Lifespan Development
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 44(2) 175 –194 © The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0022022112472253 jccp.sagepub.com Invited Review Article 472253 JCC 44 2 10.1177/0022022112472253Journal of Cross-Cultural PsychologyKeller 1University Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Germany Corresponding Author:
Heidi Keller, Department Culture and Development, Institute of Psychology, University Osnabrueck, Artilleriestrasse 34, Osnabrueck 49069, Germany Email: [email protected] Attachment and Culture Heidi Keller 1 Abstract This article proposes to reconceptualize attachment theory as a culture-sensitive framework.
First the seminal contribution of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth are recognized in propos- ing a new paradigm for understanding children’s development, synthesizing the interdisciplin- ary knowledge of relationship formation present during the 1950s (Bowlby) and developing a fieldwork approach in combination with quasi-experimental procedures in the laboratory (Ainsworth). It is argued that students of attachment theory have expanded the framework with respect to the intergenerational transmission and the organizational natu\ re of attachment, rela- tions with psychopathology and clinical applications, and its psychophysiological foundation. It is further argued that attachment theorists were not responsive to developments in evolutionary sciences and cultural/anthropological approaches of parenting and child development. From an evolutionary perspective, contextual variability is crucial to meet the purpose of adaptation. It is demonstrated that the assumptions of monotropy, the conception of stranger anxiety, as well as the definition of attachment in mainstream attachment research are in line with the conception of psychological autonomy, adaptive for Western middle-class, but deviate from the cultural val- ues of many non-Western and mainly rural ecosocial environments. In the concluding paragraph, a strategy is proposed for an empirical research program that would contribute to the cultural foundation of attachment.
Keywords cultural psychology, developmental: biological, family/childrearing The formulation of attachment theory was an important milestone in the s\ cientific history of the study of human development. The publication of John Bowlby’s trilogy of “Attachment and Loss,” with the first volume “Attachment” being published in 19\ 69, marked the beginning of an unprecedented success story of a scientific theory that influenced not o\ nly basic research but also various fields of application substantially. More than 20,000 journal articles on attachment are listed in EBSCO, an international electronic research database (see als\ o Gottlieb, in press).
Counseling families with small children is mainly based on attachment th\ eory as are many fam- ily support programs, like, for example, STEEP (for steps toward effective, enjoyable parenting) (Erickson & Egeland, 2004). Policy recommendations and programs are ba\ sed on assumptions 176 Journal of Cr oss-Cultural Psychology 44(2) of attachment theory (see Keller, in press). During recent years also, early educational programs more and more rely on attachment relationships (e.g., Kennedy & Kennedy\ , 2004). It is a characteristic of new paradigms that they detach from previously\ held views. For Bowlby’s attachment theory, this applies with respect to different perspectives. The new under - standing of relationship formation started to abandon the Freudian perspectives of development.
Freud (1940/1964) and particularly the psychoanalyst René Spitz (1\ 965) regarded the develop- ment of attachment to the mother as a co-occurring phenomenon of an infa\ nt’s pleasure in nursing during the so-called “oral stage” (see also Johow & Voland, in press). This change in perspective is based on the consideration of an evolutionary foundation of attachment. Besides the work of Charles Darwin (1859), the experiments that Harry \ Harlow conducted with chimpanzees in his laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin, especially became instrumental.
Harlow (1958) convincingly demonstrated that deprived chimpanzee infan\ ts preferred a wire mother that was covered with cloth over a wire mother that provided food\ . Thus, so-called con- tact comfort was more important for the infant than the hunger drive. Fr\ om a very different theo- retical perspective, learning theorists, the mainstream psychologists at\ that time, held the view that the provision with food through nursing acts as a secondary reinfor\ cer and therefore defines the mother as the primary target of infant’s attachment relationships. However, learning theories in this broad understanding failed to explain the fact that infants whos\ e negative emotionality is immediately attended to consequently do cry less, where learning theory \ would predict that they would cry more because of the reinforcing nature of the attention that t\ he infant elicits through crying. This example became the focus of a famous controversy between Jack Gewir\ tz and Mary Ainsworth (see Ainsworth & Bell, 1977; Gewirtz & Boyd, 1977). The third dimension express- ing the zeitgeist of that time was the emphasis on the primacy of cognit\ ive development based on the recognition of the competent infant (see Osofsky, 1987; Stone Smith, & Murphy, 1973, for overviews at that time). However, long-term observations of infants inspired through ethological approaches revealed\ undoubtedly that the view of the infant as a “blooming buzzing confus\ ion” that William James (1890) had described and that was prevalent through the 1950s was igno\ rant of the tremendous competencies of attention, information processing, and memory of infants\ from Day 1 onward (e.g., Ashcraft, 2009; Domsch, Lohaus, & Thomas, 2010). The competent infant was born with innate competencies to process environmental information and interact wi\ th the environment.
