Ethics and Professional Issues

Contributors: Rebecca L. Toporek & Robert A. Williams

Edited by: Rebecca L. Toporek , Lawrence H. Gerstein , Nadya A. Fouad , Gargi Roysircar &

Tania Israel

Book Title: Handbook for Social Justice in Counseling Psychology: Leadership, Vision, and

Action

Chapter Title: "Ethics and Professional Issues Related to the Practice of Social Justice in

Counseling Psychology"

Pub. Date: 2006

Access Date: June 17, 2017

Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.

City: Thousand Oaks

Print ISBN: 9781412910071

Online ISBN: 9781412976220

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412976220.n2

Print pages: 17-34

This PDF has been generated from SAGE Knowledge. Please note that the pagination of

the online version will vary from the pagination of the print book. Page 2 of 16 This statement, taken from the Preamble of the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code

of Conduct (APA, 2002yf K H U H D I W H U U H I H U U H G W R D V W K H $ 3 $ & R G H L G H Q W L I L H V D U D Q J H R f

professional roles and responsibilities of psychologists. Many of the roles noted in this

statement are reasonable avenues that, when practiced from a place of ethics and

accountability, can contribute significantly to the elimination of injustice, inequity, and bias.

There have been calls for a clearer and more consistent social justice presence in counseling

psychology (Carter, 2003; Fouad et al., 2004; Ratts, D'Andrea, & Arredondo, 2004yf 7 K L s

is designed to provide readers with the opportunity to see the wide range of roles,

social issues, and projects through which counseling psychologists are contributing to social

justice. The first chapter (Fouad, Gerstein, & Toporekyf S U R Y L G H V K L V W R U L F D O D Q G F R Q F H S W X D l

underpinnings for the topics and approaches contained throughout the book. As discussed in

that chapter, social justice has fluctuated in its acceptance within the profession of counseling

psychology. Given this fluctuation, attention to ethics and ethical issues particular to situations

involving counseling psychologists and social justice has been scarce. A more explicit

discussion of ethics is necessary for a thoughtful and intentional base for social justice in

practice, training, and research.

The intent of this chapter is to examine existing ethics documents for their potential to provide

guidance and support for social justice work. Our primary focus will be on the APA Code

(2002yf + R Z H Y H U Z H Z L O O D O V R G U D Z X S R Q O D Q J X D J H D Q G F R Q W H Q W S U H V H Q W H G L Q W K H H W K L F V F R G H s

of other disciplines and specialties that historically have maintained social justice as a central

tenet. In the second part of the chapter, we highlight ethical issues that may arise when

working toward social justice and provide a case example demonstrating how a psychologist

might attend to these issues. Finally, we provide recommendations regarding future

development of ethical guidelines for social justice.

With the renewed emphasis on social justice in counseling psychology, there is a need for a

shared understanding of definitions and constructs. Two particular resources anchor our

discussion. First, the Social Justice and Ethics Social Action Group that convened at the

National Counseling Psychology Conference (Houston, 2001yf H V W D E O L V K H G W K H I R O O R Z L Q g

working definition of “social justice”:

A concept that advocates engaging individuals as coparticipants in decisions which

directly affect their lives; it involves taking some action, and educating individuals in

order to open possibilities, and to act with value and respect for individuals and their

group identities, considering power differentials in all areas of counseling practice

Vision, and Action Page 3 of 16 Second, Toporek and Liu (2001yf G L V W L Q J X L V K H G E H W Z H H Q W K H U H O D W H G F R Q F H S W V R I D G Y R F D F \ ,

empowerment, social action, and social justice, and they helped to define the construct of

social justice within the framework of the counseling profession. They described a model

using client advocacy as a unifying construct with empowerment on one end of a continuum

and social action on the other. Toporek and Liu provided the following definition for advocacy.

[Advocacy is] action a mental health professional, counselor, or psychologist takes in

assisting clients and client groups to achieve therapy goals through participating in

clients' environments. Advocacy may be seen as an array of roles that counseling

professionals adopt in the interest of clients, including empowerment, advocacy, and

social action. (p. 387yf

Empowerment was described as action taken with a client to facilitate his or her ability to act

in the face of oppression, whereas social action was described as action taken by the

counselor, external to the client, to confront or act on behalf of client groups (Toporek & Liu,

2001yf 7 K H V H G H I L Q L W L R Q V D Q G W K H G H I L Q L W L R Q R I V R F L D O M X V W L F H S U R Y L G H G E \ W K H 6 R F L D O - X V W L F e

Ethics Work Group of the Houston conference, provide anchors for our examination of the

relevance and utility of existing ethical codes.

Ethics codes, guidelines, and decision-making models serve as tools for ethical behavior.

Within the APA Code (2002yf W K H O D Q J X D J H W K D W D G G U H V V H V V R F L D O M X V W L F H P R V W F O H D U O \ P D \ E e

found in the Preamble and Principles. It is important to note that the Preamble and General

Principles are “aspirational goals to guide psychologists toward the highest ideals of

psychology. Although the Preamble and General Principles are not themselves enforceable

rules, they should be considered by psychologists in arriving at an ethical course of action” (p.

