BUS 250 wk 2 Disc. 1 replies (100 words each)(DO NOT CHANGE THE PRICE) IF YOU DO I WILL NOT SEND A HANDSHAKE.

4 Expanding Outward: Local and Global Communities Wavebreakmedia/iStock/Thinkstock Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define community , analyze community connections, and evaluate different types of communities, includ- ing communities of identity, communities of geography, and organizational communities.

2. Understand the value of tr anscending differences.

3. Apply the six cultur al dimensions to different business situations.

4. Summarize guidelines for successful cr oss-cultural communication.

2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.1 Corporations as Communities Pretest Questions 1. Community is al ways defined by sharing a common place. T/F 2. Someone w ho “talks with their hands” or makes big gestures is likely from an affective culture. T/F 3.

Hist orically, powerful corporations have tried to honor cultural differences and compromise with different communities. T/F 4.

T o have a successful cross-cultural conversation, it is important to state your own views first. T/F Answers can be found at the end of the chapter. Introduction Consider that people who live side-by-side in the same geographic area may not describe themselves as part of the same community, whereas people separated by continents may feel deeply a part of the same community. Indeed, the word community has many interpretations that transcend geography. This chapter offers different definitions of community and exam- ines specific types, including communities of identity, communities of geography, and organi- zational communities. Leaders interested in creating more sustainable and socially respon - sible organizations benefit from understanding how people form communities and how members from certain communities typically feel about and react to sustainability and CSR issues. These same leaders benefit from learning how to acknowledge and engage with com- munities. Doing so helps with the stakeholder analyses discussed in Chapter 2. Such efforts can also advance the CSR and sustainability missions of individuals and companies.

All corporations are part of at least one community. The concept of systems theory, as covered in Chapter 1.2, suggests that corporations exist as part of larger systems. The other members of such systems constitute a “community.” After investigating the topic of community, this chapter discusses the value of transcending (or rising above) typical cultural differences. In this text, culture is defined and character - ized by specific cultural dimensions. While there are an almost infinite number of dimensions associated with culture, identity, agreement, status, time, focus, and emotions help managers understand why in a global environment, business relationships require significant interper - sonal effort. 4.1 Corporations as Communities A community can refer to a group of people who share a common physical location; it can also describe a social network infused with common interests (“Community,” 2016). While this two-part definition seems straightforward, it indicates that corporations inhabit at least two kinds of communities. The first part of the definition refers to being “in the same place,” while the second refers to “having particular characteristics in common.” Communities that \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.1 Corporations as Communities exist in the same place share geographically-defined boundaries and are easy to determine using maps, coordinates, landmarks, and the physical senses. Communities with characteris- tics in common usually include elements people cannot see and which are not always physi - cally bound (such as in the case of sporting communities, innovation communities, learning communities, or relationship communities).

For example, the community of Nottingham, United Kingdom, is defined on a map by geog- raphy, but it is also defined by government using laws, the limits of public service, and trans- portation systems. In contrast, in the same country, the Labour Party is defined by common political and social interests rather than by lines on a map. Of course, the UK Labour Party community also has geographic limitations, as it does not exist outside the United Kingdom.

Given that this book covers how people relate within and around corporations, particularly in regard to social responsibility and sustainability, this chapter moves beyond physical com- munities to cover those defined by ideas, discussions, preferences, and actions. People can have associations that lack physical boundaries—they can share a community with those who have the same interests and ideas, whether that means they found each other online or elsewhere. This chapter also covers the topic of communication, as communication creates community—consider, for example, someone who shares information and convinces you to join a political party (Canuto & Yaeger, 2000). What this means for business purposes is that when people are in a community, they seek or receive common benefits through their associa - tions with each other. These ideas relate to CSR in that some communities share and reinforce specific messages, purposes, and ideals, including those related to sustainability and social responsibility.

Tying the two-part definition of community to sustainability requires considering both ele- ments of the definition. By taking an approach that considers “lines on map” or “common place” associations, firms and governments can build a planned sustainable community defined by transportation hubs and community centers that are located in close proximity to each other and to housing and shops. Such physical assets and sustainable infrastructure serve to increase human connection and interaction. This connection promotes sustainable growth and maintainable societies, as community members save time, money, and other resources because they have easy access to products and services they need. Firms can do the same thing with innovative work spaces that build community (within the existing company walls). Of course, another way to promote sustainability involves helping people identify the interests they have in common when they work.

Community Growth The process by which communities grow is often called socialization. Socialization is the process of communal learning in which patterns of behavior emerge; these patterns prescribe values and roles. Most social scientists agree that socialization begins very early, as children become part of a family community, a local community, a school community, a regional com- munity, a religious or nonreligious community, and eventually a global community. Social- ization also entrenches us in communities as adults, as we continually change to adapt and expand our influence. People who know how to successfully socialize are more able to help themselves and others adjust to new jobs, practices, and behaviors that are more sustainable and responsible (Hegmon, 2002). \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.1 Corporations as Communities Types of Communities The previous section introduced communities of place and interest. Scholar Gerhard Delaney (2003) takes the concept of community one step further. He describes three different types of communities—geographic, identity, and organizational—and suggests that all three combine to describe reality (see Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Three types of communities f04_01 Organizational Identity Geography Geography-Based Communities The first type of community relates to geography. Geography-based communities share a common physical location and can usually be mapped. Corporations—which may begin in a single neighborhood—can expand into a suburb, a village, and perhaps a city or multiple cities. Consider how the Dow Chemical Company is associated with nearly the entire city of Midland, Michigan; or how the Walmart corporation is associated with Bentonville, Arkansas.

