field placement are not be as diverse as one would like for the study to be generalizable ), and Pag e 121 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 18, Number 2, 2014 history effect (the background of the pre -service teacher s). These limitations could not be controlled at any point in the survey. One final lim itation of the research study was the attitudinal surveys used. Both the PADAA and the ORI are brief instruments (19 questions and 25 questions respectively) yet both are measuring very complex concepts. Therefore the thoroughness of the questions may no t have addressed the complexity of the i ssues to the extent necessary. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH While the research on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion has increased, more needs to be done. The following is a list of recommendations for future research based on the outcomes of this study: 1. The study needs to be replicated using a greater diversity of participants in a less isolated area. This will increase the generalizability of the study, and warrant a higher priority for changes to be made in teacher education programs. 2. Research needs to be done specifically to determine the impact of diverse field placements (ability diverse) on pre -service teachers self efficacy to teach diverse learners? This will further support the conceptual f ramework of servant leadership being infused in teacher education programs as well as the importance of interactions with diverse learners. 3. How did the attitude of the teacher educator impact the perceived attitudes of the pre - service teacher candidates? Research must be done to determine how the ethoses of teacher educators trickle down to the pre -service teachers being trained to teach in diverse settings. 4. Future research must include how dispositions of the pre -service teacher relate to teaching pra ctices in general education classroom settings. This will strengthen teacher education programs preparation of pre -service teachers to feel more confident in implementing a pluralistic ideology, as well as inclusive programs. In turn, teacher education p rograms will assist current teachers and schools become more inclusive with regard to ethos, policies and organizations. CONCLUSION Teacher quality and the effectiveness of teacher education programs are at the center of several discussions in the educa tion field. These issues, as well as initiatives, external mandates, and educational reform fuel the requirements put forth by accreditation agencies for teacher education programs to equip teachers to be effective with the diverse population in the 21 st Century classroom . A review of the literature and current r esearch of teacher education programs indicates that the dispositions of teachers impact student achievement, therefore teacher quality and the preparation of quality teachers is linked to the di sposition of the candidate. Thus, teacher Page 122 Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 1 8, Number 2, 2014 education programs can no longer focus solely on content knowledge and pedagogical skills; they must identify and assess the dispositions of their teacher candidates. Due to the globalization of today’s classroom , dispositions specific to inclusive attitudes are at the forefront of the responsibility of teacher education programs . In addition, the number of students with disabilities receiving a majority of their education in the general education classroom has dramatically increased. Teacher candidates must be appropriately prepared to facilitate learning experiences for all students as the diversity of the students being educated within the general classroom continues to increase. According to this study, a m odel that would support the preparation of ability literate pre - service teachers includes the use of a service -based introductory course in diversity followed by upper level programmatic courses that infuse and apply the concepts of diversity and inclusion in order to not only facilitate a change in attitude, but also to change teaching behavior. REFERENCES Anderson, J. (1999). Service Learning and Teacher Education. ERIC Digest. 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