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© SanderStock/iStock/Thinkstock Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: • Describe how a small town in Kansas used green building and renewable energy technologies and approaches to rebuild their community after it was leveled by a devastating tornado. • Discuss how a single-minded policy focus on economic growth and “more is better” may be missing the fact that much of that growth may be imposing enormous environmental and social costs and may there- fore be uneconomic. • Explain the concept of “green intelligence” and how providing consumers and companies with easy-to- understand information about the environmental impacts of their products and purchases might help to reduce ecological degradation. • Discuss the meaning of environmental ethics and describe the differences between a frontier ethic, a sustainable ethic, and a land ethic. • Describe how major collegiate and professional sports teams and programs are adopting green and sustainable approaches and how this has broader benefits given the high profile of and public interest in organized sports. Looking Into the Future 10 ben85927_10_c10.indd 407 1/28/14 1:18 PM Intro Duct Ion Pre-Test 1. t he LEED rating system is a measure of how sustainable a corporation is in its practices. a. t rue b. False 2. Ecological footprint analysis estimates that we are currently operating our economy at a level that is environmentally sustainable. a. t rue b. False 3. A system that allows consumers to quickly compare the environmental impacts of similar products is called a sustainability rating index. a. t rue b. False 4. Environmentalists who argue for a utilitarian conservation approach believe that wilderness and nature have an intrinsic value separate from their value to people. a. t rue b. False 5. t he Global Sports Alliance was formed in 2010 to help sports teams, venues, and leagues enhance their environmental performance. a. t rue b. False Answers 1. b. False. the answer can be found in section 10.1. 2. b. False. the answer can be found in section 10.2. 3. a. t rue. the answer can be found in section 10.3. 4. b. False. the answer can be found in section 10.4. 5. b. False. the answer can be found in section 10.5. Introduction For most of human history our numbers were small enough, and our technologies primitive enough, that our actions did not result in environmental change at a global or planetary scale.

today the situation is different. our global population has soared past seven billion on its way to nine, ten, or eleven billion or more by the end of this century. new technologies have brought us incredible levels of comfort and amusement, but they are also responsible for unimaginable environmental impacts. And the combination of growing numbers and evolv- ing technology is leading to ever-increasing rates of change, making any prediction of the future a challenging task.

Despite these rapid changes and the growing evidence that human numbers and technology are undermining the very environment we depend on for survival, powerful voices in our society are arguing for more of the same. We hear that the solution for poverty, budget defi - cits, and other problems is more economic growth, even though current patterns of growth require greater resource use and generate more and more pollution and waste products. It’s ben85927_10_c10.indd 408 1/28/14 1:18 PM Intro Duct Ion argued that we can’t give up the use of fossil fuels such as coal and oil even though we know that the combustion of these fuels is changing the atmosphere and the climate system. We’re told that we must keep doing more of the same even though current approaches have gotten us into an environmental, economic, and social mess.

Part of the challenge is that it is difficult to imagine an alternative way forward. Environmen- talists have tended to focus on problems with our current approaches and to use fear of envi- ronmental destruction as a way to motivate individuals and society to change their behaviors.

However, while it’s important to understand what’s wrong with our current system (the focus of much of this book), it’s equally or even more important to provide people with alternatives and suggestions for making the world a better place.

In this final chapter we try to do just that. the chapter opens with a case study of a small town in the Midwest devastated by a tornado in 2007. In rebuilding the townspeople decided to use “green” approaches to building design and energy in order to both protect the envi - ronment and also improve their local economy. Section 10.2 presents an alternative vision for economic growth, arguing that not only is more of the same impossible from an environ - mental standpoint but also that it’s probably making us worse off. Instead, it’s argued that what we should be growing is clean air, clean water, good jobs, and sustainable communities.

Section 10.3 introduces an idea known as “green intelligence,” an approach that provides consumers and companies with clear information on the environmental impacts of their purchasing and production decisions. Section 10.4 steps back and provides a basic review of environmental ethics, an important consideration in arguing for an alternative approach to the future. Lastly, the chapter concludes with a description of sustainability efforts in an unlikely area—organized sports.

the purpose of these readings is not to paint a rosy picture of the future. As earlier chapters in the book have made clear, there are enormous environmental challenges facing us now and in the future. However, there are also hundreds or perhaps even thousands of examples of individuals, companies, and communities that are developing new technologies; using new approaches to meet their energy, food, water, and resource requirements; and generally defining what a sustainable future might look like. When we speak of “sustainable” technolo - gies and approaches, we are referring to practices that help us meet our needs today without jeopardizing or undermining the ability of people to meet their needs in the future. Sustain - able development is thus an approach that is based on sustaining natural, social, and human capital into the future. Economic development that poisons air and water or destroys the livelihoods and health of people cannot be considered sustainable. While criticized as being a vague concept, the notion of sustainable development can help guide us in assessing tradeoffs between various approaches and choices. Should we expand the use of genetically modified foods or nuclear power? How much more fossil fuel can we burn before we irreversibly dis- rupt our climate system? How much consumption and wealth is “enough,” and how do we ensure that we are meeting the minimum needs for food and water of the world’s poorest?

While a full discussion of these questions is clearly beyond the scope of this text, it is impor- tant to keep the concept of sustainability in mind as you consider just about any environmen- tal or social issue. ben85927_10_c10.indd 409 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.1 A Gr EE n toWn nAMED Gr EE nSbur G 10.1 A Green Town Named Greensburg The study of environmental science can sometimes lead one to conclude that there is nothing but gloom and doom on the environmental front. However, for just about every challenge, there are also examples where individuals and groups have come together to identify and develop innova- tive solutions to environmental challenges. Oftentimes these efforts were initiated or motivated largely out of concern for things other than the environment, but they ended up having positive environmental impacts as well. Such is the case with Greensburg, Kansas, a small town that was nearly wiped off the map by a massive EF-5 tornado in 2007. In this article Daniel Penner, an intern for the online environmental news service Grist, visits Greensburg to find out how the town has been recovering from this disaster and how an environmental perspective has infused their rebuilding efforts.

Like a lot of small rural towns in the American Midwest, Greensburg was facing economic decline and de-population for years before the tornado. While tragic, the 2007 disaster presented the townspeople with an opportunity to rebuild from the ground up and to do so in innovative ways.

In the weeks that followed the tornado, the citizens of Greensburg met on a regular basis to have open discussions about how they wanted to rebuild their town and what principles would guide that reconstruction. While they were not motivated solely or even primarily by “green” concerns, the residents of Greensburg recognized the importance of building a sustainable and self-sufficient community. They knew that their location on the plains of Kansas presented them with the opportunity to exploit wind power as their primary energy source. And they also recog - nized that this renewable energy source combined with energy efficiency would save the town and its residents tens of thousands of dollars that could be reinvested in the local economy.

While Greensburg still has a long way to go to recover from the 2007 tornado, they have accom - plished a tremendous amount in only six years. They have demonstrated that environmentally friendly approaches to building and energy supply can also be consistent with local economic development. They have proven that individuals and communities can put policies and struc - tures in place to improve local self-reliance and self-sufficiency. And they have given the world another example or case study of how we can change our way of life to work with the environ - ment rather than in opposition to it. The remainder of the readings in this chapter will grapple with some of the same themes addressed in this reading—finding an environmental-economic balance, moving past simplistic notions and labels of “tree-hugger” or “eco-freak,” and building communities that sustain both people and the surrounding environment on which they and all of us ultimately depend.

By Daniel Penner the night of May 4, 2007 an EF-5 tornado nearly two miles wide hit the town of Greensburg, a farming community in south-central Kansas. Almost all of the 1,383 residents lost their homes, nine died, and the town was left looking like this: ben85927_10_c10.indd 410 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.1 A Gr EE n toWn nAMED Gr EE nSbur G the destruction was sudden and the rebuilding process was daunting. How- ever, as thoughts on how to rebuild swirled, a number of people thought, “Hey, what if we rebuilt Greensburg with ‘green’ principles? [. . .]” Even before the tornado hit, the com - munity was shrinking and its popu- lation getting older. Greensburg residents knew they needed a new strategy. the tornado, awful as it was, provided a clean slate.

the greening of Greensburg was a way to rebrand the community, says the town’s current mayor, bob Dixson, but more importantly, it was about “build - ing a community back as our ancestors built for us—a community to last.” In the years that followed, Greensburg would rise from the rubble, replete with LEED-certi- fied [Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design] municipal buildings; a “net metering policy” that makes solar and wind power more affordable for residents; and a new town mas - ter plan [. . .] that includes things like green corridors and a walkable downtown. the efforts attracted [. . .] state and federal money, stories in the national press, and a reality tV show produced by Leo Di caprio. Six years after disaster struck Greensburg, the media circus has largely left town. but as a part of our Get Small project at Grist, I thought I’d check in and see if a community that was nearly wiped off the map might have lessons for other small towns that are looking to spruce up their images and slim down their carbon footprint.

Embracing Sustainability My first question was how a small town on the Plains managed to embrace sustainability in the first place. turns out that from the beginning of the rebuilding effort, some community members saw sustainability as a natural extension of rural and conservative sensibilities. “A strong value of rural folks is self-sufficiency,” says Daniel Wallach, who moved to the Greens- burg area a few years before the tornado, and started the nonprofit Greensburg Greentown to help the community with its endeavor into sustainability. “You hear it all the time in con - servative circles when you’re talking about government finance: People are really clear on not wanting to leave financial burden on kids. but what about the other kinds of burdens we leave on kids?” but as anyone who has ever lived in a small town will understand [. . . t]his new emphasis on sustainability had to be authentic. Jim Watson/AFP/Getty Images The Marine One helicopter, carrying President Bush, flies over damage left by an EF-5 tornado in Greensburg, Kansas. ben85927_10_c10.indd 411 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.1 A Gr EE n toWn nAMED Gr EE nSbur G Dixson credits community meetings in the first days following the tornado for putting people on the same page. “It was critical right off the bat that we start meeting in a big tent outside of town,” he says. “We did everything out there.” Each entity in town, from hospital higher- ups to city officials and nonprofit leaders, would share their thoughts inside that tent in a space where everyone could hear. “ that helped tie everything together, so we were working together,” Dixson says.