Firms may open branch offices in a region and expand nationally or even internationally. For example, both Dow Chemical and Walmart started in a neighborhood, expanded to define whole cities, and now have national and international reach. In each geographic area, corpo- rate leaders build a connection to the regional, local, and maybe even international social sys- tem. This means that for a large global corporation, community relations tend to be extremely complex.

Take, for example, a large life sciences company that produces more than 1,000 different products that range from weight-loss treatments to hand lotions and detergents. Its product portfolio also contains numerous vitamins and nutritional supplements. Some of the world’s communities consider the vitamins and nutrients to be medicines, while other communities consider them to be only supplements. This means that products that are not regulated by some governments might be highly regulated by other governments—as highly regulated and monitored as are prescription drugs in the United States, in fact.

\251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.1 Corporations as Communities Employees at the life science firm therefore need to behave differently when selling products from country to country. The different traditions and mind-sets that exist in different social systems mean that employees need to understand and conform to different local conditions and traditions. They likely need to meet with local experts to learn local customs, attitudes, assumptions, and norms; depending on the market penetration of the company’s products, company representatives may need to do this all around the world.

Corporate social complexities must therefore take into account how work regulations, tradi- tions, and ethics vary from community to community. Work practices that originate in one community may not apply to another. What constitutes a “best practice” in the United States may actually be illegal in another community or country. For example, network and multi - level marketing systems that commonly thrive in the United States and Japan (such as door- to-door or peer-to-peer sales models, such as Avon for cosmetics) remain illegal in parts of Europe and China. As a less extreme example, consider how performance appraisal systems that focus on individual contributions remain common practice in U.S. corporations, but man- agers prefer to emphasize team-based behaviors in China and Japan.

Identity-Based Communities Delaney (2003) describes the second type of community as identity based. Identity commu- nities are united by something other than simple location on a map (though location can help create an ethnic identity, as we describe later). Ethnic groups, tribes, religious groups, and other culturally defined groups are examples of identity communities—they may have geography in common, but they also share ideas, traditions, and philosophies. One example of an identity-based community is a national and genealogical affiliation, such as being Irish.

While there are approximately 9 million people who live in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, almost 70 million people worldwide identify as Irish (Monagan, 2012). On Saint Patrick’s Day, Irish cultural celebrations are held in every major city in the United States. This does not mean that North American–born people of Irish descent want to be Irish citizens.

However, it illustrates how many people cling to national and genealogical associations of heritage, values, and traditions.

Identity-based communities tend to be particularly difficult for corporate cultures to navi- gate because they are complex, subjective, and fluid. For example, suppose a business in the United States begins serving pork in its corporate cafeteria, in order to support local farmers.

The company’s Muslim employees immediately register complaints about the menu—Mus - lims abstain from eating pork, and orthodox Muslims will not use any plate or service utensil that has touched pork. The company’s human resources director assigned to deal with the issue does not want to segregate workers into “pork” and “nonpork” parts of the cafeteria, so she decides to refrain from offering pork in the cafeteria and instead donates to the farm association.

Organizationally-Based Communities The third kind of community defined by Delaney (2003) is organizationally based. To under - stand this type of community, consider that families constitute organizations, as do alumni associations, professional organizations, and industry associations. Membership, asso- ciation, selection, or other distinguishing and shared factors unite organizationally-based \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.2 Globalization communities. Note that most organizations require individuals to opt for membership, but some claim members who would prefer not to be included if asked (such as graduates who do not want to be contacted by their alumni associations or people who prefer not to associate with their family members).

Virtual Communities Of course, Delaney’s (2003) definition of community leaves some very important things out.

Most notably it does not account for virtual communities that emerge online. The rise of Int ernet-based social networks and social media has been very difficult for corporations to understand and navigate. Given the fact that people all over the world have Facebook accounts, online and social media advertisements and endorsements reach more than 1 billion people (Smith, Segall, & Cowley, 2012). Thus, it is safe to assume that most employees of modern cor- porations interact in one way or another on social media. Employees may regularly use social media to discuss a corporation and its products, work practices, and community participation efforts. Social media can have a tremendous impact on a corporation, and for good or bad.

Most corporations take extensive steps to manage their public image on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, and other social media sites. Most employ a social media man- ager internally or hire an external consultant to protect their image in the virtual community (Reputation Management Consultants, 2015). Given that many different types of communi- ties exist and that most use technology to expand beyond geographic borders, it makes sense to discuss communities and business-community linkages on a global scale. 4.2 Globalization Globalization typically refers to the economic forces that build interdependency across the world. Others regard globalization as a social force by which common values come together.

In contrast to these relatively positive associations, some people consider globalization to be a destructive force that results in job loss, depressed wages, and economic and social decline.

Still others see globalization as tied to world political organizations such as the United Nations.

The common thread among all these perspectives is that our world is increasingly inter - connected by technology, comparative ease of travel, and treaties and trade agreements that increase the flow of goods and services across national and international boundaries.

Regardless of how different leaders and consumers feel about this fact, an increased connec- tion exists and can further complicate a corporation’s efforts to make ties with the various communities across the globe (Robinson, 2007). Globalization relates to CSR and sustain- ability because almost all of its definitions suggest that the communities in which corpora- tions operate continue to geographically widen. With such growth, consumers, employees, and managers must concomitantly expand analyses, planning, and inclusion. Specifically, as the world becomes more connected, even firms with a primarily regional focus might have an Internet page that international audiences read. Firms can source ideas from around the world more easily when the world is closely connected, but firms can also have their ideas and inventions copied or modified by other people thousands of miles away. The more our world connects, the more managers need to analyze and plan for what happens as a result of such connections.