The discovery of innate competences is still ongoing (Spelke, 1991). John Bowlby was the first to synthesize these different approaches with a systemic under - standing of the mother–child bond. His clinical observations as a child psychiatrist in the Tavistock clinic in London dealt with the devastating consequences of the Second World War in terms of separation and loss for family functioning and children’s development. He came to emphasize that the mutual motivations of the mother and the child to be \ near each other repre- sented a behavioral system. He interpreted this system as a biologically\ functional behavioral pattern with the purpose of survival and reproduction. Mary Ainsworth, a Canadian psychologist, joined John Bowlby in London in the \ early 1950s, where they started a fruitful long-term collaborative relationship. She \ was the first to empirically study attachment and its development, and she focused her attention on i\ nterindividual differ - ences. Following her husband to Uganda, she observed babies and their caregivers in their natu- ral environment (Ainsworth, 1967). She started a longitudinal ethnogra\ phic study in Kampala in 1954/1955 describing childrearing patterns between mothers and infants as well as various other related issues. She condensed her observational protocols in describing \ three groups of infants’ attachment behaviors: securely attached (N = 16), insecurely attached (N = 7), and nonattached infants (N = 5). She concluded that maternal sensitivity is the crucial determinant of attachment quality, which she later defined as the “ability to perceive and interpret a\ ccurately the signals and Keller 177 communications in the infant’ s behavior and, given this understanding, to respond to them appro- priately and promptly” (Ainsworth, Bell, & Stayton, 1974, p. 127). Being back in the United States, Mary Ainsworth started a longitudinal study in Baltimore in order to systematically examine relations between maternal behavior and \ later infant attachment.
She visited mothers and their newborns once every month at home for a period of 1 year (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). However, she could not replicate the observations that she had made in the Ugandan families. The “Baltimore babies were used to having their mothers come and go, come and go, and they were much less likely to cry \ when their mother left the room” (Karen, 1994, p. 146). Ainsworth hoped that an unfamiliar setting such as a university laborato\ ry might raise the threshold of threat and prompt the U.S. children to display similar atta\ chment behaviors as the Ugandan babies did at home. Thereby she created the most prominent laboratory assessment of developmental psychology, the Standardized Strange Situation Procedure (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Karen, 1994). In this procedure, a child is observed in the laboratory for 20 minutes while the mother and a stranger enter and leave the room alternately under conditi\ ons of increasing stress.
Observing the child’s responses with regard to the separation and reunion with the mother an\ d the amount of the child’s exploration revealed the expected differences; children are categorized into three groups: securely attached, insecurely avoidant, and insecurely amb\ ivalent attached. Later, Mary Main added a fourth category, the disorganized attachment (Main & Solomon, 1986, 1990), which is characterized through bizarre infant behaviors like freezing, c\ rouching on the floor, and other depressed behaviors in the presence of the caregiver during the St\ range Situation. Disorganized attachment is considered to be an early predictor for the development of psychopathology from the preschool period onward (Henninghausen & Lyons-Ruth, 2005). Variability in the U.S. infants’ behaviors in the Strange Situation could be linked to the former home observations and yielded relationships with maternal sensitivity. Ainsworth’s classification of 106 U.S. children set the benchmark for later research, constituting \ the “American Standard Distribution”: 66% secure, 12% avoidant, and 22% resistant (Ainswort\ h et al., 1978). In the following years, students of Ainsworth and their students expanded attachment theory into different domains:
- intergenerational transmission of attachment, - organizational approach of attachment for relationships in general, - relation with psychopathology and clinical application, and - psychophysiology of attachment.
In the following paragraphs, the development in these fields will be bri\ efly characterized.
The Intergenerational Transmission of Attachment Interest in the intergenerational transmission of attachment was inspired by the study of adult attachment patterns within their family of origin as assessed by the adult attachment interview (George, Kaplan, & Main, 1996; Main & Goldwyn, 1998). Parents were asked open-ended ques- tions about their attachment relations in childhood and about the influe\ nce of these early rela- tions on their own development. Three distinct patterns of responding were identified:
Autonomous-secure parents gave a clear and coherent account of early attachments (whethe\ r these had been satisfying or not); preoccupied parents spoke of many conflicted childhood memories about attachment but did not draw them together into an organized, consistent picture; and finally, dismissing parents were characterized by an inability to remember much about attachment relations in childhood. In some of the dismissing interviews,\ parents’ parents were 178 Journal of Cr oss-Cultural Psychology 44(2) idealized on a general level, but influences of early attachment experiences on later development were denied. Specific memories, when they did occur, suggested episodes of rejection. Adult Attachment Interview classifications are assumed to correspond to Ainsworth’s secure, ambivalent, and avoidant infant patterns. Furthermore, adult patterns we\ re empirically correlated with infant patterns (e.g., a dismissing parent tended to have an avoid\ ant infant; Bretherton, 1992; Fonagy, Steele, & Steele, 1991; Main & Goldwyn, 1998; Ward et al., 1990). However, the actual process of transmission of attachment from one generation to the \ next remained largely unclear (e.g., Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist, & Target, 2002), so that the “transmission gap” became a prominent research topic. Recently, the maternal mind-mindedness, or reflective functioning (Fonagy, Target, & Steele, 1998) and narrative conversational discourses (Oppenheim & Waters, 1995; i.e., the understanding and verbalizing of mental states) became the top candidates for fill- ing the transmission gap (e.g., Bernard & Dozier, 2010; Madigan et al., 2006).
The Organizational Approach of Attachment for Relationships in General Attachment theory assumes that the organization of attachment during infancy has implications for later relationships. An extension of early attachment theory pertains to the relationship between adult attachment patterns and romantic and marital relationships (Weiss, 1982, 1991).
Studies reveal that secure attachment styles are associated with greater\ relationship interdepen- dence, commitment, trust, and satisfaction than insecure attachment styl\ es (Fraley & Davis, 1997; Simpson, 1999). Looking at retrospective reports, Shaver and Haza\ n (1988) pointed out that adults who describe themselves as secure, avoidant, or ambivalent w\ ith respect to romantic relationships report differing patterns of parent-child relationships in their families of origi\ n.