1061yf $ V D V S L U D W L R Q D O J X L G H O L Q H V W K H V H K D Y H W K H S R W H Q W L D O W R I D F L O L W D W H G H F L V L R Q P D N L Q g

regarding issues that arise in the course of social action.

In our review of the APA Code (2002yf D V Z H O O D V W K H & D Q D G L D Q & R G H R I ( W K L F V I R r

Psychologists (Canadian Psychological Association [CPA], 2000yf W K H $ V V R F L D W L R Q R I % O D F k

Psychologists's Ethical Standards of Black Psychologists (Akbar & Nobles, 2002yf W K e

Feminist Therapy Ethical Code (Feminist Therapy Institute [FTI], 1999yf D Q G W K H 1 D W L R Q D l

Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics (National Association of Social Workers [NASW],

1999yf W K U H H U H F X U U L Q J F R Q V W U X F W V V H H P H G U H O H Y D Q W I R U H W K L F D O S U D F W L F H L Q V R F L D O M X V W L F H U H V S H F W ,

responsibility, and action. We will organize our examination of the ethical codes around these

three themes, with particular attention to the APA Code. Within each section, we will also note

criticisms that have been voiced and draw upon other ethical codes for guidance.

Respect for the integrity and strength of affected communities and clients is the core of any

kind of work aimed at improving the conditions of oppressed groups. The APA Code (2002yf ,

Principle E, Respect for People's Rights and Dignity, asserts that it is imperative to respect

cultural differences and take these into consideration when working with ethnic groups.

Although this is laudable, clearer guidelines are needed regarding how this respect may be

operationalized—for example, utilizing respect and awareness of a community's values and

mores as determining forces in engaging in social justice interventions. A useful guideline for

Vision, and Action Page 4 of 16 which states that psychologists must “acquire an adequate knowledge of the culture, social

structure, and customs of a community before beginning any major work there” (Respect for

Society, Paragraph 1yf 7 K L V L V V W U H Q J W K H Q H G E \ W K H D V V H U W L R Q W K D W S V \ F K R O R J L V W V P X V W F R Q Y H y

respect for and abide by prevailing community mores, social customs, and cultural

expectations in their scientific and professional activities” (Respect for Society, Paragraph 2yf .

The inclusion of the need to “abide” by the community and cultural mores helps to secure the

position of the community as a driving force in the intervention.

The Ethical Standards of Black Psychologists goes even further in its ethical standards,

stressing that Black psychologists are expected to “give deference to the will and intent of

Black people” (Akbar & Nobles, 2002, p. 8yf 7 K L V V W U H Q J W K V E D V H G S H U V S H F W L Y H F R Q Y H \ V W K e

assumption that the intent of Black people and human beings is inherently toward growth

rather than destruction. This is articulated with regard to research in the statement, “This

research should be reflective of the psychological strengths of Black people and/or should be

focused on the cultivation of strengths which will foster such improvement” (Akbar & Nobles,

2002, p. 7yf 7 K L V K L J K O H Y H O R I U H V S H F W L V F R P P H Q V X U D W H Z L W K W K H U H V S R Q V L E L O L W \ D Q G S R O L W L F D l

implications of one's role as psychologist of a given age, race, ethnicity, social class, gender,

sexual orientation, and disability status.

Respect thus lays a foundation for social justice work by ensuring that the psychologist

understands and abides by the community's strengths, goals, and determination.

In our reading of ethical codes, three issues seemed to reflect a construct we identified as

“responsibility”: ensuring equal access to psychology, minimizing the effects of bias and

discrimination, and serving oppressed communities. First, the APA Code (2002yf 3 U L Q F L S O H ' ,

Justice, states, “Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access

to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes,

procedures, and services being conducted by psychologists” (p. 1062yf 7 K L V V W D W H P H Q W P D y

be interpreted as a suggestion that the expertise held by psychologists should be shared with

all who can benefit. The difficulty, however, lies in the condition that systemic injustice may

hinder equal access and quality of care. There is a need for clearer directives regarding the

role that psychologists might have in eradicating the injustice that limits access to services.

The second ethical issue related to responsibility is that of bias. Principle D, Justice, of the

APA Code (2002yf V W D W H V 3 V \ F K R O R J L V W V H [ H U F L V H U H D V R Q D E O H M X G J P H Q W D Q G W D N H S U H F D X W L R Q s

to ensure that their potential biases, the boundaries of their competence, and the limitations

of their expertise do not lead to or condone unjust practices” (pp. 1062–1063yf , Q D G G L W L R Q ,

Principle G, Human Relations, clearly states that psychologists should not engage in

discrimination and harassment. These statements take important steps in acknowledging the

responsibility that counseling psychologists have to eliminate their own biases. However, it

appears that the extent of the responsibility is directed toward the psychologist's own

behavior. Notably, some authors (e.g., Brown, 1997yf K D Y H F K D U J H G W K D W W K L V D S S U R D F K L s

reactive and does not go far enough in asserting the need for psychologists to actively rectify

discrimination and other forms of oppression. If counseling psychologists are committed to

social justice, there is a need for clearer statements encouraging prevention of unjust

practices as ethical behavior. One example of such language is seen in the NASW (1999yf

ethical code, which states that social workers “are sensitive to cultural and ethnic diversity and

strive to end discrimination, oppression, poverty, and other forms of social injustice”