Renewable Energy the early rebuilding efforts generated a tremendous amount of energy, and some remarkable examples of eco-friendly ingenuity. Local resident brad Estes says greening Greensburg “was a 24/7 job.” Early on, many were unsure if they wanted to spend, in some cases, over twice as much in building costs to do it the green way. However, Estes notes that those that made a commitment to a sustainable rebuild “feel like it’s paying back in lower energy prices and better conservation of resources.” Estes is now the director of wind operations for bt I Wind Energy, a local wind turbine com - pany that was born from the aftermath of the tornado. the business sells small-scale turbines for residential and commercial use. over the past few years, it’s expanded from being just a local supplier to installing and servicing turbines in other states and canada. [. . .] on a larger scale, the city of Greensburg teamed up with John Deere renewable Energy and the Kansas Power Pool to build a production-scale wind farm five miles outside of town. [. . .] Greensburg receives renewable energy credits and the bragging rights to getting 100 percent of its power from the wind.

that 100 percent wind power only refers to what is imported from elsewhere, however.

Estes estimates that around 8 percent of Greensburg’s energy is generated from assorted wind turbines and solar panels scattered around the town itself. that’s thanks to Greenburg’s net-metering policy, which allows a resident to install rooftop solar panels or backyard wind turbines, feed any leftover power right into the grid, and then get paid for it—the full retail price. this allows residents to pay off the up-front cost of panels and turbines more quickly, bringing the cost of renewables within reach of more of the populace.

Economic Impacts And thanks to all the new high-efficiency buildings, including the hospital, the local John Deere dealership, and the arts center, Greensburg is saving $200,000 annually in energy costs on 13 of its largest buildings, according to a recent study by the national renewable Energy Laboratory (http://greensburg.buildinggreen.com ). Private residences got into the act [. . .] and there’s this cool map showing all of Greensburg’s sustainable building projects.

Greensburg is understanding sustain- ability in its own terms. “ being green” in Greensburg is not a primary motivator, but a product of respecting resources for future generations, working toward self- sufficiency, and adapting to the economic and physical climate. Consider This What main factors help explain the suc- cess Greensburg has had in rebuilding as a sustainable and green community? ben85927_10_c10.indd 412 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.2 A nEW VISI on o F Econo MI c Gro WtH the true test of the new approach, however, will come with time. Will the new green infra - structure attract businesses and jobs, or will Greensburg become what Mayor Dixson calls a “green ghost town”? on that front, it may still be too soon to say, but there are positive signs. While the population was nearly halved after the tornado (from 1,398 to 775), those that stayed seem to be sticking around, and many of the businesses have returned: the hardware store, the coffee shop, banks, the pharmacy.

And there’s this: In a 2009 statement, Greensburg’s school superintendent, Darin Headrick, said that “ before the tornado, if you asked most of the high school kids about their plans for the future, they’d say the same thing: ‘I’m going to go away to college and never come back.’ now, they say, ‘I’m going to go to college and then come back.’ they see things here that they can impact.” Adapted from Penner, D. (2013, April 2). This town was almost blown off the map—and now it’s back, and super green. Grist. Retrieved from http://grist.org/cities/this-town-was-almost-blown-off-the-map-now-its-b\ ack-and -super-green/ Reproduced by permission of Grist Magazine, Inc.

10.2 A New Vision of Economic Growth In this reading James Gustave Speth, former Dean of the Yale School of Forestry and Environ - mental Studies and co-founder of the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), makes clear that economic growth is probably the single most agreed upon political goal in our country today. Almost everyone, regardless of political persuasion or background, seems to accept that more economic growth is always a good thing and that any policies, laws, or regulations that interfere with growth should be eliminated. On the face of it this seems like a logical and rational position. More economic growth means more consumer goods and services, and who can argue with “more is better”? In fact, ecological economists such as Herman Daly have been arguing that more may not always be better and that our single-minded focus on economic growth has blinded us to some of the negative consequences of pro-growth policies.

In many ways what ecological economics is doing is applying old economic logic to a new set of environmental and social issues. Basic, fundamental economic logic makes clear that more is only better if the marginal benefits derived from “more” of something exceed the marginal costs of acquiring it. For example, hourly workers might want to increase their work hours in order to earn more money and buy more things, and up to a point that may make them happier or “bet - ter” than they were before. However, as these individuals work longer and longer hours, their health, family, and social life may suffer, and these costs of working longer hours may exceed any benefits derived from increased consumption.

The same basic logic can be applied at a societal scale. As our economy grows we might see higher standards of living and rates of consumption, but at what cost? If that increased eco - nomic growth was based on shipping jobs overseas, exploiting workers, or poisoning and pollut - ing our environment, then we have to consider how any benefits of economic growth compare to the costs. By framing the economic growth concept in terms of costs and benefits, this reading allows us to ask questions about what aspects of our economy we want to grow, how we grow them, and who benefits from that growth. As Speth indicates, growth in good jobs, healthcare, schooling, leisure time, and social interaction and equality are all desirable. Since growth in these things does not always translate into an increase in our primary indicator of economic activity—the gross domestic product (GDP)—they do not always emerge as political priorities. ben85927_10_c10.indd 413 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.2 A nEW VISI on o F Econo MI c Gro WtH Ultimately, a debate over the benefits and costs of economic growth and what kind of economy we want to create will have enormous impacts on the environment. If we are able to see the value in many things that are not always “priced” in the marketplace—clean air, clean water, time with friends and family, and a sense of community—then our approach to economic policy might change. Such a shift would mean a reduction in resource use and environmental destruc- tion and a greater investment in environmental conservation and restoration.

By James Gustave Speth Is anything in America more faithfully followed than economic growth? Its movements are con - stantly watched, measured to the decimal place, deplored or praised, diagnosed as weak or judged healthy and vigorous. newspapers, magazines, and cable channels report endlessly on it. Promoting growth may be the most widely shared and robust cause in the united States today. If the growth imperative dominates u.S. political and economic life, what happens when growth hits some serious stumbling blocks?

When I was in school in England, the dean of my college told us when we first arrived that we could walk on the grass in the courtyard—but not across it. that helped me love the English and their language. Here is another creative use of prepositions: there are limits to growth, and there are limits of growth.

Benefits and Costs of Economic Growth Let’s first take up the limits of growth. Despite the constant claims that we need more growth, there are limits on what growth can do for us. the ecological economist Herman Daly has reminded us that if neo-classical economists were true to their trade, they would recognize that there are diminishing returns to growth. Most obviously, the value of income growth declines as one gets richer and richer. Similarly, growth at some point has increasing marginal costs. For example, workers have to put in too many hours, or the climate goes haywire. It follows that for the economy as a whole, we can reach a point where the extra costs of more growth exceed the extra benefits. one should stop growing at that point. otherwise the coun - try enters the realm of “uneconomic growth,” to use Daly’s delightful phrase, where the costs of growth exceed the benefits it produces. there are some, myself included, who believe that the u.S. is now experiencing uneconomic growth. If one could measure and add up all the environmental, security, social and psycho - logical costs that u.S. economic growth generates at this point in our history, they would exceed the benefits of further ramping up what is already the highest GDP per capita of any major economy.

though not widely accepted, the case is strong that growth in the affluent u.S. is now doing more harm than good. today, the reigning policy orientation holds that the path to greater well-being is to grow and expand the economy. GDP, productivity, profits, the stock market, and consumption must all go up. this growth imperative trumps all else. It can undermine families, jobs, communities, the climate and environment, and a sense of place and continu- ity because it is confidently asserted and widely believed that growth is worth the price that must be paid for it. ben85927_10_c10.indd 414 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.2 A nEW VISI on o F Econo MI c Gro WtH Consider This How might policies to improve health, the environment, and social equality slow growth, and how can that be simultane- ously described as improving well-being and quality of life? A Post-Growth Society?

It is time for America to move to post-growth society where the natural environment, work - ing life, our communities and families, and the public sector are no longer sacrificed for the sake of mere GDP growth; where the illusory promises of ever-more growth no longer pro - vide an excuse for neglecting to deal generously with our country’s compelling social needs; and where true citizen democracy is no longer held hostage to the growth imperative.

Another way of pointing out the limits of growth is to consider the long list of public policies that would slow GDP growth, thus sparing the environment, while simultaneously improving social and individual well-being. Such policies include: shorter workweeks and longer vaca - tions, with more time for children and families; greater labor protections, job security and benefits, including generous parental leaves; guarantees to part-time workers and combining unemployment insurance with part-time work during recessions; restrictions on advertising; a new design for the twenty-first-century corporation, one that embraces re-chartering, new ownership patterns, and stakeholder primacy rather than shareholder primacy; incentives for local and locally-owned production and consumption; strong social and environmental provi - sions in trade agreements; rigorous environmental, health and consumer protection, includ - ing full incorporation of environmental and social costs in prices; greater economic and social equality, with genuinely progressive taxa- tion of the rich (including a progressive consumption tax) and greater income support for the poor; heavy spending on neglected public services; and initiatives to address population growth at home and abroad. taken together, these policies would undoubtedly slow GDP growth, but well-being and quality of life would improve, and that’s what matters. Apply Your Knowledge the short documentary film Story of Stuff provides a very clear explanation of how economic growth and more “stuff ” does not necessarily make us any better off.

Watch the Story of Stuff (http://storyofstuff.org ) and summarize why our current approach to economic development may be resulting in “uneconomic” growth. but an expanding body of evidence is now telling us to think again. the never-ending drive to grow the overall u.S. economy is ruining the environment; it fuels a ruthless international search for energy and other resources; it fails at generating the needed jobs; it hollows out communities; and it rests on a manufactured consumerism that is not meeting the deepest human needs. Americans are substituting growth and consumption for dealing with the real issues—for doing things that would truly make us and the country better off. ben85927_10_c10.indd 415 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.2 A nEW VISI on o F Econo MI c Gro WtH of course, it is clear that even in a post-growth America, many things do indeed need to grow:

growth in good jobs and in the incomes of the poor and working Americans; growth in avail- ability of health care and the efficiency of its delivery; growth in education, research and training; growth in security against the risks of illness, job loss, old age and disability; growth in investment in public infrastructure and in environmental protection and amenity; growth in the deployment of climate-friendly and other green technologies; growth in the restora - tion of both ecosystems and local communities; growth in non-military government spending at the expense of military; and growth in international assistance for sustainable, people- centered development for the half of humanity that live in poverty. these are all areas where public policy needs to ensure that growth occurs.

that’s one case against growth—the argument that we should no longer prioritize growth, much less fetishize it as we do now. I believe this case will be pressed with increasing urgency in the years ahead, and I doubt we’ll miss our growth fetish after we say good-bye to it. We’ve had tons of growth—growth while wages stagnated, jobs fled our borders, life satisfaction flatlined, social capital eroded, poverty mounted, and the environment declined.