The Relation With Psychopathology and Clinical Application Attachment theory has become a primary source of reference for developme\ ntal deviations and pathology (e.g., the inclusion of reactive attachment disorders in the \ International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision [I\ CD-10] classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as reactive attachment disorder). Attachment disorders are assumed to be a consequence of the failure to develop normal attachm\ ent relationships during the early childhood period (until about 3 years of age). Neglect, abus\ e, separations, frequent change of caregivers, and excessive numbers of caregivers are discussed as poss\ ible causes as well as lack of caregiver responsiveness. The case of Romanian orphans has therefore become a major target of attachment disorder research (e.g., Gunnar, Morison, Chisholm, & Schuder, 2001).
The Neurophysiology of Attachment Over the last decades, there has been an increasing interest combined wi\ th research efforts in the understanding of the (neuro)physiological underpinnings of attachment \ relationships. So far, different physiological measures have been assessed in terms of attachment \ regulation, mainly in response to encounters with strangers (for a summary, see Fox & Hane, 2008): (1) Heart rate (HR)—securely attached infants’ HR seem to recover faster than insecurely attached infants after HR increases during separation from the mother; nevertheless, the \ results are not equivocal across studies and there seems to be an interaction with temperament and\ other personality descriptors. (2) Cortisol—salivary cortisol reactivity is a very po\ pular measure due to its nonin- vasiveness. Nevertheless, results differ due to different assessment modalities. In general, it may be tentatively argued that stress during the strange situation is reflected in increases \ in cortisol levels—also interactions with temperament and other psychological mea\ sures are reported Keller 179 (Gunnar , Mangelsdorf, Larson, & Hertsgaard, 1991). In general, the development\ of the child’s attachment outcome is assumed to be a product of the child’s genetically encoded biological predisposition and the particular caregiver affective-relational environment. The developments that have been briefly outlined here depart from attach\ ment theory as for - mulated by Bowlby and Ainsworth. As concomitants of attachment theory, ideas about intergen- erational transmission, organizing relationships in general, deviations and pathological behaviors\ , as well as experiences that mold the neurophysiology of attachment rest in the assumption of monotropic relationships, exclusive attention between baby and caregiver\ , mainly the mother, sensitive responsiveness towards infants signals, and elaborated mentali\ stic dialogues and trait- like organization of the psyche (for more details, see Keller, in press). These assumptions char - acterize the psychology of parent-child relationships in Western middle-class families, which compose less than 5% of the world’s population (Keller, 2007). There are, however, accounts of substantial differences of socialization goals, caretaking strategies, and parent-child\ behavioral relationships across cultural communities (e.g., Gottlieb, 2004; Keller\ , 2007; Lancy, 2008; Weisner, 1987) that must have implications for the development of attachment r\ elationships. It is therefore astonishing that none of the students of attachment have conce\ ptually and theoretically advanced attachment theory to keep up with the developments in the diverse fields that have been foundational for the formulation of attachment. In the remainder of this article, we argue that attachment theory as it stands does not ade- quately reflect cultural variation in relationship development. Related \ to this is the neglect of core assumptions of evolutionary theory as adaptations to contextual demands. These consider - ations necessarily influence the definition of attachment in particular with respect to normative character. In the concluding paragraph, we will propose a study program with the \ aim to make attachment theory an evolutionary-based cultural informed theory of deve\ lopment.
Attachment and Evolutionary Approaches Attachment theory is based on evolutionary theory with the assumption th\ at attachment has evolved during human phylogeny in the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA; Bowlby, 1969/1982). Due to hominid brain growth (that was conditional for th\ e development of social intelligence to coordinate life in larger social groups that were able to exploit better resources and to defend more effectively), human infants are born “physiologically preterm” (Prechtl, 1984), such that the skull is flexible enough to pass through the birth channel. Thus, infants are altricial and depend on a caregiving environment to survive \ and strive. Infants are equipped from birth onward with attachment behaviors like smiling, vocalizing, looking, and crying that attract the attention of others. Humans are also equipped wi\ th a complementary caregiving system that is sensitive and responsive to infants’ signals and starts working during early childhood (e.g., intuitive parenting program, Papousek & Papousek, 1995). This system basically consists of interest in infants and the desire to stimulate an\ d console them depending on the nature of their signals. The evolutionary origin of these systems has been equated with assumptio\ ns of universality (LeVine & Norman, 2001; Rothbaum, Pott, Azuma, Miyake, & Weisz, 2000; Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyke, & Morelli 2000). Attachment qualities seen around 1 year of age are assumed to be universal manifestations of preceding caregiving experiences. The best caregiving environment for the human infant consists of (maternal) sensitive responsiveness a\ nd mind-mindedness, a later addition to the theory, as they are precursors of attachment security. However, the concep- tion of maternal sensitivity rests in a partnership model of interaction\ al (quasi) equality by assigning the infant an equal role for the interactional flow as express\ ed in turn-taking and face- to-face exchanges (Keller, 2003). Infants are attributed an independent agency, a free will 180 Journal of Cr oss-Cultural Psychology 44(2) (Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991), with preferences, needs, and desires and emotions that are ela\ bo- rated in mentalistic dialogues. This conception of an infant can only be adaptive in contexts where material and social resources are plentiful so that families can a\ fford the caregiver-child exclusivity without neglecting other tasks. It is obvious that this cann\ ot apply to all humans. Therefore, it is a misconception of evolutionary theory to expect the sa\ me behavioral regula- tions irrespective of contextual variation (Keller, 2010). Lamb, Thompson, Gardner, Charnov, and Estes (1984) have raised the question of the adapt- ability of one evolutionary strategy as a misunderstanding of evolutiona\ ry principles and natural selection. These authors correctly state that “(e)volutionary biology, however, demands an evalu- ation not only of biologically influenced predispositions but also of th\ e contingencies provided by the specific environments or ‘niches’ in which the individuals must manifest these predisposi- tions” (p. 146). Belsky, Steinberg, and Draper (1991) later qualified secure and insecure attach- ment responses as developmental organizers in terms of different reproductive strategies yet equally adaptive in terms of reproductive outcomes. Even today, evolutionary theory is often misunderstood as subscribing to the assum\ ption of psychic unity (Norenzayan, Choi, & Peng, 2007). In fact, Neo-Darwinian\ evolutionary theory (Alexander, 1979; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990; Wilson, 1975) claims that contextual information is crucial for defining adaptation, thus putting variability in the very\ centre of evolutionary theo- rizing. The core assumption is that individuals need to select the behavioral al\ ternatives that promise the highest reproductive outcomes in a particular ecological sit\ uation (Keller & Chasiotis, 2008). It is therefore unlikely that in the Pleistocene EEA,\ which is regarded as the cradle of modern men, only one behavioral strategy would have been selec\ ted as adaptive. In the same vein, Belsky (1999) argued that different attachment strategies, as defined by Ainsworth et al. (1978), do not represent one healthy strategy and different aberrations but different adap- tive strategies in different environments responding to different adaptational challenges.