Vision, and Action Page 5 of 16 The third area of responsibility may be described as an expectation that professionals actively

serve members of oppressed groups and, in doing so, acknowledge the complexities of the

group and oppressive circumstances. This ranges from direct statements, such as the

responsibility of Black psychologists to return their expertise to the Black community (Akbar &

Nobles, 2002yf W R V W D W H P H Q W V D V V H U W L Q J U H V S R Q V L E L O L W \ W R V H U Y H P D U J L Q D O L ] H G R U Y X O Q H U D E O e

groups. As an example of the latter type of statement, the CPA Code (2002yf V W D W H V ,

Although psychologists have a responsibility to respect the dignity of all persons with

whom they come in contact in their role as psychologists, the nature of their contract

with society demands that their greatest responsibility be to those persons in the

most vulnerable position. (Values Statement, Paragraph 3yf

Similarly, Bowman (1991yf D V V H U W H G W K D W Q R W R Q O \ V K R X O G S V \ F K R O R J L V W V O H D U Q D E R X W W K e

communities that they serve, but they should be a part of the development of “special

safeguards” in research to ensure that “vulnerable race and class groups are not

systematically selected because of their compromised position, their open vulnerability, and

their manipulability” (p. 753yf 6 X F K D V W D Q F H F R Q Y H \ V E R W K U H V S H F W D Q G U H V S R Q V L E L O L W \ I R U E R W h

the individuals and the communities that are being served. Although the APA Code (2002yf ,

Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity, refers to “special safeguards,” it appears

that this was written specifically to “protect the rights and welfare of persons or communities

whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision making” (p. 1063yf D Q G L W L V X Q F H U W D L n

whether this is meant to generalize to populations who are not “impaired.”

Responsibility has been described as having a duty to serve oppressed groups, eliminate

oppression, and make efforts to be conscientious in how one engages and intervenes within a

community. Respect and responsibility lead to the third area of ethical practice, social action.

Ethics in social justice inherently invoke an explicit call to action. Ethical codes we reviewed

for this chapter varied in the extent and nature of the action expected of the professional.

Attention to social action appeared to be articulated in the APA Code (2002yf S U L P D U L O \ W K U R X J h

Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility, which states that “psychologists strive to contribute a

portion of their professional time for little or no compensation or personal advantage” (p.

1062yf 7 K L V V W D W H P H Q W H Q F R X U D J L Q J S U R E R Q R Z R U N P D \ E H L P S R U W D Q W L Q V H U Y L Q J F R P P X Q L W L H s

with limited resources. However, there is no clear expectation that these are the communities

that psychologists will serve or that part of the work will be toward eliminating injustice.

Payton (1994yf H [ S U H V V H G F R Q F H U Q U H J D U G L Q J W K H V K L I W I U R P D I R F X V R Q K X P D Q U L J K W V S U H V H Q W L n

earlier ethical codes, to “a need to protect psychologists” (p. 317yf 6 L P L O D U O \ R W K H U D X W K R U s

have charged that APA Codes are written with the intent to protect the consumer and the

profession, and that this emphasis does little to facilitate active involvement in confronting

injustice (e.g., Brown, 1997; Lerman & Porter, 1990; Payton, 1994yf .

It is possible that the roles outlined in the Preamble of the APA Code (2002yf K D Y H E H H n

interpreted in such a way that limits counseling psychologists' view of the appropriateness

and relevance of social action. A review of such language in ethics documents of other

organizations illustrates how social action may be articulated more clearly in ethical

guidelines. For example, the CPA Code (2002yf S U R Y L G H V D Y H U \ E U L H I E X W G L U H F W F D O O W R D F W L R Q ,

stating the expectation that psychologists “act to correct practices that are unjustly

discriminatory” (Nondiscrimination, Paragraph 2yf 7 K H 1 $ 6 : L V P R U H H [ S O L F L W L Q L W V S U L Q F L S O H R f Copyright © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Handbook for Social Justice in Counseling Psychology: Leadership,

Vision, and Action Page 6 of 16 “Social and Political Action,” which states,

Social workers should engage in social and political action that seeks to ensure that

all people have equal access to the resources, employment, services, and

opportunities they require to meet their basic human needs and to develop fully….

Social workers should act to expand choice and opportunity for all people, with

special regard for vulnerable, disadvantaged, oppressed, and exploited people and

groups. (Social and Political Action, Paragraphs 1–2yf

Finally, a variety of assertions regarding the multiple ways in which a feminist therapist may

take social action are listed in a section of the Feminist Therapy Code of Ethics (FTI, 1999yf

explicitly titled “Social Change.” Examples of these assertions include the following: “A

feminist therapist seeks multiple avenues for impacting change, including public education

and advocacy within professional organizations, lobbying for legislative action, and other

appropriate activities” (Social Change, Paragraph 1yf D Q G $ I H P L Q L V W W K H U D S L V W D F W L Y H O y

questions practices in her community that appear harmful to clients or therapists. She assists

clients in intervening on their own behalf” (FTI, 1999; Social Change, Paragraph 2yf 6 L P L O D U O \ ,

counseling psychologists who endorse social justice as part of their practice must understand

that social action is an inherent part of such practice. This action may be accomplished

through a range of roles, including, but not limited to, overt political action (Toporek & Liu,

2001yf ) R U H [ D P S O H W K H H Y H Q W V O H D G L Q J W R (1984yf Z K L F K F X U U H Q W O \ E O R F N s

intelligence testing in San Francisco public schools, exemplifies a group of Black

psychologists that used its roles as expert witnesses, clinicians, educators, and researchers to

engage in political action, policy development, and implementation.