\251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.2 Globalization Working in a Globalized World and the Need for Transcendence Working in a globalized world presents problems and opportunities for corporations at indi- vidual, team, divisional, and senior leadership levels. The imperative to cope with globaliza - tion has both strategic and personal implications. Individuals must learn to work with people who are culturally different (even if the two parties only interact over the phone). Corpora- tions must learn to comply with different political and social systems (Hammond, Anderson, & Cissna, 2003). The following sections discuss some strategies for approaching globalization challenges.

Assimilation Historically, many powerful corporations tended to ignore the issues of globalization because leaders adopted an assimilation strategy. This strategy suggests that a powerful entity or community makes and imposes the rules that a smaller or less powerful entity or community must enact. Eventually, the larger entity absorbs and overtakes the smaller community by force or by slowly changing and reconfiguring it. Assimilation worked in the past because the corporation’s overall reach was limited, and the power of certain corporations was high and less diffuse. In recent years, however, corporate leaders have been increasingly exposed to an alternative way. A transcendent approach is not only less costly than the more dominating assimilation style, it can also provide important competitive advantages and create a clear pathway toward sustainability and social responsibility (in part because it is much less force- ful and respects human choice and agency).

Transcendence Transcendence relates to the concept of building a “third way,” a new position that is some - where between “my way” and “your way.” It suggests that one needs to be aware of one’s own cultural characteristics, understand the cultural characteristics of others, and then work together to create a third way that appreciates and honors both cultures. Of course, this is a very difficult process, but one that can yield important results. Without going into detail, it can be argued that all peacemaking processes—whether personal or global in scale—relate to some form of transcendence. People who work on cultural, religious, educational, envi- ronmental, or other types of transcendence do not abandon their own cultural beliefs in the process, nor do they ask another person to do so. Rather, they work with others so all par- ties can move forward (Ritchie & Hammond, 2011). Transcendence represents an ideal way to incorporate the views of many while still working toward a solution. It can be useful in communities as small as two people and in those as complicated as multinational companies that have operations on every continent. For many leaders, working to achieve transcendence represents a way to increase buy-in, support, and inclusion and to achieve better results from related action plans.

Avoidance People often find reasons to avoid cultural transcendence, especially when it seems difficult and requires a lot of emotional energy. Strategies to avoid cultural transcendence include denial, rejection, minimization, diversion, and superficiality (Hammond, Lieckty, & Damron, \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors in press). An example of denial is when people say there are no real differences between cultures and that all people are basically the same. In denying the complexity of culture, we give ourselves permission to avoid the work and progress that might ensue from address - ing it. Another common strategy to delay or avoid cultural transcendence involves rejecting another culture. For example, one might use language to suggest that one culture is supe- rior and “normal” while another is inferior; such language avoids the opportunity to achieve cultural transcendence and instead devalues entire groups of people. Consider, for example, when history books refer primarily to the achievements of White males and ignore or down- play the contributions of women and non-Caucasians (Rothman, 2014). Another way to avoid the complicated work of achieving transcendence is by minimizing differences; when one party oversimplifies the views and opinions of other parties, true transcendence is impos- sible. People who minimize others may do so inadvertently when they assume that having good intentions is enough. Minimization causes people to avoid the difficult work of deeply understanding another culture.

Yet another way to avoid cultural transcendence is to distract people or divert effort by focus- ing attention on a shared goal for a short time—such a tactic works temporarily but does not result in unity or transcendence. This distraction occurs, for example, when people assume that getting all parties to focus on earning a profit will nullify cultural differences among and between the parties. This avoidance strategy can result in short-term gain but long-term alienation, when people are no longer distracted and realize they have not come together in a meaningful way.

Relatedly, a superficial avoidance strategy suggests that one only need learn another culture’s appropriate customs and manners, such as when to kiss, bow, or shake hands. This simplified strategy allows people to ignore the deeply ingrained values that trigger, explain, and support the external actions and norms around customs and manners. When people are willing to engage in self-reflection and consider ways they may be either purposefully or inadvertently obstructing the work of transcendence, such work is more likely to succeed.

In addition to self-reflection, there are other tools for understanding and analyzing culture.

The next section discusses widely used cultural dimensions that can help employees and managers categorize and understand national cultural differences that can impact people’s actions and priorities at work and in relation to CSR and sustainability. Considering the spe- cific topics of sustainability and social responsibility introduces additional dimensions of cul - ture. The skill of learning to identify and use these dimensions to increase understanding and decrease conflict applies to topics of national culture and to those of CSR and sustainability, as the next sections illustrate.

4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors Using simplified categories to discuss complicated issues of culture enables people to explore the complexity of others—and to gain a deeper understanding of themselves and others to find a third way. In other words, the goal of understanding cultural issues is transcendence— the ability to move beyond limitations and contradictions (Lewis, 2006). Using simplified categories to describe culture also helps students, employees, managers, and others use a \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors common language so that conversations can feature categories and dimensions instead of individual habits and behaviors.

Before introducing commonly described cultural dimensions, a word of caution is in order.

First, these categories derive from research in which scholars surveyed a cross-section of an entire culture, and thus generalizations are not based on any one individual’s behavior (Hof - stede, Pederson, & Hofstede, 2002). That is to say, exceptions to each example exist. Given the methodology, the following dimensions help people understand a culture but not necessarily individual behavior.