Therefore, secure attachment is not “better” than insecure attachm\ ent but a different way to maximize reproductive success. The difference in perspective, whether psychological well-being (assumedly associated with secure attachment) or reproductive success,\ is the tertium compara- tionis. This difference is also the starting point for the growing interest in an evolut\ ionary devel- opmental psychology (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2002; Keller, 2001). Interestingly, John Bowlby explicitly stressed the contextual nature of attachment in\ his early writings (Bowbly, 1969/1982), but this did not find its way into attachment research.
Attachment and Cultural Differences in Socialization Strategies Students of attachment theory claim a “cultural origin” for attach\ ment theory based on Mary Ainsworth’s (1967) Uganda study, which represented her recognition of cultural influences. It is true that Mary Ainsworth adapted her Uganda experiences to the Euro-American middle-cla\ ss families in Baltimore by increasing their stress to activate the attachm\ ent system through the laboratory environment and the inclusion of a stranger. However, the strange situation procedure was then exported to different cultural environments from the Gusii in Kenya (Kermoian & Leiderman, 1986) and Hausa in Nigeria (Marvin, Van Devender, Iwanaga, LeVine, & LeVine, 1977) to Western and non-Western middle-class families (for a summary, see van IJzendoorn & Sagi-Schwartz, 2008) without further cultural adaptations. Today, the only dimension that attachment researchers have recognized as cult\ ural is the dis- tribution of the attachment qualities. Distributions deviating from the \ American Standard Distribution as assessed in the Ainsworth Baltimore study (Ainsworth et al., 1978) are inter - preted ex post facto as demonstrating the role of culture. There are usually three examples given. Keller 181 In Northern Germany , Grossmann et al. (Grossmann, Huber, & Wartner, 1981; Grossmann, Spangler, Suess, & Unzner, 1985) replicated the Ainsworth Strange Situation with 46 mother- infant pairs and found a different distributions of attachment classifications with a high number of avoidant infants: 52% avoidant, 34% secure, and 13% resistant (Gross\ mann et al., 1985). The Japanese case is another example. Takahashi (1986) studied 60 pairs of Japanese mother-infant pairs and compared the Japanese distribution with Ainsworth’s distributional pattern. There were no significant differences in proportions of securely attached (68%) and insecurely atta\ ched (32%) infants. However, the Japanese insecure group consisted of only resistant children, with no avoidant ones (see also Miyake, Chen, & Campos, 1985). Finally, there is the Israeli case with the Sagi et al. (1985) study that also revealed a high frequency of the ambivalent pattern.
Grossmann et al. (1985) interpreted their findings as expressing a gre\ ater parental push toward children’s independence, whereas the Israeli kibbutzim and the Japanese data were\ interpreted in terms of underexposure to strangers. Notably, the Japanese childrearing philosophy was regarded as stressing close mother-infant bonds, which may lead to the experience of excessive separation \ stress caused by the Strange Situation procedure. Inge Bretherton (1992) rightly found these cultural explanations as pe\ rsuasive on the surface but not based on systematic assessments of parental beliefs and cultural\ ly guided practices.
Moreover meta-analyses of cross-cultural studies showed that intracultur\ al variation is far greater than intercultural variation (van IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988). Bretherton (1992) recog- nized the need for systematic studies of cultural differences when she concluded that attachment researchers need to develop ecologically valid, theory-driven measures, \ tailored to specific cul- tures and based on a deeper knowledge of parents and children’s folk theories about family relationships. Folk theories about socialization and development are bas\ ed on cultural concep- tions of the self (Keller, 2007). Bowlby’s psychoanalytic training may have had an impact in creating a psycholog\ y that defined independence from others as a requisite of healthy human develop\ ment (Erikson, 1950; Freud, 1930/1961; Mahler, 1972). Ever since, independence from others and personal autonomy are the ideological foundations of attachment theory with notable conseq\ uences for the definition of parenting quality, childrearing goals, and with respect to an understanding of desirable \ end- points of development (Keller, 2003, 2004, 2007; Keller & Harwood, 2009). Indeed, security of attachment is not simply a behavioral category; it i\ s also a moral ideal in as much as it provides a pathway to the development of culturally valued\ qualities, such as self- confidence, curiosity, and psychological independence (Harwood, Miller, & Lucca Irizarry, 1995; LeVine & Norman, 2001; Morelli & Rothbaum, 2007; Rothbaum, Pott et al., 2000; Rothbaum, Weisz et al., 2000). The inherent moral imperative in attachment discourse has impli- cations for the definition of psychological health and well-being in gen\ eral. Furthermore, maternal sensitivity is not simply assumed to be a causal i\ nfluence in the devel- opment of attachment; it is a judgment on maternal adequacy, a way of distinguishing good from bad mothers (LeVine & Norman, 2001). Ainsworth (1969/2012) describes the sensitive mother as one who acknowledges that her baby has his/her own will; she also res\ pects her baby’s anger and evaluates the baby’s needs as a separate autonomous person. Promptness of responding to the baby’s signals is important because the baby cannot perceive a delayed respon\ se as contin- gent upon his communication. It is assumed that it is good for a baby to\ gain some feeling of efficacy and eventually to gain a sense of competence in controlling the s\ ocial environment.