Counseling psychologists have a unique mission, skill set, and field of expertise. That

uniqueness does not preclude counseling psychologists from drawing on the experience of

related fields to develop ethical guidelines that facilitate, support, and guide intentional and

ethical social justice interventions. Furthermore, ethical decision making is facilitated by

awareness of ethical complexities that may arise in social justice endeavors. Hence, we turn

our attention now to a review of issues that may arise, presenting ethical dilemmas for

counseling psychologists.

Several authors have identified ethical issues related to social justice and advocacy in

counseling (e.g., Goodman et al., 2004; Kiselica & Robinson, 2001; Toporek & Liu, 2001yf .

Although not exhaustive, six major themes can be distilled from a review of this literature:

competence, assumptions and worldview, politics, roles and boundaries, informed consent,

and “do no harm.” On the surface, these themes reflect those generally found in ethics

discussions. However, their meanings take on different levels of complexity when considered

within a framework of social justice; so much so that traditional definitions and

conceptualizations are inadequate. To explore this complexity, we will present dimensions of

these six themes followed by a case vignette illustrating a therapist's attention to each of the

themes.

Competence is identified as one of the key elements of the APA Code (APA, 2002yf , Q W K R V e

emerging areas in which generally recognized standards for preparatory training do not yet

Vision, and Action Page 7 of 16 work and to protect clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants,

organizational clients, and others from harm” (APA, 2002, p. 1064yf .

Because concentrated attention to social justice within counseling psychology is relatively

recent, it is reasonable to consider it “an emerging area.” Unfortunately, there has been little

examination of what competence means with regard to the practice of social justice.

Numerous psychologists have asserted that the profession of counseling and counseling

psychology has tended toward individual approaches and intrapsychic explanations for

clients' distress (Haverkamp, 1994; Lewis, Lewis, Daniels, & D'Andrea, 1998; Prilleltensky,

Dokecki, Friedan, & Wang, in press; Toporek & Pope-Davis, 2005yf * L Y H Q W K L V H P S K D V L V ,

counseling psychologists who work with clients experiencing distress due to external,

structural forces run the risk of conveying the belief that the individual is at fault for the

injustice he or she is experiencing. Prilleltensky et al. (in pressyf F K D U J H G W K D W W K H F R X Q V H O L Q g

profession has been deficient in systemic-level training and neglects the environment and

sociopolitical context because of the overemphasis on intrapsychic interventions. It follows

that competent practice requires that counseling psychologists need to be trained to

recognize the role of external forces in clients' lives and initiating systemic interventions such

as advocacy and social action (Toporek & Liu, 2001yf .

A second aspect of competence reflects professional limitations. Kiselica and Robinson (2001yf

noted that in order to adhere to the ethical principle of recognizing one's professional

limitations, counselors involved in social justice work must avoid being overzealous and

making “promises they can't keep” (p. 394yf ) X U W K H U P R U H W K H \ F D X W L R Q H G W K D W D W W L P H V G X U L Q g

activist activities, professionals may become overly enthusiastic and consequently exaggerate

the cause. Ethical social justice practice requires that counseling psychologists accurately

reflect the people and causes they represent. Similarly, counseling psychologists must be

genuine about their ability to take an advocacy or social justice position and acknowledge the

limits of their professional ability to do so. This concern may also be reflected by full informed

consent (discussed later in this chapteryf L Q W K D W S V \ F K R O R J L V W V D Q G F O L H Q W V Q H H G W R E H F O H D r

about the means by which, and extent to which, a psychologist may be acting on a client's

behalf or acting as an independent professional or individual.

A third aspect of competence reflects the psychologist's awareness of his or her well-being

and ability to perform. Dinsmore (as cited in Kiselica & Robinson, 2001yf Q R W H G ,

There is often a high price to pay for being an activist, including feeling emotionally

drained, being viewed as a troublemaker, placing your job in jeopardy, and becoming

the target of backlash from colleagues at work or of harassment from intolerant

individuals. (p. 393yf

It is the responsibility of counseling psychologists to monitor and modify practice when their

well-being or political situation may negatively affect their work, even when the negative

effects result from the stress of challenging oppressive systems. The self-care aspect of

competence influences a psychologist's ability to follow through with a course of action

agreed upon by the community or client and the psychologist. In addition, competence and

well-being may take on special meaning when systemic opposition distracts from client-

centered intent and can influence the psychologist's perspective, for better or worse.