Limits to Growth the case that there are limits to growth—not that we shouldn’t grow but that we can’t grow— is based on the reality that we are entering a new age of scarcity and rising prices that will constrain growth. the world economy, having doubled in size three times since 1950, is now phenomenally large—large even in comparison with the planetary base that is the setting for economic activity. today’s huge world economy is consuming the planet’s available resources on a scale that rivals their supply, and it is releasing almost all of those resources, often trans - formed and toxic, back to the environment on a scale that is beyond the environment’s assimi - lation capacities, thus greatly affecting the major biogeophysical cycles of the planet. natural resources are becoming increasingly scarce, and the planet’s sinks for absorbing waste prod- ucts are already exhausted in many contexts. According to the Ecological Footprint analysis, Earth would have to be 50 percent larger than it is for today’s economy to be environmentally sustainable.

If we now live in a world where the natural resources and environmental sinks needed for economic activity are becoming more scarce across a wide front, we should see prices rising.

And indeed we do. Prices of many things are rising rather rapidly: oil, coal, food, and numer - ous non-fuel minerals. Lithium and rare earths are probably not far behind.

If these patterns hold, as seems likely, and one factors in the economic losses due to climate disruption and the higher energy prices due to climate protection policies, it’s hard to imag - ine that economic growth won’t be slowed. Moreover, as noted earlier, the increasing scarcity of the atmospheric sink for greenhouse gas emissions is going to challenge growth among the affluent countries. reducing carbon emissions at required rates may not be possible in national economies that are stressing growth maximization.

Author richard Heinberg and many others have been calling attention to the looming chal - lenge of peak oil. After much controversy, the reality of peak oil is now widely accepted. oil production did actually reach its all-time high in 2005 and has plateaued since. Peak oil, the point of maximum production after which production begins to decline, may thus have ben85927_10_c10.indd 416 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.3 A M ArKE t A PP ro AcH to t HE En VIron ME nt already happened, but, if not, a widely held view today is that oil will have peaked and begun to decline before 2030, perhaps a decade or so hence.

What’s Next?

Many who have looked at the combined challenge of energy and climate change have con- cluded that our civilization, having completed its exuberant, flamboyant phase, is headed toward a dramatic simplification and re-localization of life and the end of economic growth as we have known it. Some even see the collapse of modern civilization as just a matter of time.

In The Transition Handbook , the bible of the fast-growing transition town movement, rob Hopkins identifies three scenarios: adaptation, which assumes “we can somehow invent our way out of trouble”; evolution, which requires a collective change of mindset, but assumes that “society, albeit in a low-energy, more localized form, will retain its coherence”; or col - lapse, which assumes that “the inevitable outcome of peak oil and climate change will be the fracturing and disintegration, either sudden or gradual, of society as we know it.” the eventual outcome will likely involve elements of all three of these scenarios, occurring at different times and different places. Hopefully, the “evolution” scenario will predominate.

“Within this century, environmental and resource constraints will likely bring global eco- nomic growth to a halt . . . ,” canadian political scientist thomas Homer-Dixon wrote in For - eign Policy earlier this year. “We can’t live with growth, and we can’t live without it. this con - tradiction is humankind’s biggest challenge this century, but as long as conventional wisdom holds that growth can continue forever, it’s a challenge we can’t possibly address.” So there we have it: the traditional solution that America has invoked for nearly every problem—more growth—is in big trouble. If we are going to move beyond growth, we will need to build a different kind of economy. We Americans need to reinvent our economy, not merely restore it. We will have to shift to a new economy, a sustaining economy based on new economic thinking and driven forward by a new politics. Sustaining people, communi - ties and nature must henceforth be seen as the core goals of economic activity, not hoped for by-products of market success, growth for its own sake, and modest regulation. that is the paradigm shift we must now begin to pursue and promote.

Adapted from Speth, J. G. (2011, May 31). Off the Pedestal: Creating a New Vision of Economic Growth. Yale Environment 360. Retrieved from http://e360.yale.edu/feature/off_the_pedestal_creating_a_new_vision_of _economic_growth/2409/ Reprinted by permission of the author.

10.3 A Market Approach to the Environment Just as the previous article advocated a new approach to environmental politics, this next reading calls for a new way of doing business that puts the power for environmental change in the hands of individual consumers. Author Daniel Goleman explains the concept of green intelligence, which provides consumers with a simple rating system that ranks the environmental impacts of various products. ben85927_10_c10.indd 417 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.3 A M ArKE t A PP ro AcH to t HE En VIron ME nt The economic logic behind this approach is that markets work better when buyers and sellers are given more information. Until recently, most consumers have not had the time or inclination to gather detailed information on the environmental impact of a given product. That situation might be about to change. As Goleman explains, companies such as WalMart are working on pilot projects to develop a sustainability rating index for the products they sell. Consumers would be able to compare, at a glance, the relative environmental impacts of two otherwise similar items. Whereas public opinion surveys reveal that only 10 percent of consumers pres - ently make an effort to study the environmental impacts of the products they purchase, and 30 percent of consumers say they do not care at all, more than half would be inclined to consider such information were it made available to them in an easy-to-understand way.

The hope is that if enough consumers begin to use this information and “vote with their dollars,” then corporations will get the message and work to improve their environmental performance.

Such a market-based approach to the environment aims to use the “carrot” of increased market share and profits to get companies to do the right thing rather than just the “stick” of environ - mental regulation and enforcement.

By Daniel Goleman With climate legislation dead in congress and the fizzled hopes for a breakthrough in copen - hagen [a reference to the 2009 united nations climate change conference in copenhagen, Denmark] fading into distant memory, the time seems ripe for fresh strategies—especially ones that do not depend on government action.

Here’s a modest proposal: radical transparency, the laying bare of a product’s ecological impacts for all to see.

Economic theory applied to ecological metrics offers a novel way to ameliorate our collective assault on the global systems that sustain life. there are two fundamental economic prin - ciples that, if applied well, might just accelerate the trend toward a more sustainable planet:

marketplace transparency about the ecological impacts of consumer goods and their supply chains, and lowering the cost of that information to zero.

First transparency. A maxim in economics holds that transparency makes markets work more efficiently. this rule has long been applied to price, but why not also apply it to the ecological impacts of industry and commerce? At present when it comes to the ecological consequence of the things we buy, we have information asymmetry, where sellers know far more than buyers.

this seems about to change. one big mover is WalMart, which last summer [2009] announced it will develop a “sustainability index,” a credible rating of the ecological impacts of the prod - ucts it sells boiled down into a single metric that shoppers can use to compare brand A and brand b. there are signs this is more than marketing hype: WalMart has started to pilot life- cycle analyses of products it carries, and, some say, hopes to make transparent such data on the environmental and social impacts of suppliers four levels deep in the chain of vendors.

the key, of course, will be to make sure the cost of quantifying and listing such data is mini - mal, as price will remain the primary determining factor for consumers. ben85927_10_c10.indd 418 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.3 A M ArKE t A PP ro AcH to t HE En VIron ME nt WalMart is by no means the only player in taking steps to become more ecologically transpar- ent. companies such as unilever (brands like Dove Soap and Lipton tea) and Google (its serv - ers consume enormous amounts of energy) are following their own maps to transparency about the eco-impacts of their operations, to find ways to make operations more sustainable. “Group of Ten” Several global companies are forming a “Group of ten” to develop a supply chain trans- parency system called Earthster into its newest version, “E2 turbo.” rather than go to the expense of a full life-cycle analysis (which can cost $50,000 and take months), E2 turbo asks for data only on the 20 percent or so of a product’s life cycle that accounts for around 80 per- cent of environmental impacts.

now under development, this supply-chain-tracking software lets companies understand where their largest negative impacts are, and how to find more sustainable alternatives. A built-in recommendations engine, drawing on a Department of commerce database, sug - gests suppliers or other players that can help companies improve those impacts. that guides business-to-business decisions, with companies better able to find vendors that will let them keep their eco-impact scores low.

As more and more companies feed data into E2 turbo—which is open source—they will together build what amounts to an information commons. there has also been discussion about the u.S. government establishing a site for that commons, creating a public database on ecological impacts that amounts to new public resource that any company, small or large, could draw on to improve the impacts of its operations.

A radical transparency about the ecological impacts may yet emerge from these efforts—and many in the business world are paying attention. A recent article in Harvard Business Review proclaims that sustainability has become an essential business strategy and the key driver of innovation. to be sure, there are large numbers of companies who resist—but they may yet join in, if markets shift toward brands that are more transparent about ecological footprints, creating a compelling business case.

Driving Consumer Decisions With Simplicity that shift will become far more likely with the application of the second economic principle, lowering to zero the “cost” of this information, the cognitive effort we must make to get rel - evant data. consumer surveys show that about 10 percent of today’s shoppers will go out of their way to get information about the ecological impacts of what they buy, while about a third could not care less. the majority in the middle say that if the information were easy to come by, they might use it in deciding what to buy.

that’s where the action is: making crucial data easy to get. that was done, for instance, at the Hannaford brothers grocery chain in Maine, with nutritional ratings of foods. While the ratings were sophisticated—made by nutritionists at institutions like Yale and Dartmouth—they were ben85927_10_c10.indd 419 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.3 A M ArKE t A PP ro AcH to t HE En VIron ME nt Consider This Some people already pay close attention to the environmental impacts of what they buy while others simply don’t care. Most people are in the middle, open to the idea of considering environmental impacts but not already doing it. What do these people lack to help them begin to pay attention? boiled down into a three-, two-, or one-star rating posted next to the price tag (there was also zero, which about 80 percent of foods received, mainly because of the salt and fats in processed foods).

the result was a significant shift in pur - chases toward the more nutritious food and away from the less. the shifts in market share were large enough to get the attention of food brand reps who started asking what they needed to do to get higher ratings.

that switch in a company’s actions because transparency in the marketplace has driven con - sumer decisions in a better direction has been called a “virtuous cycle” by Archon Fung at Harvard university’s John F. Kennedy School of Government. Fung led a group studying how transparency alters market dynamics and becomes a mechanism for positive change.