Cultural influences in the conceptualization of maternal sensitivity are\ even more pronounced with regard to the evaluation of maternal cooperation versus interference with the baby’s ongo- ing behavior (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Interference is conceived of as\ instructing, directing, and controlling, rather than following the baby’s lead, which is highly desirable. The highly interfer - ing or intrusive mother is regarded as one who has no respect for her ba\ by as a separate, active, 182 Journal of Cr oss-Cultural Psychology 44(2) and autonomous person, whose wishes and activities have a validity of th\ eir own. Ainsworth (1969/2012) considered one of the dynamics behind interference to be a\ n emphasis on training.
From this perspective, the mother feels that she can shape the baby to f\ it her own concept of good behavior, and she imposes her agenda on him without regard to his own wishes (cf., also Rothbaum, Pott et al., 2000; Rothbaum, Weisz et al., 2000). However, directing and controlling infant’s and children’s behavior is the ideal of good par - enting in many non-Western cultural environments (Chao, 1995; Keller, 2007; Morelli & Rothbaum, 2007). Therefore, what is normative in one cultural environment is regarded as \ a pathological condition in another. For example, mother-infant symbiosis or triangulations belong to the clinical repertoire in the Euro-American middle-class culture, wh\ ereas it is the cultural standard and the valued practice in many non-Western contexts, which actually compose the majority of the world (Kagitcibasi, 2007; Yovsi, Kärtner, Keller, & Lohaus, 2009). In the follow- ing discussion, some cornerstones of socialization patterns that deviate\ from a Western middle- class perspective will be presented.
Multiple Caregiving Arrangements It is the most obvious difference in caregiving patterns across cultures that the monotropic bond between one caregiver and one infant is the exception rather than the no\ rmal case for human populations. This change in perspective has far-reaching consequences, and it has implications for the definition and the organization of attachment. From an evolutionary point of view, anthropologist Sarah Hrdy (1999) has convincingly argued that humankind would not have survived if solely mothers had been infant\ s’ caretakers. She pro- posed a cooperative breeding model (Hrdy, 1999, 2009) as a social system in which nonparental members of a social group—alloparents—help to support offspring who are not their direct bio- logical descendants. Alloparenting is popular in diverse species including primates (Clutton\ -Brock, 2002; Lancaster, Kaplan, Hill, & Hurtado, 2000). Nevertheless Bowlby with his monotrop\ ic view referred to the work of the British ethologist Robert Hinde, who studied\ rhesus macaques who have a caregiving system with the mother playing a unique role for the upbrin\ ging of the offspring.
Steven Suomi (2008) commented on that: “One wonders how Bowlby’s attachment theory would have looked if Hinde had been studying capuchin rather than rhesus monkeys!” (p. 177). There are primate models with care arrangements like the cotton-top tamarins that \ rely more on distributed caretaking (Blum, 2002) or Bonnet macaques that do not show stranger a\ nxiety (Rosenblum & Kaufman, 1968). Primate parenting of over 300 primate species can look \ very different (Fairbanks, 2000) in terms of social systems and parenting strategies. Moreover pri\ mate parenting varies con- textually. as the impressive studies of Christophe Boesch et al. have revealed (\ e.g. Boesch, 2012). In the human family networks in the EEA, mothers benefitted from allopar\ ental help (grand- mothers, siblings, other relatives) by distributing the cost of raising offspring and thereby still being able to spend a considerable amount of time on domestic activities\ , such as hunting/gather - ing, or working in the fields, rather than on child care (Kramer, 2005; for a summary, see Otto, 2008). The care and altruism of alloparents is best explained by the theory of \ kin selection (de Waal, 2003) as formulated in the 1950s by Japanese primatologist Imanish\ i (1941/2002) and British sociobiologist Hamilton (1964). Alloparents enhance their inclusive fitness by helping kin (Trivers, 1985; van IJzendoorn, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & Sagi-Schwartz, 2006) and coop- erative breeding systems enhance the fitness of its members by reducing \ birth intervals, raising maternal fertility, and promoting infant survival in primates (Silk, 2002) as well as in\ humans (Daly, Salmon, & Wilson, 1997; Hrdy, 2009). Accordingly, we find patterns of alloparenting in many cultural environments (for \ a summary, see Lancy, 2008). For example, among the Efe of Zaire, newborns are passed betwe\ en women Keller 183 who collectively hold, carry , and nurse the infant. At the age of 6 weeks, Efe infants spend more time with other persons than with the biological mother (Tronick, Morelli, & Ivey, 1992). Similarly, Gottlieb (2004, in press) has presented extensive evidence that afte\ r birth Beng babies from the Ivory Coast typically see the mother, a grandmother, often an aunt, and perhaps one or two other female kin:
The newborn’s social circle widens dramatically almost immediately following the bir\ th.