The virtuous agent [is] one who (ayf L V P R W L Y D W H G W R G R Z K D W L V J R R G E \f possesses Copyright © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Handbook for Social Justice in Counseling Psychology: Leadership,

Vision, and Action Page 8 of 16 vision and discernment, (cyf U H D O L ] H V W K H U R O H R I D I I H F W R U H P R W L R Q L Q D V V H V V L Q J R r

judging proper conduct, (dyf K D V D K L J K G H J U H H R I V H O I X Q G H U V W D Q G L Q J D Q G D Z D U H Q H V V ,

and, perhaps most importantly is connected with and understands the mores of his

or her community and the importance of community in moral decision making, policy

setting and character development and is alert to the legitimacy of client diversity in

these respects. (Meara, Schmidt, & Day, 1996, pp. 28–29yf

The summary of virtuous characteristics provided by Meara et al. highlights some of the

critical elements related to the theme of worldview and assumptions. In this context, we are

specifically targeting the aspect of worldview that influences the psychologist's perspective of

the integrity of the client or community and the assessment of the extent to which the

community is able to act on its own behalf. Toporek and Liu (2001yf Q R W H G W K D W W K H U H K D V E H H n

historical criticism of client advocacy based on the assumption that advocating for clients

reinforces clients' feelings of helplessness. They acknowledged that the potential for

paternalism exists, particularly when a psychologist outside of an oppressed community acts

on behalf of that community. However, they also suggested that the intentions of

psychologists can moderate the conditions under which advocacy is enacted. This

underscores the need for counseling psychologists to be aware of their motives while involved

in social justice work as well as their place of privilege based on social class, educational

opportunities, race, gender, or other attributes.

The theme of assumptions and worldview also reflects issues of awareness regarding beliefs

about what is the “right” thing to do or the “right” way to solve a problem. Goodman et al.

(2004yf U D L V H G W K L V L Q W K H L U G L V F X V V L R Q R I V H O I H Y D O X D W L R Q D V D W H Q H W R I V R F L D O M X V W L F H Z R U N 7 K L s

tenet may raise awareness of ethical issues affecting practice, such as in cases of

incongruent cultural values between a psychologist and client group.

Because social justice work often requires systemic interventions, counseling psychologists

may be called upon to take on roles that vary from traditional individual counseling. Having

engaged in a self-reflective process and illuminated one's intent and assumptions about the

client's capabilities, the counseling psychologist is in a better place to assess the context and

identify appropriate and effective roles. It is important to note that the issue of competence

resurfaces given that training programs historically have provided narrow guidance for

counseling psychologists regarding their role with clients with little attention to roles such as

advocate, social activist, consultant, and others. Multicultural scholars have noted the need

for role variation for some time and have provided models (e.g., Atkinson, Thompson, & Grant,

1993yf W R K H O S S V \ F K R O R J L V W V G H W H U P L Q H W K H D S S U R S U L D W H U R O H J L Y H Q W K H F O L H Q W O R F X V R I W K e

problem, and goal of counseling.

In a related vein, current professional standards have also been criticized for the constraints

imposed on relationships with clients without consideration of context and culture (e.g.,

Brown, 1997; Kiselica & Robinson, 2001yf . L V H O L F D D Q G 5 R E L Q V R Q \f noted that the issue

of boundaries, as traditionally defined in counseling, may need to be revisited when working

with marginalized clients who may be uncomfortable or reluctant to seek services in traditional

settings. Likewise, being involved in social justice issues may result in clients and

psychologists working side by side on a cause, thus raising the issue of dual relationships.

Kiselica and Robinson cautioned that although it is appropriate to question definitions of

boundaries, it is also important to recognize the validity of the concerns that may arise

Vision, and Action Page 9 of 16 Another theme raised in the literature is the acknowledgment that social justice is political.

Toporek and Liu (2001yf Q R W H G W K D W F U L W L F V K D Y H U D L V H G F R Q F H U Q V W K D W W K H H P S K D V L V R n

multicultural counseling and social causes in counseling and psychology are used to further

political causes. The public interest directorate has reported receiving regular letters from APA

members expressing negative reactions that the directorate is taking a political stance by

advocating about issues ranging from home lessness to immigration (Tomes, 1997yf : K H U H D s

psychology has historically held the belief that the field itself is apolitical, there have been

criticisms by multicultural and feminist scholars who have argued that psychology has never

been apolitical (e.g., Aanstoos, 1986; Marecek, 1995; Prilleltensky, 1994; Smith, 2000yf 6 R F L D l

justice perspectives openly acknowledge the implicit political nature of asserting that clients

and communities have a right to fair treatment; human dignity; and equal access to health

care, education, and other resources. When a counseling psychologist examines his or her

worldview and considers the implications of various roles, the danger of political and religious

proselytizing in professional settings (Kiselica, 2003yf L V P L Q L P L ] H G 7 K L V H [ D P L Q D W L R Q D Q d

reexamination may be enhanced by ongoing collaboration with the community as well as

mentors and colleagues.