Second, culture, like an ocean, is always shifting. Wave patterns and water temperature are fluid and change over time, and so does culture. Third, radicals at either end of any cultural dimension typically represent dysfunctional choices. For example, the Nazis during World War II were radical collectivists (one of the dimensions). Bernie Madoff, the perpetrator of the largest business crime in the U.S. history, was a radical individualist (another dimension).

Rarely can people find examples of ethical behavior in the radical extremes of the cultural dimensions. This book does not purport to elevate one cultural style over another. The goal is to use the dimensions to illustrate that cultural differences must be navigated as people consider the inner and outer boundaries of any firm that attempts to advance business (espe- cially socially responsible and sustainable business) in the globalized world.

These cultural categories were first introduced in the work of Hofstede and colleagues (2002, 2010), which put forth six dimensions of national culture. These include power distance, individualism versus collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity, long-term orientation versus short-term orientation, and indulgence versus restraint. Subse- quent work by other scholars incorporated the work of Hofstede and added other elements or described them differently (Hammond et al., in press). Key dimensions are summarized and described more fully in the following sections.

Identity All of the following cultural dimensions relate to the construction of identity or one’s self- concept. All of us do various things every day to construct an image of ourselves for oth- ers that we hope remains consistent with the image we have or want to have of ourselves.

Artifacts and behaviors that help construct and reinforce identity include how we dress, our hairstyle, what we drive, how we talk, what we talk about, how we spend our money and our leisure time, and even our work styles. Whether we know it or not, or whether we use the following terms, research suggests we relate and construct identity in ways that reflect these categories below.

Individualism In an individualistic culture, people form identities that are separate from the identities of others; individual performance is more rewarded than group or team performance, in terms of what self and others value. For example, most students write a resume as part of the pr ocess of looking for a job. A resume (or its more individualistic counterpart, the \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors curriculum vitae (CV)) is an artifact of an individualist culture, since resumes and CVs typi- cally list individual accomplishments.

An individualist identity typically centers on the self. Individual performance, such as grades received for schoolwork, are very important. An individual may work on a team, but some- times the motivation for doing so is to enhance one’s own performance. Most individualists choose to be recognized as an individual rather than as part of a team. In fact, when teams receive recognition, some individualists feel slighted.

Individualists are generally unconcerned about the range of rewards for low and high per- formers, particularly if they see themselves as high performing—this is because their main focus is winning and accumulating individual rewards, accolades, and honors. The most important thing in an individualistic culture is having a chance to shine and be recognized.

At the most general level, the United States is an individualist country. Written history (U.S.

and other), often dedicates much time or book space to individual political heroes such as Thomas Jefferson or George Washington. People in the United States typically build monu- ments that honor individual contributors, and they put political heroes on currency and name streets and holidays after them in recognition of their individual performance. Most U.S. uni- versities (and some businesses) recognize donors by putting their names on buildings and classrooms. In sporting events, Americans make it a point to identify and recognize a team’s most valuable player.

An individualistic manager believes that change stems from individual achievement and cre- ativity. Such a manager wants people to stand out, achieve personal goals, and be individu- ally recognized. Thus, individualistic managers are more likely to be hierarchical and take charge. The organization’s hierarchy is important to an individualist because it gives him or her a chance to be recognized by position. The extreme contrast to individualist is known as collectivist.

Collectivism Collectivists identify first with a group or association and secondarily, if at all, as an individ - ual contributor. They typically prefer to bring honor and attention to the group, team, or orga- nization as a whole. For collectivists in work and sporting environments, team performance is more important than individual performance. Japan is a common example of a collectivist culture, though research suggests it is becoming more individualistic with each generation (Hammond et al., in press). In Japan, team sports are played in a completely different way than in the United States. For example, making opponents look bad by significantly outscoring them reflects badly on an athlete and is considered to be poor sportsmanship. Sporting events rarely recognize individual performance or single players. Instead, the focus is on teams and team success. Even in business, individuals rarely seek or receive recognition for success. It is common to describe the accomplishments of the firm without speaking directly about the accomplishments of any one employee. For example, collectivist Japanese companies do not always recognize innovators who create new technologies, even if the breakthrough seems significant and receives a patent. Historically, collectivist Japanese CEOs and corporate lead- ers generally receive higher pay than nonexecutive workers, but not significantly more. In contrast, the salary differential is significant in individualist cultures (Statista, 2016).

\251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors How can managers from an individualist culture work with managers from a collectivist one to find a third way in which both cultures are honored and privileged? That is the challenge for the global manager. The same skills a manager needs to work with people from different global cultures are needed to work with people who operate from different mental models or have different attitudes about social responsibility and sustainability. Transcendence helps people from different “worlds” work together. This requires fully understanding the types and sources of difference, as well as the strengths and benefits of all dimensions. The follow - ing sections outline other cultural dimensions to consider.

Agreement The problem of setting and maintaining agreements in a globalized world is certainly a press - ing one, as it remains useful for every negotiation—from peacekeeping efforts to settling parking disputes. It is common for American managers to visit a potential collaborator in China, the Philippines, or different countries on the African continent and come away with what they think is an agreement, only to find out later that an agreement in those cultures is not the same as an agreement in U.S. culture. The cultural dimension of universalism ver - sus particularism helps people understand why agreements between individuals or between companies are regarded differently around the world.

Universalism In universalist societies, laws are expected to be upheld and followed by everyone. Univer - salists believe agreements are part of the rule of law. Children in universalist societies grow up in school systems that prioritize rules and rule followers. Children learn at an early age to obey the teacher, follow the rules, and line up.

Most universalist cultures are rooted in religious practices that support adherence to rules.