As soon as an infant emerges from the mother’s womb, assuming the baby appears healthy, while one of the older women present washes the newborn, someone else \ from the mother’s family walks around the village as a messenger, announcing the baby’s arrival to members of every village household. … On hearing the news,\ people flock to the courtyard to welcome the fresh arrival to the village, and to this l\ ife. Within about an hour, a long line forms outside the door of the birthing room. (Gottlieb, i\ n press) Courtney Meehan (2005) reports from the Aka tropical forest foragers, who reside in the Congo Basin Rainforest, that children are raised in cooperative childrea\ ring systems. Infants and young children have approximately 20 caregivers interacting with them on\ a daily basis. Aka mothers remain primary caregivers in infancy, but maternal care significantly decreases after the child’s first year of life. Alloparenting and multiple caregiving (i.e., socially distributed caretaking; Serpell, 1984; Weisner, 1987, 2005) are not simply Sub-Saharan African phenomenon as one could conclude from these examples. Kurtz (1992) presents convincing evidence about m\ ultiple caretaking in India in his book All the Mothers Are One, where he refers to Seymour’s (1999) work in Bhubaneswar, Orissa as well as Minturn and Hitchcock’s (1966) contributions to The Six Culture Study. Furthermore, Sharma and LeVine (1998) have undertaken lengthy, systematic studies of multiple childcare in naturalistic settings in different parts of Northern India. Susan Seymour (2004) concludes:
India provides an excellent case study for examining multiple child care\ . Even in a context of rapid change and modernization, my research and that of others indica\ te that exclusive mothering is the exception, rather than the rule and that the concept of\ maternal indulgence— that is, a mother focused solely or primarily on responding to and nurtu\ ring her child—is itself problematic. (p. 550) Lewis (2005) has argued that multiple mothering is also not simply a matter of non-Western cultural environments. He sees socialization as a process of learning to\ become a member of different social networks. From the social relational approach (Lewis, 2005), the infant is embedded in multiple, complex social networks from conception on. Simila\ rly, in his comments about multiple caretaking, Weisner (2005) concludes: “The dyadic attachment model severely limits the incorporation of such variation in children’s social and cultural worlds into the analy- sis of attachment and close relationships” (p. 90f). Not only do multiple caretaking systems vary in their structure and organization, there are differences especially with respect to the mother’s role. Does the mother play a special role among other caretakers, or is she one among others? West Cameroonian Nso farmer mothers try to prevent their infants from developing special bonds to them through b\ lowing into the infants’ faces and forcing them to attend to others. Only when Nso are single mot\ hers, and thus in a socially unfavorable situation in their society, do they accept special bonds between their infants and themselves (Keller & Otto, 2011; Otto, 2008). The organization of the caretaking system has direct implications for the definition of attachment. We will return to this point later. 184 Journal of Cr oss-Cultural Psychology 44(2) Stranger Anxiety Related to the caretaking arrangement is the evaluation of strangers in \ the social world of infants and small children. In the Ainsworth Strange Situation procedure, strangers are intro- duced as conditions of stress. Stranger anxiety, also referred to as “8-month anxiety” (Spitz, 1965; Sroufe, 1977), is defined as the child’s perception of an unfamiliar person as being dif- ferent and thus fear arousing (Ainsworth et al., 1974, 1978). It is re\ ported to emerge during the second half of the first year with a peak around the eighth month of\ age. It consists of avoidance behaviors and can lead to fearful crying. Similar to attachmen\ t, stranger anxiety is generally regarded as part of a universal behavioral system. It is suppo\ sed to protect the infant and insure survival, keeping the child away from unfamiliar conspecifics\ (Bowlby, 1973; Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1977).
In the EEA, strangers probably appeared most often as dangerous predator\ s (Daly & Wilson, 1988; Hrdy, 2009). Marks and Nesse (1994) point out that stranger anxiety emerges when infants start to crawl and explore the environment, which may expose them to potential dangers, includ- ing strangers. However, there are examples from non-Western cultural contexts that offer a different per - spective: To the Beng people of Cote d’Ivoire in West Africa, the concept of the dangerous stranger is virtually unknown; instead, the Beng conceive of strangers a\ s neutral at least, but mostly as welcoming (Gottlieb, 2004, in press). Beng parents teach the\ ir children to behave in a friendly manner toward strangers, and infants are socialized into welc\ oming strangers from early on when newborn Beng infants are introduced to many different people on their first day of life. One consequence of this early socialization process is the fact\ that none of the Beng infants show stranger anxiety, not even toward an unfamiliar white anthropologist; instead, Beng infants have learned to feel comfortable with strangers (Gottlieb,\ 2004). Everett reports a similarly welcoming attitude toward strangers among the Brazilian Pira\ ha Indians (Everett, 2009). Likewise, it takes but a minute for Cameroonian Nso people to treat a st\ ranger as a member of their society: They immediately address the White, unfamiliar researcher in kinship terms, as auntie, sister, or mom, depending on their standing in the hierarchy and the defined r\ elation- ship between themselves and the researcher (Keller & Otto, 2009; Otto, \ 2008). In this simple way, they integrate the unfamiliar researcher into their social system. Nor\ mally, the socializa- tion practices of the Nso reveal a general friendliness toward strangers: They are always ready to invite people to join in a meal and form warm and amicable relationsh\ ips (Mbaku, 2005); from early on, Nso children are expected to greet strangers in the same \ manner. In a quasi- experimental study, Otto (2008) exposed 1-year-old Nso children to a female stranger. A con- siderable number of children did not show any negative emotional reactio\ n at all in the presence of the stranger, independent of the degree of bodily proximity between stranger and the\ m- selves. These children demonstrate an adaptation to sociodemographic circumstanc\ es of fami- lies who followed the traditional living pattern of the Nso: extended fa\ mily system, many children, multiple caregiving arrangements, and a high