The political nature of social justice counseling may be seen in Goodman et al.'s (2004yf

examination of ethical issues relevant to two counseling goals: giving voice and

consciousness raising. Giving voice to clients or communities who have traditionally been

silenced regarding their experience of oppression represents one aspect of social justice

counseling. Difficult decisions may arise when counseling psychologists must choose which

voices are amplified through advocacy or even in the choices of research foci. This presents

itself particularly when there are limited resources, dissenting perspectives, and goals that

may seem self-destructive. Goodman et al. provided an example of a counseling trainee

advocating to amplify the voice of a female adolescent who, in the process of counseling,

made life choices that were potentially harmful. The ethical dilemma arose for the trainee

regarding the balance of giving voice to the adolescent while also working toward her well-

being.

Two ethical considerations relate to the goal of consciousness raising. First, Goodman et al.

(2004yf S R L Q W H G R X W W K D W W K H D F W R I F R Q V F L R X V Q H V V U D L V L Q J D S R O L W L F D O D F W V X J J H V W V W K D W W K e

psychologist has achieved some level of critical consciousness that is superior to that of the

client or group. This assumption calls upon the psychologist to examine his or her worldview

and beliefs. A second ethical issue may develop as a result of raising a client's consciousness

regarding his or her oppressive circumstances in the absence of strategies for coping with or

addressing those circumstances. We would like to highlight the need for a partnership

between social action and consciousness raising. Furthermore, consciousness raising, in and

of itself, may not be sufficient or even desirable if there is no attention to the consequences of

the newly acquired perspective and potential for positive action.

Informed consent is a historically central aspect of ethical practice and research. However,

this construct may take on different meanings in social justice counseling, particularly in light

of the need to work at multiple levels of interventions. Ensuring informed consent is the

practice of providing individuals with information regarding services and interventions, thereby

Vision, and Action Page 10 of 16 activities. Pope (1990yf L G H Q W L I L H G several issues pertaining to informed consent in prevention

work and suggested collaborative development of general agreements regarding the methods

used in community interventions. In addition, he posed the following questions:

Yet even in the cases of these “general agreement” goals, are we not ethically

responsible for examining the implications of what we're asking people to adjust and

adapt to? What are the values implicit in this adjustment and adaptation? What are

we influencing people to give up and to move toward, and at what personal and

social costs? Some methods must be developed for ensuring that the individual's

right “to be left alone” is given due weight. (Acting Only With Informed Consent,

Paragraph 4yf

Similarly, Goodman et al. (2004yf Q R W H G W Z R V S H F L I L F T X H V W L R Q V W K D W E U L Q J F R P S O H [ L W \ W R W K e

issue when multiple individuals or groups are involved: “Whose consent was necessary to

obtain?” and “What would we do if some participants did not consent?” (p. 822yf 7 K H V e

questions highlight intricacies of informed consent that are not often encountered in traditional

counseling approaches. The construct of informed consent needs to be enhanced within

training and practice to assist psychologists in considering the multiple questions that arise as

well as help clients consider the potential consequences of intervention.

As with accountability and informed consent, the axiom of “Do no harm” needs to be

considered differently within the context of social justice. The method of determining the

potential for harm may vary depending on the population involved and is complicated when

multisystemic interventions are enacted. Pope (1990yf G L V F X V V H G W K H F R P S O H [ L W \ R I G H W H U P L Q L Q g

whether a community is harmed by an intervention, including dimensions such as the

influence of the intervention on the community's social ecology, natural leadership,

cohesiveness, and sense of self-determination. This assessment is further complicated by

considering the potential effects of cultural and social class differences between the

counseling psychologist and the community. Pope also described the need to assess the

impact of a social intervention on the relationship of the community with the larger society

using the following example:

For example, a project might be planned to minimize the incidence of serious

depression, anxiety, and impulsive behavior in an economically-disadvantaged

neighborhood. Yet the disorders to be prevented might be viewed by others than

those undertaking the project as a natural response to severe poverty. Attempting to

eliminate such reactions to poverty might be a subtle, perhaps unintended, form of

social control helping people learn to adapt and adjust to desperate conditions. Such

efforts may tend to “quieten” a community or “keep the lid on.” They may hinder the

community's ability to identify the true source of its suffering and take effective

action. (Do No Harm, Paragraph 12yf

Pope (1990yf U H F R P P H Q G H G W K H G H Y H O R S P H Q W R I D Q L P S D F W U H S R U W G L V F X V V L Q J W K H L P S D F W R f

the intervention on all aspects of community life. In addition, psychologists may need to work

with the community to identify the problem and possible interventions, including the possible

consequences of interventions, in order to ensure informed consent. Raising the

consciousness of the community about the political context could be crucial.

Vision, and Action Page 11 of 16 discussion of another ethical question. They posited that building clients' strengths and

facilitating empowerment may emphasize for the clients the degree of control they “should”

have in an oppressive system. Goodman et al. questioned the ethics of working to help clients

feel empowered when they are actually in an unresponsive and oppressive system.

The following is a case vignette that demonstrates a therapist's effort at engaging in ethically

sound social justice. Through this case study, we would like to illustrate several of the issues

discussed in the above section, articulate how these may or may not have been addressed by

the therapist, and conclude by reflecting on ways the therapist may enhance his or her

response in light of these issues. This vignette is presented chronologically; thus, there were

multiple decision points that could have resulted in different outcomes had the therapist

chosen different routes. The reader should be curious about how the therapist engaged in

ethical decision making, but should also wonder how he or she might have approached the

same situation given age, race, ethnicity, social class, gender, sexual orientation, and

disability status similarities or differences.