For example, Islam features very specific rules, including ones about diet, prayer time, and hospitality. Even Muslims who do not practice their religion on a daily basis live by a cultur - ally embedded norm that stresses the importance of “embracing the stranger.” In early Islam’s nomadic desert culture, if a person did not take strangers in and give them water and food, they would likely die. The norm was highly functional for society and thus became tradition.

Even today many Muslims are extremely generous with their food and hospitality, and their larger cultural context supports and reinforces this approach. Many universalist cultures in Europe and the West remain rooted in a different religious tradition of Judeo–Christianity. In both traditions (and in derivative religions), rules of honesty, integrity, truth telling, and other practices trace back to early religious practices. Even individuals who are not religious often advocate similar values as an essential part of being a good person.

Universalists often claim “the rules are the rules, and no variance is allowed.” They trust the system to enforce a contract or an agreement. There are often objective measures that deter - mine whether a contract or agreement has been fulfilled. Universalists often want to get down to business quickly and write a contract that defines a relationship. They often say things like “trust the numbers,” “trust the process,” “there is one right way to do this,” or “adhere to the rule of law.” The “rule of law” means that individuals have certain rights that cannot be taken away or applied unequally. In the United States, for example, while those at different income \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors levels pay different tax rates, all individuals are required to follow the law to pay taxes. Simi- larly, the speed limit is the same for everyone.

Particularism Conversely, people from a particularist society generally do not privilege rules in the way that universalists do. In a particularist society, people emphasize relationships over rules.

China, which was ruled by either an emperor or a dictator for most of its history, has emerged as a particularist society in many respects. The Chinese concept of guanxi is the establish- ment of a trusted social network. People who practice extensive social networking and have strong local rules for doing so may be called particularist because they believe that their rela - tionships with others are of utmost importance.

In the United States some researchers have measured individualism and particularism by region. Overall, the United States appears to be a universalist country, but research suggests some regions are more particularist than others. The southern, central, and western parts of the United States, where church attendance is higher, tend to be more particularist (Ham- mond & Glenn, 2004).

Particularists differ from universalists in that they believe rules can be modified based on changing situations. Their argument is to trust relationships and cherish contacts. There are no objective measures, only relative ones. Work for particularists never clearly begins and never ends. A person’s work is in the community; he or she works to gain trust, protect peo- ple, and define relationships, and spends a lot of time getting to know people before bringing them in as business associates. Thus, it may take a long time and many social activities before a particularist connects and initiates business (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998).

Time Issues pertaining to time are some of the most obvious differences between cultures in a glo- balized work environment. Certainly, technology has played a key role in this issue, as global corporations increasingly work between time zones. To illustrate this point, pretend that you are a North American manager attending a meeting in a different culture. As you leave the airport to go to a place of business, you see the time schedules of flights posted in the airport.

Your flight arrives on time, as most do. There is an orderly line in front of the taxi stand at the airport. Fares for the buses and schedules are published and posted on signs. You arrive 5 minutes early because this is a first meeting. You expect there will be an agenda for the meet- ing, and you expect that the items you agreed to discuss will be on it. However, as you enter the meeting, you find something quite different. There are several people already meeting with your new business contact. They are already discussing the issue that you traveled from afar to discuss. They are also bringing up other factors that are not relevant to your business issues. Depending on a monochronic or polychronic cultural viewpoint, the meeting might appear either chaotic and disorganized or productive.

\251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors Monochronic Someone from a culture where being on time is important and where meetings typically focus on a single issue is from a monochronic culture. Monochronic means “one at a time.” Mono- chronic cultures (like the United States and Germany) have strict unwritten rules about doing things in order, completing a task, and then moving on. Typically, people in monochronic cul - tures prefer schedules. They come to work every day at the same time and regard deadlines as important. They have specific expectations for work and engage in performance evalua - tions and other tools that measure progress toward a goal. They are more likely to have a common process for tasks and to assess progress toward these tasks on a regular incremental basis. They may assess progress using tools such as agendas and to-do lists that dictate and describe forward (linear) motion (Hammond et al., in press).

Polychronic Polychronic cultures are in sharp contrast to monochronic ones. Polychronic views of time involve many things happening at once. Polychronic cultures function more like a market- place, where lots of things happen simultaneously, rather than like a train schedule where one thing happens according to a strict schedule. Polychronic cultures embrace simultaneous events, as well as the protection and preservation of relationships, because many people are included in the concurrent activity. While such cultures can appear chaotic to people from monochronic cultures, from the perspective of polychronic cultures, concurrent activity is creative and effective (Hammond et al., in press).

People in a polychronic culture typically prefer free-flowing and less structured meetings.

They like creativity and flexible work. They are not concerned with coming and leaving work at a certain time, but rather care deeply about what kind of new and creative ideas emerge while they are at work. For polychronic workers, deadlines and specific outcomes feel flex - ible. Polychronic people prefer trying different methods of operating and can be less con- cerned with processing on a regular basis. In other words, they like to see the whole first before they get down to specifics.

Status Understanding how people view status can illuminate their values, preferences, and ideal rewards. Understanding status orien - tations can also help people in conversation understand how to motivate each other.

Some people will be motivated to earn sta- tus through achievement, while others may feel that status cannot be changed or should be measured in alternate ways.

Consider a scenario that involves a young student from the Middle East who comes to the United States to study. Over the course of 4 years, this student does exceptionally michaeljung/iStock/Thinkstock One way to measure status is by recognizing individual achievements, such as winning an award for being an outstanding employee.