maternal workload\ due to subsistence- based agriculture. Their mothers translated the socialization goal of calm and obedient chi\ l- dren into a parenting strategy that aims at teaching children indifference toward different caregivers. Although stranger anxiety may have evolved and represents a universal pr\ edisposition, it obviously becomes enacted or not through socialization experiences that \ are framed by socializa- tion goals and ethnotheories, which are adapted to contextual demands (\ Keller, 2007; Keller & Kärtner, 2013). Keller 185 The Definition of Attachment Attachment has been defined by Bowlby and his followers as the emotional\ bond between an infant and his or her caregiver(s), which is expressed in attachment b\ ehaviors such as crying, clinging, and following with the aim of establishing and maintaining pro\ ximity, particularly in stressful situations (e.g., Bretherton, 1992). Although Bowlby (1969/1982) believed that “instinc- tive behaviour [attachment] is not stereotyped movement but an idiosyncr\ atic performance by a particular individual in a particular environment” (p. 39), the emo\ tional bond has been commonly understood as a psychological construct that is defined in mentalistic t\ erms of cognitions and emotions. This definition is rooted in the conception of the self as a separate in\ dividual and a mental agent who “owns” cognitions and emotions that are distinct \ from those of others.Empirical approaches that are aimed at assessing the meaning of attachme\ nt (behaviors) across cultures do not reflect the underlying conception of cultural sel\ ves. For example, Posada et al. (1995) compared childcare specialists and mothers from China, C\ olombia, Germany, Israel, Japan, and the United States in their definitions of security of\ attachment based on attachment Q-sort descriptions (Vaughn & Waters, 1990). The results revealed that across “cultures,” mothers’ and experts’ conceptions of secure attachment converged. Culture is put here in quotation marks because it was defined as country, but country cannot be equated with culture (see Keller, 2012). It can be assumed that childcare specialists had undergone Western- oriented training, which would explain why their views converged with attachment theory.
Indeed, the mothers had similar sociodemographic profiles with an averag\ e of 31 years, 12.5 mean years of formal education, and an average of 1.9 children. This sociodemographic profile exactly represents middle-class milieus, and research has shown that to \ some extent middle- class mothers hold similar childrearing goals and values across countrie\ s (Keller, 2007).
Nevertheless there were variations between the samples and results that \ led the authors to conclude “that it becomes relevant to identify the ecologies in which\ such clusters [homoge- nous groups] emerge” (Vaughn & Waters, 1990, p. 45), thus recognizing that different ecolo- gies may relate to different views on attachment relationships. Indeed, anthropological and culture psychological accounts support the view that different cultural ecologies are related to different views of the self that also have consequences for the definition \ of attachment rela- tionships. For example, the conception of the “opacity doctrine” o\ ffers a different perspective on relationships since it distinguishes the human psyche as a “privat\ e place” (Duranti, 2008, p.
485). This conception includes an indifference toward others’ mental states (Ochs, 1988; see also Mead, 1934). Also Everett’s principle of the immediacy of experiences adds another piece to the puzzle of understanding different conceptions of the mind. The Piraha Indians in south- west Amazonas states of Brazil value talk of concrete immediate experiences o\ ver abstract, unwitnessed, nonimmediate topics (Everett, 2009), which would restrict the coverage of mind- minded conversations. Mind-mindedness is also a recent phenomenon in the Western world. It is related to the “inward turn,” which is seen as a consequence of the decline of fi\ xed traditions and the loss of power of societal institutions. Thus, as a consequence of the “disembedding” of society’s ways of life, identities can no longer be defined to the same extent by socia\ l group membership. Taylor (1989) related the increasing secularization in modern Western societies to a world- view in which what is considered to be “good” has to be defined by the individuals themselves.
Defining one’s identity is constituted through self-reflexivity and self-control. Ind\ ividuals are now forced to “explore” and “search” for the self in order t\ o find their identity, and this is primarily achieved through autobiographical narratives (Demuth, Abels, & Keller, 2007).
Autobiographical memories provide the basis for continuity and coherence\ through these self- narrations (Straub, Zielke, & Werbik, 2005; Taylor, 1989), which also are an essential part of the 186 Journal of Cr oss-Cultural Psychology 44(2) conception of the self as a stable psychic structure as expressed in a t\ rait psychology (e.g., McCrae & Costa, 1997). Another central issue of attachment research is its definition as a mono\ tropic, dyadically orga- nized relationship. It is therefore specific to the dyad so that the attachment relationship with the mother may look different from that with the father. Different attachment relationships are con- sidered to be hierarchically organized. For some time, this monotropic understanding of relation- ships and their formation has been questioned by sociobiological (e.g.,\ Hrdy, 1999), anthropological (e.g., Lancy, 2008; Weisner & Gallimore, 1977), and psychological (e.g., Seymour, 1999; Weisner & Gallimore, 1977) accounts. It is, however, a question not only of whether a child can form more than one meaningful relationship but of ho\ w these relationships are defined and organized. Recognizing the need for a relational perspective, van IJzendoo\ rn and Sagi-Schwartz (2008) stated that the study of attachment needs to be e\ xpanded not only to include multiple relationships but also to incorporate conceptions and a\ ssessments of the child’s and caretaker’s modes of relationships. Van IJzendoorn and Sagi-Schwartz (2008), who are experts on “culture and attachment,” acknowledge the contextual va\ riations found when review- ing non-Western attachment studies. They attest to the need for a radical change from a dyadic perspective to a network approach for understanding attachment. Earlier, a similar claim was made by Heinicke (1995), who stated “that the study of attachment n\ eeds to be expanded ... to include multiple relationships” (p. 307). Nevertheless, attachment \ researchers conclude, even after recognizing these differences, that “in general, Bowlby and Ainsworth’s original ideas [the primacy of the mother-child relationship] held up