A 20-something African American male therapist met with a middleaged, heterosexual,

African American couple, who presented because the husband was on a conditional

release from the state mental health agency, after being found not guilty by reason of

insanity. He had been released for more than 20 years, but had to maintain regular

contact with a designated mental health agency. During the regular checkin with the

therapist, the couple mentioned that they were distressed because their nephew was

being prosecuted for a murder he did not commit. The couple believed their nephew

was being truthful. In session, they lamented his fate and the racism that caused him

to be jailed and possibly imprisoned.

At this point, the therapist felt that he had some training and competence in

addressing sociopolitical forces. Thus, he felt it appropriate to include a social justice

approach as an aspect of this case. It is noteworthy that neither the therapist nor the

agency had a reputation for social advocacy or justice.

Initially, the couple seemed to be using the therapy time for validation of their feelings

of hopelessness in the situation pertaining to their nephew. Thus, the therapist

validated their feelings, without agreeing that the situation was hopeless. After the

therapist felt satisfied that he had empathized with the couple, he shifted to

collaborating with them on what to do next. The couple indicated that they wanted

“justice” for their nephew. The therapist asked them to describe what the justice would

look like. Their reply was that their nephew would be out of jail. The therapist asked

the couple to talk about any solutions they had tried before. They conveyed that they

had not tried anything and were resigned to the hopelessness of the situation.

The therapist assessed the couple's competency, assuming that they had already

attempted solutions to the problem they described. Hearing that they had not tried any,

Vision, and Action Page 12 of 16 paternalistically imposing solutions. At this point, the process of becoming aware of the

couple's knowledge and worldview, as well as those of the therapist, allowed the

therapist to make informed choices about empowering and appropriate roles. He was

operating from his personal principle of “only do for a family what it cannot do for

itself.” The therapist, an African American male, who was from a more advantaged

social class than the couple, felt it would have been inappropriate to assume that the

couple “should” advocate for themselves in the same manner as other middle- and

upper-class families might advocate for their relatives in the justice system.

The couple said that they would like to support their nephew in his court appearances

and appeals. But they did not see themselves as having any other role in advocating

for him. After asking the couple to offer any other ideas on how they could help, the

therapist shifted from the role of collaborator to that of expert. He asked the couple if

they had ever heard of the attorney general. Because they had not, he described the

attorney general as the highest ranking lawyer in the state and explained that it was

the attorney general's responsibility to look into concerns they might have about

impropriety. The therapist suggested that the attorney general would listen if they, as

state citizens, had a legitimate cause and that because the attorney general was an

elected official, they had a way to let him know whether he was doing a good enough

job.

In the above dialogue, the therapist began to shift away from collaborator and move

toward expert because his assessment indicated that the couple was uninformed about

their legal options. At the end of the interaction, the therapist became concerned that

his advocacy could easily become a public matter, resulting in a possible newsworthy

event, and considered how he could maintain appropriate boundaries while also seeing

his advocacy reach a reasonable endpoint. This potential highlights the need for

informed consent given possible consequences the couple might face if their actions

resulted in public attention.

The couple indicated that they did not know what to do, so they were resigned to wait

until the court dates. The therapist asked them what outcome they hoped for, to which

they replied that their nephew would be home and justice would be served. The

therapist obtained the couple's permission to collaboratively problem solve ways to

make this possible.

Throughout this session, one can see that the therapist refrained from imposing his

social justice agenda. In an effort to ensure informed consent, he sought permission to

proceed at each step toward social justice. This is important because psychologists

who are involved in social justice may forget that some clients have not given much

thought to self-advocacy or may not feel entitled to do so. Thus, psychologists may

need to introduce aspects of social justice progressively in an effort to accompany

rather than lead clients to action.

Consistent with the principle of not doing more for families than what they can do for

themselves, the therapist systematically and collaboratively worked with the couple

toward initiating action beyond supporting their nephew in court appearances. This

was done by asking the couple if they knew how to identify and contact appropriate

government officials, then assisting them in this process using the telephone book to

find the state attorney general and local district attorney. As a result of this in-session

Vision, and Action Page 13 of 16 was possible. The couple then role-played how they might talk to the attorney general

or district attorney. The therapist offered the couple the opportunity to make the call

from his office, but they decided to make the call on their own. From there, the couple

and therapist checked in weekly regarding the matter. Although the wheels of justice

were slow, the couple was able to facilitate their nephew's release on bail, pending a

second trial.

In the above vignette, the therapist (ayf H Q J D J H G L Q V R F L D O M X V W L F H E H F D X V H K H I H O W K H K D G V R P e

competence and training in this area, (byf K D G D Q D Z D U H Q H V V R I K L V E H O L H I V D Q G L Q W H Q W L R Q V D Q d

was therefore able to collaborate rather than patronize, (cyf F D U H I X O O \ F K R V H D S S U R S U L D W H U R O H s

given the context and strengths of the couple as well as established appropriate boundary

separation between “behind the scenes” involvement versus more public advocacy, and (dyf

attempted to maintain informed consent throughout the process.