\251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors well and is granted a prestigious scholarship to do graduate work at a major university. Again the student performs exceptionally well, and he returns to his country with recognition and a prestigious degree. Yet when he applies for a job in his home country, he is disappointed to find that other, less qualified candidates receive consideration that he does not. As he looks into the situation, he realizes that his heritage is working against him.

Ascription-Based Cultures Ascription relates to how heritage affects social status. Returning to the above scenario, the student’s heritage was considered a more defining characteristic than his achievements. His relatives do not hold important political leadership positions, nor do they have any religious or social prominence. Thus, in an ascription-oriented culture that values social status that stems from family and historical connections over status from personal achievement, he can- not succeed. Ultimately, he returns to the United States, where he finds work from an organi- zation that values him for his achievements and knowledge.

This scenario is a reality in many ascription-oriented societies. In these, individual achieve- ments are less important compared to family, religious, community, or tribal affiliations. The student in the story was from the “wrong” family and the “wrong” tribe and thus was ineli- gible to achieve high status and preferential treatment in his society.

Achievement-Based Cultures Achievement relates to the way in which educational certificates, work experience, training, and other (often visible) rites of passage are accomplishments that contribute to one’s social status. Unlike ascription, where people are born into status, status is earned in achievement- oriented cultures. Awards, merit badges, diplomas, certifications, and titles are symbols that determine a person’s status. For example, a surgeon’s age or tribal affiliation is not a concern for patients; only that he or she is board certified and has a high success rate.

Focus Focus relates to the way attention is managed, directed, and aligned. When communicating, there are cultural differences regarding how direct and defined people choose to be when they speak or write; focus relates to these differences. There are many examples of specific versus diffuse languages and cultures. People from a predominantly specific culture tend to focus on a text’s factual accuracy, while people from more diffuse cultures focus on the con- text in which something is written or said. For example, suppose a young student from an extremely diffuse Asian culture comes to study in the United States, which is a more specific culture. On the first day of school, to avoid confusion, the principal calls the young student into his office and gives her careful instructions on how to walk to school, where to put things, how to pay for lunch, and how to get her parents to attend parent–teacher night. Instead of thanking the principal for her help, the young student runs home crying. Later in the day, her father appears in the principal’s office to ask why his daughter was in trouble and why she was shamed on the first day of school. The story illustrates how trying to be helpful and direct according to one point of view can be construed as being critical and shaming from an alternate point of view.

\251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors Diffuse Focus In diffuse cultures, context is created and the specifics of behavior are assumed. Referring back to the young Asian student’s culture, other students (not the principal) would be the ideal people to advise her about the school’s rules. Authority figures only intervene when there has been a serious indiscretion (Chen & Starosta, 2000).

In diffuse cultures, leaders rarely give direct instructions. Instead, a manager or leader describes a long-term goal and discusses its overall objectives. In such a context, individuals are expected to identify a place to insert themselves if they are to participate in the process.

If someone violates a norm or boundary, a peer with a similar cultural background is likely to intervene. In a diffuse culture, workers can “cover” for each other. Individual specialties are less common, and work continues until it is completed. A leader primarily asks for opinions and sets the vision. Standards may vary from project to project because there are many right ways to do things. Deadlines must be flexible, and change happens often.

Specific Focus Consider a different scenario that illustrates another way to approach time and human behav - ior. Suppose a human resource specialist attends a meeting in a German division of her com- pany. She plans to work with others to come up with a way to introduce a new policy to the division. Prior to arriving, the local plant manager lays out the decision-making process in a grid on the wall, with a step-by-step guide designed to help the human resource specialist’s team make decisions. “Now all we have to do is fill in the blanks,” he proudly tells her. The Ger - man manager exemplifies someone who comes from a specific culture; someone who wants the process laid out clearly before the content comes into play. People from specific cultures want to know the starting point of every action.

People in specific cultures tend to prefer instructions that are direct and to the point (Trompe- naars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). They prefer a starting point that is narrow and fixed, where they can focus on one part of a project. In contrast, people from diffuse cultures tend to prefer specialties, and jobs are often segmented. People in specific cultures work a defined set of hours and hope to be measured against a clarified and predetermined set of standards. It is generally assumed there is one right or best way to do things. There are clear deadlines, and change is rare.

Emotions There is great variety in how people around the world use and display emotions. For example, many cultures, such as Japan, discourage the public display of emotion, especially for men.

Displaying anger, affection, or disappointment is seen as weakness. Yet people from other cul- tures, such as Latin American ones (such as Brazil, Mexico, or Spain), display emotions more openly. This is because various cultures feature either affective or neutral emotional styles of expression. \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.3 Cultural Dimensions: Understanding Global Behaviors Affective Emotional Expression Imagine a Chinese market in which a vegetable stand is next to a fish stand. The owner of the vegetable stand yells at the fishmonger, “The smell of your fish keeps people from buying my vegetables!” The fishmonger yells back, shaking his fist and stomping around. In some cul - tures, this exchange represents a conflict to be resolved, but in the Chinese marketplace this kind of exchange is quite normal. What may seem like high-stress, highly emotional conflict- oriented communication to some is actually normal communication to others.

Affective cultures are highly emotional. People openly display emotion and do so quite expres - sively, using bodies, hands, and dramatic facial expressions to emphasize verbal language. In an affective culture, it is common to embrace or hug a colleague. Personal space is almost a nonexistent concept. Latino cultures are good examples of affective cultures because emotion is openly demonstrated. Polynesian cultures are also affective cultures because they are high touch. It is common to embrace people, to touch them, and to communicate nonverbally.

Neutral Emotional Expression In neutral cultures, or places where people contain expressions of emotion, physical con- tact is typically limited to those with whom you have an intimate and personal relationship.