well” (Cassidy, 2008, p. 17). Multiple caregiving arrangements rest substantially on children, sibling\ s, relatives, neighbors, often not much older than the baby whom they tend. Bettina Lamm (2002)\ analyzed the ethno- theories of Cameroonian Nso child caregivers and German children who had\ baby siblings. All children, who were between 4 and 8 years old, had conceptions of caring \ for a baby, which were similar to parenting ethnotheories of mothers, although the experiences \ of the Nso babysitters differed substantially from those of the German siblings. However, the Nso children believed themselves to be the best caregivers, whereas the German children though\ t the mother was the best caregiver for an infant. Weisner (2005) argues that children who are babysitters to younger ones learn all aspects of nurturance, dominance, and responsibility while young. They recognize that the intimate attachments of caregiving can and will extend to nonca\ re contexts and that such reciprocity is at the center of “socially distributed supports” wi\ thin a wide network of relation- ships. Children in each of these kinds of social relational pathways bec\ ome adults differently and are different adults but no less competent and healthy than others. They have relational security of a different kind. Differences in the sense of security can be regarded as consequences of ear\ ly socialization experiences (Keller & Kärtner, 2013). Infants who experience an early distal socialization envi- ronment of child-centeredness with exclusive dyadic interactions that ar\ e mainly channeled through face-to-face contact, contingent responsiveness toward positive \ infant signals, and elabo- rated conversations co-construct individualized psychological bonds. Con\ versely, infants who experience bodily proximity with several caregivers and contingent respo\ nsiveness to negative signals co-construct communal, hierarchically organized relational patterns (Keller, 2007). On the one hand, individual mentally based attachment relationships may result,\ and on the other hand, a generalized conception of trust in the (physical) availability of supp\ ort may be the consequence.
Outlook Consistent with van IJzendoorn and Sagi-Schwartz (2008, p. 901), it is obvious that the cross- cultural database for attachment research is “absurdly small.” How\ ever, studying more groups Keller 187 around the world with the classical attachment paradigm and the standard procedures is not what is needed. There is considerable evidence that attachment theory and research is ba\ sed on the Western middle-class conception of development with the primary goal of individual psycho - logical autonomy. There is also evidence that cultural contexts differ widely in their models of autonomy and relatedness, socialization goals, and caregiving strategies\ . To further develop attachment theory as a cultural conception of caregiver-child relationships, it is first important to define attachment from within cultural points of views. In line with ind\ igenous points of views, folk theories could be the starting point to develop more formalized con\ ceptions and theories (Greenfield & Keller, 2004). The Japanese conception of amae that the psychoanalyst Takeo Doi (2001) has described as the uniquely Japanese way of conceiving of clo\ se relationship is an example of that kind of analysis. Amae describes not only parent-child relationships but also rela- tionships with spouses, teachers, and other caring people. The conception includes dependency as well as hierarchy. The focus on the relational network as well as the emphasis of hierarchy would qualify the amae concept as being more in line with the cultural model o\ f hierarchical relatedness than with psychological autonomy. Based on similar considerations, Rothbaum and colleagues have argued that the attachment-exploration balance from the Bowlby/Ainsworth conception would need to be replaced by an attachment-accommodation framework for the Japanese case (Rothbaum, Pott et al., 2000; Rothbaum, Weisz et al., 2000) (see also the Greek term of philo- timo; Triandis, 1972). Unfortunately, the discussion about these culturally derived relationship conceptions has remained largely academic, and no empirical research programs have been derived on these grounds. The cultural analysis of socialization goals, parenting ethnotheories, a\ nd parenting behaviors and contexts is another building block for expanding attachment theory i\ nto a culturally informed framework. There are meanwhile rich descriptions of diverse cultural socialization \ goals and strategies, which have been partly summarized in the preceding paragraph\ s. Two edited volumes will be published in 2013 that will present an impressive range of documents of this kind: Hiltrud Otto and Heidi Keller edit the volume Different Faces of Attachment with Cambridge University Press and Naomi Quinn and Jeannette Mageo edit the volume Cross-Cultural Challenges to Attachment Theory with Plagrave MacMillen publishers. It seems as if individual concerns with the cultural nature of attachment theory have now turned into a louder v\ oice. What is now needed are research programs that systematically conceptualize and empirically analyze differing cul- tures of attachment. Consistent with that claim, a research strategy nee\ ds to be developed that links to the Bowlby/Ainsworth tradition, on the one hand, but starts ane\ w, incorporating present knowledge about evolution as well as cultural conceptions of socializati\ on, parenting, and chil- dren’s development. Consistent with Bowlby’s groundbreaking work, a new approach must depart from his defini- tion of attachment as an adaptive social construct that is necessary for\ survival and development and must be conceptualized within an interdisciplinary framework. A new approach must also link with Ainsworth’s recurring field work—a necessity that she repeatedly stressed when \ expressing her disappointment “that so many attachment researchers have gone on \ to do research with the Strange Situation rather than looking at what happens in the home or in \ other natural settings … it marks a turning away from ‘field work,’ and I don’t think it’s wise” (Ainsworth, 1995, p. 12).
Creating different conceptions of attachment on these grounds would not only help un\ derstanding development as the cultural solution of universal developmental tasks bu\ t also pave the way for the improvement of clinical and educational programs as defined by the n\ eeds of people.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to t\ he research, authorship, and/or pub- lication of this article. 188 Journal of Cr oss-Cultural Psychology 44(2) Funding The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, a\ nd/or publication of this article.
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