Transparency Websites Such marketplace transparency about the ecological impacts of consumer goods can be seen today at www.GoodGuide.com, a website that aggregates more than 200 databases on the environmental, health, and social impacts of tens of thousands of consumer goods. Good - Guide—a free smart phone app—allows shoppers to compare the eco-virtue of products while in the aisles of a store. today that comparison requires running your shopping list by the website on your computer or swiping a product’s bar code with a cellphone. but the day will come when a daring retailer puts that data next to price tags—thus reducing the informa - tion cost to zero, as Hannaford brothers did with nutritional data. Another website, Skin Deep, a project of the Environmental Working Group, reveals the poten- tial medical risks of the chemicals used in personal care products, and so ranks them from safest to most risky. Skin Deep’s ratings are made by searching in medical databases for the bio - logical effects of a given ingredient, and then weighting the health risks accordingly. Skindeep [sic] has been consulted more than 100 million times by shoppers wanting to know which skin cream or baby lotion might be a better bet.

these two websites offer ratings that are credible, independent, and transparent themselves— the three criteria proposed by the Kennedy School of Government group. to be sure, systems like GoodGuide have yet to obtain fully transparent data about the total eco-impacts of any company or product. these consumer-facing transparency systems are more proof of concept than state-of-the-art. but they offer a hopeful sign we may be headed in that direction. ben85927_10_c10.indd 420 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.3 A M ArKE t A PP ro AcH to t HE En VIron ME nt The Transformative Power of Transparency As the head of product innovation at a global company pointed out to me, ecological transpar- ency would change the business landscape in two ways. First would be a shift in the “value basis” of a product, adding its ecological impacts into the equation. Second, such transpar - ency would drive intense competition to rethink products to lower those impacts, and so protect a brand’s market position.

As non-proprietary data collection systems like Earthster compile numbers on the ecological footprints of industry, that information could well feed into an emerging metric that has been designed to replace GDP [Gross Domestic Product]. called the “General Progress Indicator,” or GPI, this index of national progress rethinks economic indicators by, for example, rising when the poor receive a larger portion of a nation’s income and dropping when they get less.

Among the indicators factored into GPI are resource depletion, pollution, and long-term envi - ronmental damage. So while the GDP counts pollution as a double gain for an economy—for the economic activity while it is created and again while being cleaned up—GPI counts the costs of that pollution as a loss. Earthster-type databases could bring more precision and cur- rency to GPI’s metrics.

Another movement in economics that might embrace such data is the attempt to “inter - nalize externalities”—that is, to make companies bear the costs of, say, cleaning up their pollution rather than governments, by taxing their goods proportionally to their nega - tive eco-impacts. that idea remains a hard sell to business, and to most governments. but Apply Your Knowledge Many companies and products seem to be “jumping on the green bandwagon” and advertising their products as “natural,” “eco-friendly,” or somehow better for the environment. consum - ers are bombarded with these claims, and it becomes difficult to know what to believe or not.

Environmentalists have begun to refer to some of these product claims as “greenwashing,” an attempt to claim a positive environmental image where it might not be justified. For this exer - cise, start by reading about greenwashing at these sites: • http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=greenwashing-green-energy-hoffman • http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/Greenwashing • http://www.stopgreenwash.org/ • http://www.greenwashingindex.com/ next, when you visit the grocery store, see if you can find three products that make some claim about being “eco-friendly” or better for the environment in some way. then, see if you can assess whether these claims are really supported or not, either by doing your own research or by making use of an existing resource like GoodGuide ( http://www.goodguide.com/). What did you learn from this exercise? How can consumers be better equipped to distinguish between legitimate claims of positive environmental practices and those that qualify as greenwashing? ben85927_10_c10.indd 421 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.4 En VIron ME nt AL Et HIcS marketplace ecological transparency makes pollution, toxics and the like a reputation cost for a brand or com- pany. this substitutes a market force for government action, which—given political realities—may be both more realistic and quicker.

While many business people are start- ing to take ecological transparency seriously enough to embed it in their strategic thinking, the question arises:

Are economists paying attention? A few are. but for the most part these poten - tially disruptive information technolo- gies, and the marketplace transparency they promise, are beneath the field’s radar, or entirely off the map. one exception is James Angresano, a political economist at the college of Idaho, who sees promise in ecological transparency as a tool for sustainability—itself not a topic central to orthodox thinking in economics. “We’ve got to think differently,” Angresano told me.

When Angresano lectured on these ideas recently to students in environmental economics at Peking university, they were so interested they stayed an extra hour. “ of all the theories I covered over several weeks of lecturing, this resonated the best,” he commented. “ they’re depressed just hearing what the problems are. this is a way of making changes; here are some solutions.” Adapted from Goleman, D. (2010). How Marketplace Economics Can Help Build a Greener World. Yale Environment 360 . Copyright © 2010 Daniel Goleman. Retrieved from http://e360.yale.edu/feature/how_marketplace _economics_can_help_build_a_greener_world_/2310/ Reprinted by permission of the author.

10.4 Environmental Ethics Seldom are environmental debates easy to break down into simple categories of right and wrong. Take a question like “should we dam a river?” Environmental arguments could be made against such a project—it will disrupt the natural flow of the river, destroy habitat, and affect fish and other wildlife. Other arguments in favor of the project, including environmental ones, could also be made. The dam might be able to provide a relatively clean source of energy in the form of hydroelectric power, and it might also serve as a source of irrigation and drinking water for nearby farms and communities. While arguments on both sides can often be backed by scien - tific and economic research on the costs and benefits of the project, it is often true that decisions ultimately boil down to ethics and morals—how those making the decisions distinguish between right and wrong or better and worse. Tony Ding/AP Images for Walmart Businesses are beginning to incorporate ecological transparency principles into their business models.

WalMart is one company that has been making strides in this area. Here, locally grown produce is displayed for sale at a WalMart Supercenter in Michigan. ben85927_10_c10.indd 422 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.4 En VIron ME nt AL Et HIcS The field of environmental ethics deals with how ethics are applied to decisions regarding the use of resources and the treatment of the environment. This article, prepared by topic editor Peter Saundry as part of an Advanced Placement (AP) course in environmental science, provides a brief history of the evolution of environmen- tal ethics over time. For example, many European settlers arriving in America were said to have adopted a “frontier ethic,” an attitude that resources were unlimited and existed for the use and benefit of humans (also known as an anthropocentric or human-centered view). Given what must have seemed to them an endless supply of fish, game, for - ests, and fields, it is not surprising that such an ethic would have developed. In contrast, modern Americans might be gradually adopting an environmental ethic as we develop a greater awareness of the importance of the environment to our well-being and the growing threats to it. Indeed, an environmental ethic is based on the idea that we are a part of nature as opposed to being apart from it .

By Peter Saundry the concept of ethics involves standards of conduct. these standards help to distinguish between behavior that is considered right and that which is considered wrong. As we all know, it is not always easy to distinguish between right and wrong, as there is no universal code of ethics. For example, a poor farmer clears an area of rainforest in order to grow crops. Some would not oppose this action, because the act allows the farmer to provide a livelihood for his family. others would oppose the action, claiming that the deforestation will contribute to soil erosion and global warming. right and wrong are usually determined by an individual’s morals, and to change the ethics of an entire society, it is necessary to change the individual ethics of a majority of the people in that society.

the ways in which humans interact with the land and its natural resources are determined by ethical attitudes and behaviors. Early European settlers in north America rapidly consumed the natural resources of the land. After they depleted one area, they moved westward to new frontiers.

their attitude towards the land was that of a frontier ethic. A frontier ethic assumes that the earth has an unlimited supply of resources. If resources run out in one area, more can be found elsewhere or alternatively human ingenuity will find substitutes. this attitude sees humans as masters who manage the planet. the frontier ethic is completely anthropocentric (human-centered), for only the needs of humans are considered.

Most industrialized societies experience population and economic growth that are based upon this frontier ethic, assuming that infinite resources exist to support continued growth © Beboy_ltd/iStock/Thinkstock The field of environmental ethics deals with how ethics are applied to decisions regarding the use of resources and the treatment of the environment. ben85927_10_c10.indd 423 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.4 En VIron ME nt AL Et HIcS Consider This How does a sustainable ethic differ from a frontier ethic? What occurrences created the transformation in human thinking from anthropocentric to biocentric? indefinitely. In fact, economic growth is considered a measure of how well a society is doing.

the late economist Julian Simon pointed out that life on earth has never been better, and that population growth means more creative minds to solve future problems and give us an even better standard of living. However, now that the human population has passed seven billion and few frontiers are left, many are beginning to question the frontier ethic.

Such people are moving toward an environmental ethic, which includes humans as part of the natural community rather than managers of it. Such an ethic places limits on human activities (e.g., uncontrolled resource use), that may adversely affect the natural community.

Some of those still subscribing to the frontier ethic suggest that outer space may be the new frontier. If we run out of resources (or space) on earth, they argue, we can simply populate other planets. this seems an unlikely solution, as even the most aggressive colonization plan would be incapable of transferring people to extra-terrestrial colonies at a significant rate.

natural population growth on earth would outpace the colonization effort. A more likely sce - nario would be that space could provide the resources (e.g. from asteroid mining) that might help to sustain human existence on earth. Sustainable Ethic A sustainable ethic is an environmental ethic by which people treat the earth as if its resources are limited. this ethic assumes that the earth’s resources are not unlimited and that humans must use and conserve resources in a manner that allows their continued use in the future. A sustainable ethic also assumes that humans are a part of the natural environ - ment and that we suffer when the health of a natural ecosystem is impaired. A sustainable ethic includes the following tenets: • the earth has a limited supply of resources. • Humans must conserve resources. • Humans share the earth’s resources with other living things. • Growth is not sustainable. • Humans are a part of nature. • Humans are affected by natural laws. • Humans succeed best when they maintain the integrity of natural processes [and] cooperate with nature.

For example, if a fuel shortage occurs, how can the problem be solved in a way that is consis - tent with a sustainable ethic? the solutions might include finding new ways to conserve oil or developing renewable energy alternatives. A sustainable ethic attitude in the face of such a problem would be that if drilling for oil damages the ecosystem, then that damage will affect the human population as well.