Although Chinese culture is affective in communication, it is physically neutral. In neutral cultures there is a great deal of protection against physical contact. Handshakes are com- mon because they are over quickly and define personal space. Rationality is preferred, and silence between ideas is important. Typically speaking, conversation in Asian cultures is sub- tle and respectful, and exchanges move at a deliberately slow pace. In such cultures, people are expected to be cool and self-possessed as a way to project cultural norms of competence, with expressions that are not easily read. It is important to understand that people raised in a more neutral culture are not without emotions. But the neutral cultural tradition teaches people to store emotions and display them away from public places. Thus, anger, shame, and even love are reserved for private places (Hammond et al., in press). Apply Your Knowledge: Six Cultural Questions The following questions align with different and often contrasting cultural dimensions.

These questions allow a leader or manager to explore his or her behaviors to identify what core cultural assumptions he or she makes about what is “right” and “normal.” Pose these questions to yourself and think about how you, your family, close friends, or colleagues might answer. The words in parentheses describe the cultural dimensions. Review your answers.

Which cultural dimensions most align with your responses?

Ho w do we see our identity? (collectivist or individualist) Is individual or team performance valued?

What is the range of rewards between low and high performers?

What happens when individuals “stick out?” (continued) \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 4.4 Communication in a Globalized World Apply Your Knowledge: Six Cultural Questions (continued) 2. Ho w do we make or break agreements? (universalist or particularist) Do you follow the rules or follow your friends?

How important is the rule of law?

How important is it to sustain relationships?

Ho w do we deal with time differently? (polychronic or monochronic) How past-, present-, or future-oriented is our culture?

How do we conduct meetings?

What do we consider to be a deadline?

How do we hold each other accountable?

Ho w do we deal with organizational status or structure differently? (achievement or ascription) How is status granted?

How is status earned?

What is the difference between high-status and low-status individuals?

What is the f ocus or starting point? (specific or diffused) Do we start with the context or a specific point?

Do we view the project from a wide angle or a close-up lens?

Do we value the specialist or the generalist?

What is our emotional sty le? (neutral or affective) How are emotions displayed?

What is the value of rationalism?

How are different ideas given weight? Source: Hammond et al., in press. Understanding different cultural dimensions promotes transcendence and can improve work relationships. The next section offers ways to improve cross-cultural communication to accomplish transcendence. 4.4 Communication in a Globalized World Different types of communities were introduced earlier in this chapter. Some are based on geography, some on identity, and some on organizational affiliation. Each of the cultural dimensions can be found in each one. For example, in the same geography you might find individualists and collectivists, or universalists and particularists, each of which are defined by and behave according to their cultural identities.

Globalized corporations that grow across the boundaries of identity, organization, and geogra- phy must confront those differences, but cultural confrontations are always, in the end, more \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Chapter Summary personal experiences. They arise from communication between individuals. Future leaders who master the ability to transcend, communicate, and work across cultural boundaries, and who prove themselves capable of building collaborative ventures in communities that are geographically separate, will have a significant advantage over those who minimalize cultural differences. As previously mentioned, the assimilation strategy (in which one culture is over- powered by another) may have some short-term benefits, but the long-term benefits always go to those who patiently build good business relationships outside their comfort zone.

Guidelines for Cross-Cultural Conversations The goal for successful globalization is to learn as much as possible about the orientations, expectations, and cultural norms of the people with whom you are trying to work. Taking the following advice from Hammond et al. (in press) should help all parties move away from focusing on differences and adopt a more open and reflective stance.

• List en first. Ask nonjudgmental questions to keep the other person talking.

• A cknowledge your own ignorance. Tell others that you do not understand the cul- tural implications.

• Stat e your values in a nonmoralist tone. Don’t say, “These are universal values.” Say, “These are my values.” • Suspend judgment and action until the consequences ar e known.

• Be clear about mutual out comes and the importance of the relationship. Chapter Summary This chapter opened by introducing community. It next examined the ideal of cultural tran- scendence and how and why transcendence is such an important skill for leaders—especially those who hope to build sustainable and socially responsible corporations. The chapter next examined cultural dimensions. Individualist cultures are tied to individual success, while collectivist cultures focus on group success. Universalist cultures believe in one right way and the rule of law, while particularist cultures tend more toward maintaining relationships no matter the cost. People from monochronic cultures tend to want time and activities to be incremental, while people from polychronic cultures expect many things to be going on simultaneously. Achievement-oriented cultures reward individual achievements regardless of social connection, while ascription-oriented cultures ascribe status to people who are in certain groups, regardless of their accomplishments. People from neutral cultures are harder to read because they communicate their emotions subtly. People from specific cultures are precise with information and project execution, while those from diffuse cultures may prefer multiple starting points and more flexibility or ambiguity. People from affective cultures tend to offer big, loud, and obvious emotional expression, while people from neutral cultures are typically more reserved in expressing emotion.

Mastering these ideas and navigating the ever-changing nature of culture is a lifelong proj- ect. The chapter concluded with ways to promote transcendence and positive cross-cultural \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Chapter Summary relationships. Doing so remains an essential skill in a globalized business community where international connections abound and where responsible managers conduct business in ways that respect and encourage people from a wide range of cultural backgrounds. The same tactics can be useful in navigating conversations about social responsibility and sustainabil- ity—especially because people from different cultures and communities tend to have varying views on both subjects.

Posttest 1. If someone has diplomas and a wards on display in her office, she is more likely to be a(n) .

collecti vist b.

particularist c. individualist d.

universalist 2.