The therapist's postcounseling reflections suggested that it may have been helpful to inform

the couple about additional resources and collaborate with them to discover published

resources such as the NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, as well as other nonprofit

organizations that provided legal advocacy. In addition, establishing complete informed

consent would have involved educating the couple regarding any potential negative and

positive implications of their advocacy actions as well as the possible duration of advocacy

necessary. In the long run, the therapist's goal was to help the couple develop skills that they

could generalize in any kind of social justice matter similar to the tenet of “leaving the clients

tools for social change,” as described by Goodman et al. (2004, p. 798yf .

Another ethical concern may result when a therapist encourages a client to engage in a

particular action even when there is a good likelihood that the advocated position may fail. It is

possible that a state attorney general would be less likely to listen to the above-described

couple than an advocacy group. Thus, it can be equally important to realistically prepare the

couple for possible response or lack thereof. This is an example of how complex the choices

may be in terms of determining an appropriate role and intervention. At times, empowerment

of the couple may be enough, whereas at other times, empowerment may be combined with

independent action or advocacy on the part of the psychologist independent from the client

(Toporek & Liu, 2001yf 2 Q D I L Q D O Q R W H W K L V Y L J Q H W W H S U R Y L G H G D Q L O O X V W U D W L R Q R I W K H E R W K D Q G ”

principle, rather than the “either-or” principle. It is often thought that “either” one engages in

social justice “or” one engages in psychotherapy. The therapist endeavored to provide “both”

psychotherapy “and” social justice. This parallels literature that emphasizes the need to

balance intrapsychic and extrapsychic interventions (e.g., Boyd-Franklin, 2003; Haverkamp,

1994yf .

In light of existing ethical codes and issues as described in the social justice literature, we

propose several recommendations for future directions to optimize ethical behavior and

decision making.

First, there is a need for clearer and more direct language in ethics codes regarding the

professional responsibility of psychologists to address social injustice. Additionally, specific

Vision, and Action Page 14 of 16 psychologists and increase informed principled behavior. Feminist, multicultural, and

prevention perspectives have established language that may be useful. Several documents

provide competencies that are relevant to social justice initiatives (e.g., APA, 1990, 2000yf .

Additionally, other disciplines have developed guidelines that may be very relevant for social

justice approaches in counseling psychology. For example, the American Counseling

Association has articulated a set of advocacy competencies (Lewis, Arnold, House, & Toporek,

2001yf W K D W R X W O L Q H V F R P S H W H Q F L H V D Q G J R D O V I R U F R X Q V H O R U V D W W K U H H G L I I H U H Q W O H Y H O V F O L H Q W R r

student, school or community, and larger public arena. The goals include empowerment,

collaboration, information, and advocacy. Although this document is specifically focused on

advocacy, it offers guidance for defining similar competencies for social justice.

Second, guidelines that could be used for ethical decision making for social justice in

individual and community interventions would be useful; for example, the model for ethical

decision making described by Ridley, Liddle, Hill, and Li (2001yf 7 K L V P R G H O L Q Y R O Y H V W Z o

dimensions: stages (critical reflection and creative problem solvingyf D Q G S U R F H V V H W K L F D l

consideration of cultural data and the ethical resolution of cultural conflictsyf L Q W H J U D W L Q g

attention to cultural contexts and implications. This type of model may be useful in social

justice counseling given its attention to external and contextual variables.

Third, training programs will need to adjust their curricula to incorporate social justice

interventions in order to broaden counseling psychologists' competence. In contrast to

Prilleltensky et al. (in pressyf Z H E H O L H Y H W K D W F R X Q V H O L Q J S V \ F K R O R J L V W V F D Q S U D F W L F H V R F L D l

justice ethically and can develop a scope of competence in this arena. At the same time, we

agree that practitioners, researchers, and educators need to be trained to recognize external

and systemic forces of oppression and intervene appropriately.

Fourth, research is needed to examine the impact of different ethical decision-making models

on clients and counseling psychologists particularly in light of the complexities presented in

social justice interventions. In addition, research regarding the efficacy of counseling

psychologists undertaking alternative roles would be useful. Qualitative and quantitative

research that assists psychologists in developing models for appropriate balance between

individual and structural conceptualizations and interventions in counseling could help

increase the cultural relevance of work with clients facing a variety of oppressive contexts.

Although the APA Code (2002yf Q R W H V D U H D V R I H W K L F D O F R Q F H U Q W K D W P D \ E H D S S O L H G W R V R F L D l

justice in counseling psychology, complexities exist that suggest that there is a need for

clearer guidance. For counseling psychology to truly demonstrate a commitment to positive

social change, ethical codes and guidelines should reflect the issues inherent in this work.

Related professions, organizations, and specializations that have historically centralized social

justice should be considered as resources in the pursuit of more relevant guidelines. Finally,

there is a need for more directed training and research to facilitate greater social justice

competence at both organizational and individual levels in the profession of counseling

psychology.

Rebecca L. Toporek Robert A. Williams

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social justice

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ethical codes

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