A sustainable ethic can be either anthro- pocentric or biocentric (life-centered).

An advocate for conserving oil resources may consider all oil resources as the property of humans. using oil resources wisely so that future generations have access to them is an attitude consistent ben85927_10_c10.indd 424 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.4 En VIron ME nt AL Et HIcS with an anthropocentric ethic. using resources wisely to prevent ecological damage is in accord with a biocentric ethic.

Land Ethic Aldo Leopold, an American wildlife natural histo- rian and philosopher, advocated a biocentric ethic in his book, A Sand county Almanac. He suggested that humans had always considered land as prop- erty, just as ancient Greeks considered slaves as property. He believed that mistreatment of land (or of slaves) makes little economic or moral sense, much as today the concept of slavery is considered immoral. All humans are merely one component of an ethical framework. Leopold suggested that land be included in an ethical framework, calling this the land ethic.

“the land ethic simply enlarges the boundary of the community to include soils, waters, plants and ani - mals; or collectively, the land. In short, a land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow members, and also respect for the community as such.” Leopold divided conservationists into two groups:

one group that regards the soil as a commodity and the other that regards the land as biota, with a broad interpretation of its function. If we apply this idea to the field of forestry, the first group of con - servationists would grow trees like cabbages, while the second group would strive to maintain a natural ecosystem. Leopold maintained that the conservation movement must be based upon more than just economic necessity. Species with no discernible economic value to humans may be an integral part of a functioning ecosystem. the land ethic respects all parts of the natural world regardless of their utility, and decisions based upon that ethic result in more stable biological communities.

“Anything is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise.” Leopold had two interpretations of an ethic: ecologically, it limits freedom of action in the struggle for existence; while philosophically, it differentiates social from anti-social conduct.

An ethic results in cooperation, and Leopold maintained that cooperation should include the land. Corbis Prominent environmentalist Aldo Leopold examines different species of birds in his lab. Leopold believed that mistreatment of land makes little economic or moral sense and suggested that land be included in an ethical framework, calling this the “land ethic.” ben85927_10_c10.indd 425 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.4 En VIron ME nt AL Et HIcS Hetch Hetchy In 1913, the Hetch Hetchy Valley—located in Yosemite national Park in california—was the site of a conflict between two factions, one with an anthropocentric ethic and the other, a biocentric ethic. As the last American frontiers were settled, the rate of forest destruction started to concern the public. the conservation movement gained momentum, but quickly broke into two factions. one faction, led by Gifford Pinchot , chief Forester under teddy roo - sevelt, advocated utilitarian conservation (i.e., conservation of resources for the good of the public). the other faction, led by John Muir, advocated preservation of forests and other wilderness for their inherent value. both groups rejected the first tenet of frontier ethics, the assumption that resources are limitless. However, the conservationists agreed with the rest of the tenets of frontier ethics, while the preservationists agreed with the tenets of the sustain- able ethic.

the Hetch Hetchy Valley was part of a protected national Park, but after the devastating fires of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, residents of San Francisco wanted to dam the valley to provide their city with a stable supply of water. Gifford Pinchot favored the dam.

“As to my attitude regarding the proposed use of Hetch Hetchy by the city of San Francisco, am fully persuaded that ‘the injury’ by substituting a lake for the present swampy floor of the valley’s altogether unimportant compared with the benefits to be derived from it’s [sic] use as a reservoir.” “the fundamental principle of the whole conservation policy is that of use, to take every part of the land and its resources and put it to that use in which it will serve the most people.” John Muir, the founder of the Sierra club and a great lover of wilderness, led the fight against the dam. He saw wilderness as having an intrinsic value, separate from its utilitarian value to people. He advocated preservation of wild places for their inherent beauty and for the sake of the creatures that live there. the issue aroused the American public, who were becoming increasingly alarmed at the growth of cities and the destruction of the landscape for the sake of commercial enterprises. Key senators received thousands of letters of protest.

“these temple destroyers, devotees of ravaging commercialism, seem to have a perfect con - tempt for nature, and instead of lifting their eyes to the God of the Mountains, lift them to the Almighty Dollar.” Despite public protest, congress voted to dam the valley. the preservationists lost the fight for the Hetch Hetchy Valley, but their questioning of traditional American values had some last - ing effects. In 1916, congress passed the “ national Park System organic Act,” which declared that parks were to be maintained in a manner that left them unimpaired for future genera- tions. As we use our public lands, we continue to debate whether we should be guided by preservationism or conservationism.

The Tragedy of the Commons In his essay, The Tragedy of the Commons, Garrett Hardin (1968) looked at what happens when humans do not limit their actions by including the land as part of their ethic. the trag - edy of the commons develops in the following way: Picture a pasture open to all. It is to be expected that each herdsman will try to keep as many cattle as possible on the commons. ben85927_10_c10.indd 426 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.5 Case History— tH e environmental awakening in sport Such an arrangement may work satisfactorily for centuries, because tribal wars, poaching and disease keep the numbers of both man and beast well below the carrying capacity of the land. Finally, however, comes the day of reckoning. the positive component is a function of the increment of one animal. Since the herdsman receives all the proceeds from the sale of the additional animal, the positive utility is nearly +1. the negative component is a function of the additional overgrazing created by one more animal. However, as the effects of overgrazing are shared by all of the herdsmen, the negative utility for any particular decision-making herds- man is only a fraction of –1.

the sum of the utilities leads the rational herdsman to conclude that the only sensible course for him to pursue is to add another animal to his herd, and then another, and so forth. How - ever, this same conclusion is reached by each and every rational herdsman sharing the com- mons. therein lies the tragedy: each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd, without limit, in a world that is limited. ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own best interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the com- mons. Freedom in the commons brings ruin to all. [. . .] Hardin went on to apply the situation to modern commons. the public must deal with the overgrazing of public lands, the overuse of public forests and parks and the depletion of fish populations in the ocean. Individuals and companies are restricted from using a river as a common dumping ground for sewage and from fouling the air with pollution. Hardin also strongly recommended restraining population growth.

the “ tragedy of the commons” is applicable to the environmental problem of global warm - ing. the atmosphere is certainly a commons into which many countries are dumping excess carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels. Although we know that the generation of greenhouse gases will have damaging effects upon the entire globe, we continue to burn fos - sil fuels. As a country, the immediate benefit from the continued use of fossil fuels is seen as a positive component. All countries, however, will share the negative long-term effects.

As a rational being, each herdsman seeks to maximize his gain. Explicitly or implicitly, more or less consciously, he asks: “What is the utility to me of adding one more animal to my herd?” this utility has both negative and positive components.

Adapted from UCCP (Content Source); Peter Saundry (Topic Editor) “AP Environmental Science Chapter 23— Environmental Ethics.” In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Infor - mation Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth November 25, 2008; last revised date November 25, 2008; retrieved April 17, 2011, http://www.eoearth.org /article/AP_Environmental_Science_ chapter_23-_Environmental_Ethics . 10.5 Case History—The Environmental Awakening in Sport Of all of the human activities that might impact the environment, sports would seem to be among the least likely to get any attention. However, in this reading Michael Pfahl, Assistant Professor of Sport Management at Ohio University, describes how organized sporting events around the world have massive cumulative impacts on the environment. These impacts range from the energy used to light stadiums and get fans to and from events to water and chemicals used to keep playing fields and golf courses green and ready for competition. Given the millions ben85927_10_c10.indd 427 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.5 Case History— tH e environmental awakening in sport of people that either participate in or spectate at sporting events every year, the energy, water, material, and waste impacts of this sector quickly add up.

It might also come as some surprise to know that a growing number of professional sports teams, collegiate athletic programs, and individual athletes have adopted environmental improvement and sustainability as an important goal. Many of these organizations and individuals are now part of the Green Sports Alliance (GSA), a voluntary group of sports teams, athletes, and venues seeking to improve their environmental performance and lower their impact. GSA members are motivated by a number of factors, from a desire to lower operating costs to improving public relations and community outreach. The GSA partners with environmental organizations and the Environmental Protection Agency to identify ways for its members to reduce their material and energy use and lower their overall environmental impact.

The GSA and the emerging environmental movement in sport is yet another indication of how environmental concerns are aligning with other interests. The high profile of many organized sports teams and athletes combined with the loyal fan base that follows them means that any environmental initiatives undertaken by these teams and individuals will attract a lot of atten- tion. In that sense not only does the greening of organized sports reduce the immediate envi - ronmental impact of sporting events, but it also has the potential to influence the attitudes and behaviors of millions of other people.

By Michael Pfahl Sport is, for the most part, an enjoyable experience drawing billions of people to games, events, televisions, bars, and other venues to watch athletes, from children to highly talented professionals, play the sports they love. Yet, this fun comes with consequences that go beyond the game as those individual actions are multiplied by millions and millions of people each year all around the world. An enormous amount of trash is generated at sporting events, from packaging, plates, and bottles to food waste. resources like water and energy are used to power the games and to keep playing fields lush. carbon emissions from travel to and from events by all stakeholders also factor into the calculation of consequences.

The Inside-Out Perspective two related perspectives exist in relation to sport and the environment. the first is the Inside-Out perspective where organizational personnel understand how their activities impact the environment. the second perspective is Outside-In where external environmen - tal and related issues (e.g., government regulation) impact the operations of an organization.

In sport, most of the conceptualizations, research, and knowledge of these issues involve the Inside- out perspective. Energy consumed by national and international sport events will continue to increase as sporting leagues grow around the world. During the 2012 Summer olympic Games in London, 10,500 athletes participated in the Games and 500,000 people traveled to attend them. Seventy thousand people visited new orleans to attend the Super bowl in person, but many more visited the city for the events surrounding the Super bowl, but did not have tickets to attend the game. It was estimated that each match at the 2006 World cup used three million kilowatt hours of energy and produced five to ten tons of trash—and that was with an environmental plan developed by FIFA [the international governing body of football, or soccer] prior to the tournament. television broadcasts of these events allowed millions of people around the world to stay home, but still generated a significant amount ben85927_10_c10.indd 428 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.5 Case History— tH e environmental awakening in sport of resource consumption involved in the millions of nationwide parties and general home viewing. Events need parking, which consumes land and resources to build and to maintain.

With more new stadia taking transportation into account when designing facilities, there is an improvement in transportation options (i.e., some fans and participants travel to and from the games by buses, bicycles, or walking), but automobile travel followed by air travel remain the dominant mode.