“I made thr ee visits to the company before they would even talk business. I must be in a(n) culture.” a.

collecti vist b.

particularist c. individualist d.

universalist 3.

T ranscendence is a normative approach that suggests .

indi viduals can go in different directions b.

gr oups should rely on one leader to make decisions c.

gr oups should vote and the majority rules d.

gr oups should find a compromise 4.

“Ther e are no real differences between cultures; people are the same everywhere,” is an example of which cultural transcendence avoidance strategy?

denial b. minimalization c. rejection d.

diversion 5.

One’s f amily represents what kind of community?

or ganizational b.

identity -based c.

geographical d.

virtual \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Chapter Summary 6. Corpor ations can be considered part of their geographic community for all of the fol-lowing reasons EXCEPT .

the y employ members of the surrounding neighborhoods b.

the y reside in physical locations that share space with the rest of their city, neigh- borhood, or other area c.

the y make money d.

the y contribute to local charities 7.

Suppose y ou are the CEO of an American business and you are meeting with a Japa- nese company to discuss a potential merger. The Japanese CEO is worried about pos- sible conflicts. What is the best way to talk through the cultural values and needs of each community and reach a conclusion?

T ell the Japanese CEO that if the merger is to be successful his company needs to adopt American culture and standards.

List en to the Japanese CEO, ask questions, then express your own cultural values and explain why they make more sense for the future of your two companies.

Ask the Japanese CEO about Japanese w orkplace culture. Decide that Japanese culture seems to fit the company better and that you will allow that to become the dominant workplace culture after the merger.

List en to the Japanese CEO, ask questions, acknowledge that you are not knowl- edgeable in this matter, and then explain your point of view and try to find a com- promise that allows for both cultures to thrive.

K yla is the hiring manager for a global corporation and is visiting a branch in another country. In a meeting with the local managers, Kyla is told that Frank should be hired because he is the son of a well-known figure in the community. Kyla does not agree that Frank should be hired due to his status. According to the text, what should Kyla NOT say in response?

“That is not the rig ht way to decide. We hire people based on their skills and achievements.” b.

“I don ’t understand why we should consider Frank’s status in the hiring decision.” c.

“Ho w would Frank contribute to the department and company’s goals?” d.

“What other qualifications does F rank have to fulfill job tasks?” Answers: 1(c); 2(b); 3(d); 4(a); 5(a); 6(c); 7(d); 8(a) Critical-Thinking Questions 1. What diff erences exist between the types of communities? How does creating such categories help us understand communities? How does categorization improve busi- ness management?

Ho w would a universalist approach an agreement, compared to a particularist?

Ho w would you negotiate a business deal with an individualist? How about with a collectivist?

\251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Chapter Summary 4. Wh y would it be difficult for a person from a neutral culture to conduct a business negotiation via videoconferencing? Why would it be difficult for a person from an affective culture to conduct a business negotiation using only e-mail?

What ha ve been your positive and negative experiences in trying to resolve cultural differences?

What r ole does identity play in your cultural values? Additional Resources Learn more about the nature of cultural differences and related research: http://www.geerthofstede.nl/ To visualize Hofstede’s cultural dimensions on a map, see: ht tps://w w w.youtube.com/watch?v=U-XdlbgFxZo For more information on guanxi, see: For more see: ht tp://chinese-school.netfirms.com/guanxi.html Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest 1. F alse. While a common place does create a community, it is not the only way to do so. Another way is by sharing a common interest. 2.

T rue. People from affective cultures openly display emotions and often use expressive body language.

F alse. Historically, powerful corporations have attempted to impose their own rules and cultural norms on smaller communities. Only recently has this begun to change.

F alse. It is important to listen first and ask questions to try to understand the other party’s view. Rejoinders to Posttest 1. Indi vidualists give privilege to individual accomplishments and display them to gain status.

P articularists need to establish a relationship before they can do business.

T ranscendence is the development of a compromise; a way that is not yours or mine, but ours.

Denial suggests that all cultur es and people are the same and thus the study of culture is futile.

Based on the Delane y model, one’s family is a type of organizational community, as it is formed around simple membership instead of a common location or belief system.

Simpl y making money does not render a company part of a local community. How- ever, a company can integrate itself into the community via its physical location by employing local people or by giving back profits to the community. \251 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Chapter Summary 7. It is important t o listen first and ask questions to gain a better understanding; only then should one’s own beliefs be put forward, and in a nonjudgmental way. Then two parties can begin to work toward a compromise and transcendence.

Asking nonjudgmental questions, admitting ignor ance to a cultural practice, suspend- ing judgment, and not enforcing one’s values as superior can promote positive cross- cultural conversations. Key Terms affective A cultural dimension that values expressive, open emotions that are both verbal and nonverbal.

community A group of people defined by a common place and/or social network infused with similar interests.

collectivists Members of a cultural dimen- sion in which group identity precedes indi- vidual identity.

diffuse A cultural dimension in which com- munication relies heavily on context.

globalization A term with many defini- tions; refers to the increasingly intercon- nected network and flow of goods and services across national and international boundaries.

individualistic A cultural dimension in which individual identity precedes group identity.

monochronic A cultural dimension in which people do one thing at a time in order. neutral A cultural dimension that values low-intensity emotional expression, self- control, and containment.

particularist A cultural dimension in which people focus on relationships over the rule of law.

polychronic A cultural dimension in which people do many things at the same time in no particular order.

socialization The process of communal learning by which patterns of behavior emerge that proscribe values and roles.

specific A cultural dimension in which specific instructions and order are directly communicated.

universalist A cultural dimension that fea- tures universal law or one “right” way.