It is not just the national and international events that create environmental problems. While the large events garner attention, numerous lower-tier sport events and recreational activ- ities contribute to our environmental problems. At the intercollegiate athletics level, mid- major football games, like those at ohio university, have been known to generate around two tons of trash at their most heavily attended game, but major programs can generate up to three times that much each week. Local public golf courses consume land, require constant resource inputs, and use pesticides to control insect populations. Ski slopes generate snow when nature does not provide it and the local ecosystem can be at risk by this action, espe - cially when wastewater is used to manufacture the snow. the list goes on, but the common denominator is that sport and recreational activities impact the environment, often in nega- tive ways.

The Outside-In Perspective the outside-In perspective comes into play as natural environmental changes impact sport organizations. In new orleans, for example, the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina had a sig - nificant effect on the city and its infrastructure, especially the Superdome, in graphic and enduring ways. Few people will forget the images of the Superdome after the flooding in new orleans. the venue was transformed from a stadium of fun and excitement into a place of death, despair, and tragedy. It is impossible to visit the venue without recalling the toll of envi - ronmental disasters. In another example, Australia’s difficulties with drought over the years affected its sporting industry and infrastructure as rationing and other methods to combat drought were undertaken. While natural conditions are often out of the control of sport per- sonnel, their own contributions to the outcomes of the natural conditions, such as inhibit - ing proper water drainage due to a facility footprint, necessitate a balance of Inside- out and outside-In thinking in strategic planning for environmental activities.

regulations and legislation related to construction of sport venues and their operations are driving change as much as altruistic intentions. Since the 1970s and enactment of the national Environmental Policy Act, federal agencies must consider the environmental impact of any federal action. States have followed this lead, often commissioning environmental impact studies and reports.

In 2009 the city of Santa clara, california, undertook one of these studies in preparation for a new stadium for the San Francisco 49ers. the report was sent to over 30 organizations, includ - ing the u.S. Army corps of Engineers, california Highway Patrol, and the cupertino Planning Department. comments were solicited about the study and compiled into the final report. the study results offered a comprehensive analysis of the holistic environmental impact of the new stadium. this small example is part of a larger network of laws and regulations gov - erning construction and operations of organizations in the united States. State environmen - tal policy acts (SEPAs) require environmental study and planning before any state action is taken, although they might vary on how this is accomplished. the SEPAs also ensure that ben85927_10_c10.indd 429 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.5 Case History— tH e environmental awakening in sport state natural resource agencies conduct environmental reviews of proposed projects. While mechanisms exist to delay or to be exempt from environmental review, the review cannot be bypassed entirely unless a SEPA indicates a process to do so (e.g., regulations for the timeline to put a construction project on a ballot).

consulting organizations have been brought in. Additional local, state, and federal laws and regulations for environmental issues are also part of this process, which is why sport orga- nization personnel sought out the expertise of organizations such as the natural resources Defense council ( nr Dc) and the u.S. Green building council. combined with regulating or governing body guidelines from groups like the International olympic committee, sport per - sonnel have a complex task of accomplishing organizational goals while accounting for envi- ronmental issues.

Lastly, the nonprofit Green Sports Alliance was formed in 2010 with a mission to help sports teams, venues, and leagues enhance their environmental performance. More on this organization’s vital role will be dis - cussed later in the article. [. . .] Facility Design, Construction, and Management to begin, facilities and stadia are clear examples of an environmental impact. Every sport venue is built, maintained, renovated, and demolished, and a new one built at some point. Sta - dia today, especially as you move up the ranks to the highest professional levels, require more and better amenities. Wireless access is now commonplace, numerous food and beverage choices are on menus to satisfy as many possible tastes as there are fans, novelties and mer - chandise are sold or given away to entice fans to games and allow them to demonstrate their fandom, and, of course, there is the never-ending demand for parking spaces. More aspects of the sport experience are needed if fans are to gain value from purchasing tickets, including the season variety where parking is a must. For every hot dog purchased, beer or soda con - sumed, light turned on, and field watered, however, energy and resources are used.

It is interesting to note that facility management personnel were early movers in the envi - ronmental change process. What might have started with a search for more environmentally friendly cleaning products is now a full force effort to have buildings built or renovated with Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification. Much of the impetus for change came over the course of the past 20 years in the form of waste reduction and much of this work was done to improve the customer experience (e.g., hand dryers in the lavatory eliminate paper towels all over the floor and do not run out). As new stadia are built and others refurbished, LEED principles are increasingly added to the planning and construction work.

In more recent years, sport personnel in other organizational areas like marketing began to see the strategic issues related to environmental activities, such as community engage - ment, revenue generation through sponsorship, and cost savings through upgraded facilities.

Potential cost savings helped to drive the changes in facility operations and best practices were sought for energy savings, resource usage, and other operational activities. today, stadia developers and teams often compete to determine which team is the greenest. For example, the olympic Stadium in London was built using only a tenth of the total steel used to build the bird’s nest stadium in 2008 for the olympic Games in beijing. Environmentalism is becoming Consider This What are the main differences between the Inside- out and outside-In approaches described in this reading? ben85927_10_c10.indd 430 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.5 Case History— tH e environmental awakening in sport Event Operations beyond the physical structures, sport leagues, teams, organizing committees, and governing bodies developed event-management plans that help to produce greener games. As noted earlier, FIFA, the governing body of soccer, built a zero-emission headquarters and developed guidelines for organizing committees to use when planning to host events. the guidelines are called Green Goal. they were initiated at the 2006 World cup in Germany and continued for the 2010 South African World cup. they are updated and revised continually and take into account local needs and abilities. the International olympic committee has a similar set of guidelines for host countries to follow. While organizations such as Major League baseball do not provide any such strict rubric, it has been active in developing relationships to help teams.

Efforts are often local and under team control.

Local Community Engagement An important aspect of any sports organization’s operation is engagement with the local com- munity. Many personnel see community engagement as a form of corporate citizenship or outreach. reading in schools and health issues are common outreach contexts. However, the environment is becoming another avenue for community engagement. Educational opportu - nities to reach into schools with applied environmental problems and data to help teachers and students study environmental impacts is one example. Helping to understand and address local environmental damage and degradation, even health and wellness, is becoming impor- tant to the fishing, golf, and outdoor sports industries as well as professional and amateur a key operational initiative and marketing aspect of sport, though funding remains a constant issue in keeping them both active and progressive.

In Major League baseball, the Washington nationals, Minnesota twins, and San Diego Padres, among many others, all made efforts to be the greenest team and ballpark in the country, making substantial commitments to environment design and conduct in their ballpark opera - tions. the new York Giants, Miami Heat, Portland trailblazers, and the Montreal canadiens also received LEED certification at some point. In fact, nr Dc, an environmental advisor to Major League baseball and the national basketball Association, noted as of 2012 that 15 pro - fessional sports venues had been awarded some level of LEED certification for new or exist- ing structures with numerous others in various stages of such certification. this does not even count intercollegiate and lower-level professional and amateur venues. Apply Your Knowledge If you are a follower of sports then consider your favorite team. If not, pick a team local to your area. Start by visiting the web site of the Green Sports Alliance ( http://greensportsalliance .org). Is your team already a member of the GSA? If so, click on their name to see what efforts they are taking to reduce their environmental impact. If not, find your team’s web page on the Internet and try to determine if they have undertaken any sort of environmental initiative.

What more could sports teams in general be doing to reduce their environmental impact? ben85927_10_c10.indd 431 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.5 Case History— tH e environmental awakening in sport team sports. Since sport organizations have an important and high-profile local role, and are beholden to many levels of governmental laws and regulations, personnel work to integrate their sustainability efforts with the local community. this is a complicated issue because of the ability for a local community, including the local business community, to aid these efforts (having, for instance, strong infrastructure for waste disposal or recycling). Social pressures from many levels—nongovernmental organizations ( nGos), fans, suppliers, league offices, governing bodies, and universities and colleges—are driving change, but the change is con- textual and inconsistent across sports and within a sport itself. [. . .] The Times Are Changing recycling is common at sporting events today and research has shown that it is one of the most frequently taken first steps in an environmental change program at the intercollegiate athletics level, although it is just as frequent at major sporting venues and events. Addition- ally, there has been a general focus on reduction in resource and chemical usage. For example, the St. Louis cardinals personnel estimated that 15–20 percent of their operations budget was devoted to energy usage. using the Environmental Protection Agency’s EnergyStar Port - folio Manager, the cardinals showed how “since 2007 they’ve cut the ballpark’s energy use by 23 percent.” Within stadia, food and menu changes are also being made. For example, the cleveland cava - liers began offering an expanded vegetarian menu at their concession stands and restaurants in Quicken Loans Arena. Similarly, the Philadelphia Eagles, an organization that exemplifies environmental activism in sport, has one of the largest vegetarian menus in sport, a com- mitment found at every food-service level from concessions to suites. the San Diego Padres recently partnered with a local biofuel company to provide used cooking oils to buses in the surrounding school districts. Even sport stalwarts like paper-based media guides and game notes are going digital to reduce waste and paper usage. once again, the Philadelphia Eagles personnel worked to reduce paper usage. When paper is needed, they strive to use 100 per - cent post-consumer recycled paper. In 2004 they used about 25 tons of it, but by 2010, it was near 50 percent of overall paper use in the Eagles offices and overall paper usage was down to 75 tons from a high of nearly 200 tons in 2007. Also, in 2010, of the 457 gallons of cleaning products used by the Eagles, 169 gallons (37 percent) were from environmentally friendly products. [. . .] Even individual athletes are getting involved. Athletes including Steve nash, usain bolt, Kelly Slater, Marta Vieira da Silva, tom Paradiso, and Leilani Münter are visible advocates for envi - ronmental action. they work on their own, separate from the teams of which they’re part, to promote an environmental message.

An Answer: The Green Sports Alliance Without much guidance, sport personnel have been addressing environmental issues on their own with debates over the best pathways to environmental sustainability. Some teams took little to no action, while others made it a top-down imperative to change operations. Little data and information were shared throughout the industry; exchanges were confined mostly to individual associations, mega events, or personal relationships. What was needed was a more coordinated effort to link sport organizations together in terms of environmental issues ben85927_10_c10.indd 432 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.5 Case History— tH e environmental awakening in sport and to connect them to other organiza- tions that could help them address the environmental challenges they faced.

Enter the Green Sports Alliance, a nonprofit organization with a mis- sion to help sport teams, venues, and leagues enhance their environmen- tal performance. In February 2010 the concept of the Alliance began in a workshop where sport personnel, mainly from the northwest united States, came together to discuss sus - tainability issues, share experiences, and to help each other address the environmental impacts of their teams and venues. [. . .] realizing the benefit of building this collaboration, the Alliance launched nationally in March 2011 in an effort to bring together sport personnel from around the world to share information and ideas about improving environmental performance industry-wide. What started with six professional sports teams and five venues now boasts a membership of nearly 170 profes- sional and collegiate sports teams and venues from 15 different sports leagues. Scott Jen- kins, chairman of the board for the Alliance and vice president of ballpark operations for the Seattle Mariners, noted, “ our biggest challenge is to get people’s attention. People are busy and sustainability is often woven into existing responsibilities. We need it to become a part of their time and get their attention.” Alliance Guiding Principles During the Alliance’s formation, several guiding principles shaped the strategic decisions and actions taken by members. As a small, start-up, nonprofit organization, the Alliance measures its actions and activities based on the goal of providing maximum value to its members.

Alliance members make a commitment to improve their environmental performance. With the support of the Alliance and its partners, members collaborate with each other on a num - ber of ongoing initiatives. Membership in the Alliance is open to any sports team, venue, league or collegiate program willing to make this commitment. the Alliance helps its mem - bers reach their environmental goals through direct support and focused research, facili- tated networking with recognized leaders in the industry, compilation and sharing of best practices in venue operations and team communications, workshops, a monthly webinar series, and much more. In short, as Hershkowitz noted, the Alliance wants to “green the world through sport.” A primary principle guiding Alliance efforts is that its members succeed when they measure and track their environmental performance in order to drive environmental performance AP Photo/Ted S. Warren Martin Tull, executive director of the Green Sports Alliance, talks to reporters about the nonprofit group’s goals. Founding teams included the Seattle Mariners, the Seattle Sounders FC, the Portland Trail Blazers, the Seattle Seahawks, the Vancouver Canucks, and the Seattle Storm. ben85927_10_c10.indd 433 1/28/14 1:18 PM SEct Ion 10.5 Case History— tH e environmental awakening in sport improvements. this principle is grounded in the belief that you cannot manage what you can - not measure. understanding operations within a venue or the administrative offices of a team is a first step toward figuring out how to plan strategically for immediate and future environ- mental operations. As Jenkins said, “We need to get people aware of issues to get anywhere.” building upon this effort, Alliance personnel can then work with team and venue personnel to develop a strategic approach to environmental efforts (e.g., developing goals, objectives, tactics). While the Alliance is not an auditing organization and does not provide certification processes, they support their members both individually and collectively. With partners like nr Dc and the u.S. Environmental Protection Agency as technical advisors, the Alliance helps to guide the greening process for its members, tackling specific challenges and sharing the broader lessons they’ve learned. these processes are contextual and unique to each situation, versus a one-size-fits-all approach. [. . .] Twists and Turns on the Environmental Path Even though the Alliance has achieved a great deal of success from its early days, many chal - lenges remain. the individual team members remain heavily weighted toward major profes - sional sport organizations. there is a need to bring more collegiate athletic programs and smaller professional sport organizations into the fold. Growth of the Alliance’s operations must be managed, too, as it is a small organization despite its high profile.

Additionally, the Alliance remains a north American organization, although it has a much stronger member base from outside this area in relation to its venue members. continuing to link sport organizations and venues from around the world and to navigate the complexity of international sport operations will be a task for the Alliance in the long term.

continuing to understand the roles fans play in environmental efforts is another key area on which to concentrate. While most people do not go to sporting events for a science lesson, fans do play a significant role in sport’s environmental footprint. they need to be part of the process in order to change behaviors at events and at home in their everyday lives. Learning from fans and teaching them about environmental actions at teams and venues is a growing and critical aspect of the Alliance’s mission. connecting corporate and nonprofit partners with the fans is also important. [. . .] In the end, there is a need to make environmental issues a part of the culture of sport man- agement and administration. Sport personnel must bring environmental issues into opera - tional and strategic planning. At the moment, there is momentum, but the momentum must be routinized into strategic planning and operational guidelines for it to mean something two decades from now. the Alliance is well placed to make this happen. As Jenkins said, “We want people to get in the game, to get involved, to join the Alliance and to attend our summits.” the environmental challenges our planet faces are like a race without end. thus, the world of sport, like all other cultural contexts, must address its environmental impact through con- tinuous adaptation and management.

Adapted from Pfahl, M. (2013, July). The Environmental Awakening in Sport. Solutions, 4(3), 67–76. Retrieved from http://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/node/23881 Used by permission of Solutions. ben85927_10_c10.indd 434 1/28/14 1:18 PM Su MMA rY & rES ourc ES Summary & Resources chapter Summary the goal of this chapter was to step back from a discussion of specific environmental issues and problems and consider some possible ways forward. the readings were also intended to open up a broader discussion of some of the economic, political, and ethical dimensions of environmental challenges. It should be obvious that we cannot keep doing things the way we have been given a growing population and the global scale environmental changes we have already set in motion. As such, this chapter also sought to present some more hopeful stories of individuals and groups that are finding ways to protect or improve the environment around them.

What should be apparent from all of these readings is that environmental problems are multi- faceted and need to be addressed from multiple perspectives. Environmental regulation alone cannot solve them, nor can economic incentives, nor can an appeal to values and ethics. Like- wise, scientific research alone and an understanding of the causes and consequences of an environmental problem are not enough. We need all of these perspectives, and we need them in concert. the basic goal of sustainable development—that of meeting the needs of society in ways that do not undermine the environment and the ability of future generations to meet their own needs—can only be achieved when we put all options and approaches on the table.

the role of science in this process is nevertheless essential and unique. the scientific per - spective can be explained by considering the difference between “positive” and “normative” approaches. A positive claim or statement is about the way things are, whereas a normative claim or statement is about the way things should be. Scientists work, for the most part, from a positive perspective. they see their job as striving to explain the way the world works, the way things are.

Debates over what to do about a problem identified by scientists usually shift to a more nor- mative frame—the way things should be. the articles presented in this book represent a compilation and summary of some of the most current research happening in the field of environmental science. the scientists doing this work may have political beliefs and norma - tive opinions about the way things should be. but they undertake their work as professionals interested in addressing the positive goal of understanding the way things are. their research is guided by the basic tenets of the scientific method—observing a problem, formulating hypotheses or theories about that problem, testing those hypotheses, analyzing the results of those tests, and drawing conclusions from them. Furthermore, their work involves publishing their research results in peer-reviewed scientific journals so that their findings can be scruti - nized, reviewed, and re-tested or replicated by other scientists.

the fact that the results of much scientific research on the environment leads to the norma - tive argument that we need to do something about these problems is not always the result of a particular “agenda” or “bias.” rather, the efforts of most environmental scientists are made in good faith to investigate ways to deal with global environmental challenges. Indeed, how we choose to address environmental challenges—and whether we emphasize political, economic, ethical, or technological solutions—is ultimately a normative decision of the way things should be. Scientific research provides important information and perspectives for these normative debates, but the science itself remains driven by a more basic and funda - mental goal of understanding the way the world works. ben85927_10_c10.indd 435 1/28/14 1:18 PM Su MMA rY & rES ourc ES Working Toward Solutions the concept of sustainable development was first popularized in a 1987 report by the brundt - land commission known as the brundtland report or our common Future ( http://www.un -documents.net/wced-ocf.htm ). the brundtland commission was working under the auspices of the World commission on Environment and Development to try to find a way to reconcile the need for improved economic conditions in much of the world and the desire to protect the environment. the definition settled on by the brundtland commission was that “sustain - able development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromis - ing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” this definition of sustainable development played an important role in negotiations at the united nations conference on Environment and Development ( unc ED), otherwise known as the Earth Summit, held in rio de Janiero, brazil, in 1992 ( http://www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.html ). the Earth Sum - mit produced a number of international agreements including Agenda 21, an action agenda for achieving sustainable development at the level of national governments, local govern- ments, corporations, or individuals ( http://www.unep.org/documents.multilingual/default .asp?documentid=52 ). up until today, the idea of sustainable development first articulated by the brundtland commission informs the work of the united nations, the World bank, and many individual countries.

While discussions of sustainable development at the global scale tend to be general and philo - sophical, at the local level you can really see what the concept looks like in practice. commu - nities like Greensburg, Kansas (Section 10.1), and Samso Island, Denmark (described in the Working Toward Solutions section of chapter 8), are implementing widespread sustainable architecture and energy practices. these communities are proving that energy and environ - mental conservation can be compatible with economic and social goals. both communities have also become something of a destination, attracting thousands of official and unofficial visitors annually to see and learn what sustainable development looks like in action.

organizations supporting the achievement of sustainable development at the local level include the International council for Local Environmental Initiatives (I cLEI) and the transition move - ment or transition network. I cLEI is a global association of local governments interested in working toward sustainable development ( http://www.iclei.org/ and http://www.icleiusa .org/). It provides information, training, and other resources to help local communities define what sustainable development means to them and then actually achieve it. transition net- work is a group of communities working to move past a dependence on fossil fuels and other unsustainable practices ( http://www.transitionnetwork.org/ and http://www.transitionus.org / transition-towns ). transition towns often feature innovative and sustainable approaches to transportation, agriculture, energy, and urban planning.

the business community is also actively engaging with the concept of sustainability at a num - ber of levels. Virtually all of the top global corporations in the world have made some sort of public pledge to improve their environmental performance and put in place corporate sus - tainability practices. However, as the Apply Your Knowledge exercise in section 10.3 illustrates, it’s often difficult to distinguish genuine claims about sustainable practices from efforts at greenwashing. As a result, a number of organizations have evolved both to assist corporations in implementing sustainable practices and also to help consumers and shareholders measure actual environmental performance. the World business council for Sustainable Development (continued) ben85927_10_c10.indd 436 1/28/14 1:18 PM Su MMA rY & rES ourc ES Post- test 1. the LEED rating system is a measure of how sustainable a corporation is in its practices. a. t rue b. False 2. Ecological footprint analysis estimates that we are currently operating our economy at a level that is environmentally sustainable. a. t rue b. False Working Toward Solutions (continued) (W bc SD; http://www.wbcsd.org/home.aspx ) is an organization led by chief Executive officers (cEos) of some of the largest and most profitable corporations in the world. It is perhaps the longest-running and most respected business organization advocating for sustainable develop- ment. Global 100 (http://www.global100.org/ ) is an assessment tool that aims to measure the most sustainable corporations in the world. the Alliance for research on corporate Sustain - ability ( http://www.corporate-sustainability.org/ ) actually provides an objective perspective on how corporations define and implement sustainability practices. there is an interesting debate about whether individuals have any role to play in the promo - tion and achievement of sustainable development. on the one hand it is argued that the issues are simply too large for one individual to have an impact. on the other it is suggested that indi - vidual actions, when combined across thousands or millions of individuals, can have a power- ful effect on change. this debate is summed up nicely in this short opinion piece ( http://grist .org/article/2010-02-01-how-personal-actions-can-kick-start-a-sustainabilit\ y-revolution/ ).

An interesting way to measure your environmental impact and then try to do something about it is provided through a tool known as Handprinter ( http://www.handprinter.org/). Hand- printer is presented as an alternative to the ecological footprint, and it provides a way for individuals to measure the positive impacts they can have by changing some of their personal practices. In the end it will most likely require a combination of actions at the level of national governments, local governments, corporations, and individuals to help bring about genuine sustainable development. the challenge is simply too great for any one of these groups to do it all themselves.

Lastly, there are some excellent documentary videos that present both the challenges and opportunities in achieving sustainable development. the Story of Change (http://storyofstuff .org/movies/story-of-change/ ) and the Story of Solutions (http://storyofstuff.org/movies /the-story-of-solutions/ ) are part of the Story of Stuff video series, and they offer some insight into how individuals, working alone or together, can help to promote positive environmental change. the film Garbage Warrior ( http://youtu.be/ un YFlcV9 r1w ) is a quirky look at using waste material to build practical, and sometimes even beautiful, shelters. Finally, the film Home ( http://youtu.be/jqxE nMKae cu ) serves to remind us of what an amazing world we live in and the importance of protecting it. ben85927_10_c10.indd 437 1/28/14 1:18 PM Su MMA rY & rES ourc ES 3. A system that allows consumers to quickly compare the environmental impacts of similar products is called a sustainability rating index. a. t rue b. False 4. Environmentalists who argue for a utilitarian conservation approach believe that wilderness and nature have an intrinsic value separate from their value to people. a. t rue b. False 5. the Global Sports Alliance was formed in 2010 to help sports teams, venues, and leagues enhance their environmental performance. a. t rue b. False 6. Which of the following was not a major motivating factor for the people of Greens - burg, Kansas, to build a sustainable community? a. c oncern for the next generation b. r ural self-sufficiency c. A desire to compete with neighboring towns d. A desire to save money on energy bills 7. Author James Gustave Speth and ecological economist Herman Daly now believe that the united States is in a period of “uneconomic” growth. a. t rue b. False 8. Forcing companies to bear the costs of their environmental destruction and pollu - tion makes them internalize externalities. a. t rue b. False 9. According to Peter Saundry, there is no true universal code of ethics because stan - dards of conduct vary from place-to-place and time-to-time. a. t rue b. False 10. What is the dominant mode of transportation used by fans to get to professional sporting events? a. b uses b. b icycles c. Walking d. c ars Answers 1. b. False. the answer can be found in section 10.1. 2. b. False. the answer can be found in section 10.2. 3. a. true. the answer can be found in section 10.3. 4. b. False. the answer can be found in section 10.4. ben85927_10_c10.indd 438 1/28/14 1:18 PM Su MMA rY & rES ourc ES 5. b. False. the answer can be found in section 10.5. 6. c. A desire to compete with neighboring towns. the answer can be found in section 10.1. 7. a. true. the answer can be found in section 10.2. 8. a. true. the answer can be found in section 10.3. 9. a. true. the answer can be found in section 10.4. 10. d. cars. the answer can be found in section 10.5. Key Ideas • While often perceived to be more expensive and a luxury that poor communities cannot afford, green building techniques and renewable energy save significant amounts of money and can benefit local economic conditions. the town of Greens - burg, Kansas, provides a perfect case study of this argument. • the conventional means of measuring economic progress—growth in the gross domestic product (GDP)—does not account for many of the environmental and social costs of that growth. An increasing number of economists and environmental scientists are suggesting that a continuation of economic policy focused primarily on growth will actually undermine quality of life and human well-being. Instead we should be attempting to measure and account for both the costs and benefits of eco - nomic activity and promote those that yield the greatest benefits. • the concept of “green intelligence” is based on the idea that once presented with increased transparency and information about the environmental impacts of their purchases, many consumers will choose products that have a lower impact. Large retailers such as WalMart and consumer product companies such as unilever are working with environmental scientists and marketing experts to help put this infor - mation in the hands of consumers. • Ethics refers to standards of conduct, a way to distinguish between right and wrong.

However, because there is no universal code of ethics, different ethical arguments can be made on behalf of the environment. A frontier ethic believes that resources are limitless and here for human use. A sustainable ethic believes that resources are limited and that we must manage and steward them carefully. Finally, a land ethic holds that humans are just one part of a larger biotic and abiotic community and that our own welfare is tied to taking care of the environment around us. • the Green Sports Alliance (GSA) represents an organization of sports teams, ven - ues, and athletes seeking to reduce the environmental impact of organized sporting events. the GSA focuses on issues such as energy use, water use, waste management, and transportation. critical thinking and Discussion Questions 1. nearly all environmental regulation imposes some sort of costs on society. At the same time these regulations reduce the costs caused by pollution and environmental contamination. For example, air pollution regulation adds to the cost of automobiles, gasoline, electric power, and other products and services. However, it’s estimated that these regulations save thousands of lives and billions of dollars in healthcare costs annually. How do you think the EPA and other regulators balance all of the possible costs and benefits in setting policy? Are all of these costs and benefits easily converted into a dollar figure? ben85927_10_c10.indd 439 1/28/14 1:18 PM Su MMA rY & rES ourc ES 2. In order to argue that “business-as-usual” economic growth policies are potentially causing more harm than good, we need to develop a better sense of how growth is harming the environment, public health, and community life. Why do you think it’s more difficult to measure these things than it is to calculate the supposed benefits of economic growth in the form of increased material output? 3. Why would corporations such as WalMart and unilever care so much about the envi - ronment? Do you believe that the corporate efforts described in section 10.3 repre- sent a genuine attempt to reduce environmental impact, or are they simply a public relations ploy to appeal to customers? 4. the reading in section 10.4 draws a distinction between anthropocentric, or human- centered, views and biocentric, or nature-centered, views. However, many environ- mental scientists now believe firmly that human health and well-being cannot be separated from nature, that a healthy environment is essential to human health, and that environmental destruction is like poisoning your own home. If we accept this argument, then is there any difference between an anthropocentric and a biocentric view of the world? Should there be? 5. What do you think is the most important impact of the efforts of the Green Sports Alliance—the direct impact of better environmental performance or the public rela - tions and education impact of having sports teams highlight green initiatives? Key terms Aldo Leopold American wildlife natural historian, philosopher, and author who was influential in the development of modern environmental ethics. anthropocentric A view that regards humankind as the central or most important element of existence. biocentric the view that all life has value or that life is centered on nature rather than on humans.

environmental ethics a field of applied ethics that considers the moral basis of envi- ronmental responsibility and how far this responsibility extends.

ethics Moral principles that govern a per- son’s or group’s behavior. frontier ethic the view that natural resources are inexhaustible and should be exploited and used for the benefit of humankind. Garrett Hardin Ecologist who warned of the dangers of overpopulation through his essay “ the tragedy of the commons.” Gifford Pinchot First chief of the u.S. Forest Service known for reforming the manage- ment and development of forests in the united States and for advocating the conser - vation of the nation’s reserves by planned use and renewal. green intelligence A simple rating system that ranks the environmental impacts of various products. intrinsic value the perceived value that something has on its own, regardless of its value to humans.

land ethic A perspective on environmen- tal ethics holding that a community should include soils, water, plants, and animals (collectively known as the land) including humans, which are viewed as members of a living community rather than as conquerors of the land. ben85927_10_c10.indd 440 1/28/14 1:18 PM Su MMA rY & rES ourc ES Additional resources • the Solutions journal (http://thesolutionsjournal.anu.edu.au/ ) provides some very interesting articles and other resources on the politics, economics, and ethics of sustainable development. • Worldchanging (http://www.worldchanging.com/ ) is the work of Alex Steffen and is meant to promote new perspectives on the challenges of accommodating the needs of the over seven billion people on the planet. • the Eco tipping Points Project provides numerous examples of communities that have turned environmental conditions around and are now on a positive path toward sustainability ( http://www.ecotippingpoints.org/ ). • the nature Education Knowledge Project provides a number of excellent articles on issues related to environmental ethics, including the ethical foundations of sustain- ability and ethical debates over wildlife conservation.

~ http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/environmental-ethics -91387464 ~ http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/sustainability-ethical -foundations-71373239 ~ http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/ecology-an-ethical -perspective-80059530 ~ http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/conservation-biology -ethical-foundations-46518079 ~ http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/ethics-and-global-clima\ te -change-84226631 ~ http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/ethics-of-wildlife -management-and-conservation-what-80060473 ~ http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/sustainability-science -ethical-foundations-and-emerging-challenges-24319566 LEED-certified  Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a building rating system developed by the united States Green building council. buildings are rated on environmental performance indicators such as energy and water use and receive various scores, with LEED Platinum being the highest.

morals A person’s standards of behavior or beliefs concerning what is and is not accept - able to do. preservation the act of setting aside, main - taining, and protecting an area from human activities. supply chain A system of organizations, people, technology, activities, information, and resources involved in moving a product or service from supplier to customer. sustainable ethic the view that natural resources are limited and that humans, as part of the natural environment, should use and conserve these resources in a way that allows for their continued future use.

sustainability rating index A system that allows consumers to compare, at a glance, the relative environmental impacts of two otherwise similar items. utilitarian Having a useful function. ben85927_10_c10.indd 441 1/28/14 1:18 PM ben85927_10_c10.indd 442 1/28/14 1:18 PM