STAKEHOLDERS

23 McEwan Organizational Development: Begin with a Healthy Infrastructure Bruce McEwan, PhD Bruce McEwan, PhD is a retired Vice President-Administration & Risk Manager for Young Brothers, Limited, a marine freight transportation company. Among his duties were responsibility for communications, organizational development, and conflict resolution. He is also the principal of ProManCon and specializes management, risk management, and insurance consulting. For the University of Phoenix, he teaches courses in management, leadership, workplace communication & critical thinking, and small business & entrepreneurial planning. Contact Information:

Bruce McEwan, PhD Principal-ProManCon Adjunct Faculty-University of Phoenix P.O. Box 61513 Honolulu, HI 96839-1315 Email: [email protected] Abstract Organizations are made of many pieces, sometimes referred to as departments, divisions, units, etc.; however, sometimes we forget that they are all subsystems of the large system called the organization, company, agency, or other appropriate label. Whatever the structure or name, they are subject to change.

Organizational Development projects to bring about change can be expedited and reach an optimum degree of success (by the organization’s standards), if the organization has assessed its infrastructure and taken steps to make sure it functions properly. The infrastructure of an organization, as postulated in this paper, consists of four interrelated and interdependent systems: (a) communication system, (b) conflict management system, (c) education system, and (d) reward system. These systems are also under the control of the organization’s leadership, who are charged with keeping them healthy and intact. This paper sets out a logical argument for leadership tending 24 a resource to make change effective. The systems approach to understanding the infrastructure of an organization was validated by Constantino and Merchant (1996) in their research: “A systems approach to working with organizations encourages the identification of those subsystems that make up the whole and the examination of how well they collectively interact in order to discover how to improve them” (p. 21).

Organizational Development (OD) has been a staple in guiding organizational change for many decades. The success of OD projects will vary for any number of reasons. The purpose of this paper is to make a logical argument for the concept that a healthy organizational infrastructure should be considered a prerequisite for embarking on such a project. The infrastructure that this paper supports consists of four key organizational systems: (a) communication system, (b) conflict management system, (c) education system, and (d) reward system. Each of these systems is interrelated, interdependent, and critical to the efficient and effective functioning of an organization in carrying out its mission, regardless of the organization’s industry the or the product or service provided. Figure 1 is a visual depiction of the systems.

If this concept is accepted by organizational leaders, the extent of the infrastructure could be broadened to incorporate other systems in a to their organization’s infrastructure and how a healthy infrastructure can positively influence organizational development.

Keywords: communication, conflict management, education, infrastructure, reward, system _______________ We continually read and hear about how important the U.S. infrastructure is and how neglected it has been at all levels—federal, state, local. Of course, this infrastructure refers to the road and highway systems, water systems, sewer systems, and other physical resources that make our lives tolerable. We must not forget about the legal system, education system, defense system, health system, and all of the various organizational parts of the infrastructure. It is the compilation of all of these systems as part of governmental infrastructure responsibilities that led the author to think in terms of infrastructure as it relates to business organizations—both profit and non-profit. Once the focus is on organizations, it is inevitable that there is a link to change that is ever-present in organizations and the possibility that change can be better managed if change managers, for example executives, look to their organizations’ infrastructure elements as Organization Development Journal z Fall 2015 25 McEwan particular organization. In their work, Louisot and Ketcham (2009) identified infrastructure as part of the core aspects of an organization’s business model. Spitzer and Tobia (1994) addressed infrastructure as important to the people in an organization. They made the clear statement to build the right infrastructure: “People-wise organizations know that people will naturally adapt structure, systems, and processes to match the needs of their jobs and their organizations. And because those needs continually change with business condition, the infrastructure in a people-wise organization is always evolving” (p. 47). Spitzer and Tobia also make the connection between two of the systems identified in this paper when they discuss the employee focus on “clarity of pay standards” (reward system) and “training and feedback” (education system) (p. 45). Alexander, Weiner, Shortell, Baker, and Becker (2006) in their research on organizational infrastructure uncovered several critical findings. Quality improvement achieves its full potential based on culture and infrastructure that is required for sustainable success and infrastructure is required for sustainable success across conditions, organizational units, and time. Further, they found that support systems are also critical: Our findings generally support the proposition that appropriate organizational infrastructure and financial support are significantly associated with greater scope Figure 1: Organizational systems 26 and intensity of…Quality Improvement [(QI)]. This should send a strong signal that organizations intent upon developing QI activities that are appropriately implemented must attend to the context in which such efforts are practiced, and that such efforts are unlikely to be thoroughly taken up unless support systems (emphasis added) are in place (p. 17). The idea of support systems or interdependent systems within an organization as identified in this paper as infrastructure elements is found in a variety of research. Hultman and Hultman (2008) in their study of teamwork found three key components that are identified here: communication, conflict resolution (conflict management), and learning (education) (p. 15). Research by the Society for Human Resource Management (“Effective organizational communication,” 2008) found that communication as a foundational system is instrumental for the conflict management, education, and reward systems. Hartley (2004) found that organizational development is defined by the needs of the organization and that those needs fall into areas that are encompassed by communications, conflict management, education, and rewards.

For the OD professional called in to help effect organizational change, knowing the health of the organization’s infrastructure can help to understand the organization better and plan for the most appropriate change method to be used. If the OD professional can start by gauging the strength and health of the four infrastructure systems discussed in this paper, perhaps some insight can be derived to help with the change process. Also, finding that the organization’s leaders do not understand or have a focus on their organization’s infrastructure will signal to the OD professional that there are problems ahead in trying to guide change. All of the infrastructure systems will be utilized in some manner during an organizational change process. Communication System The communication system should be viewed as the basis for all of the systems and the basic link to all organizational systems. As stated very simply by Wilmot and Hocker (2007), “Communication is key and essential in any organization” (p. 338). Nickels, McHugh, and McHugh (2008) posited that “communication impacts all basic management functions” (p. 182). This makes it an important skill to develop among all executives and managers in an organization, regardless of which areas they oversee. The importance of communication to an organization has been recognized in various areas of research (Callahan, 2008; Krell, 2006; Prosen, 2006). Bingham and Jeary (2007) as a weakness that is found in many organizations: “The irony is that Organization Development Journal z Fall 2015 27 McEwan often communication isn’t something people think about much at all. Relatively few people understand how truly important effective communication is for an organization’s health, and fewer tied communication skills as a strategic asset” (p. 83).

Hughes and Terrell (2007) identified communication as a “team’s lifeblood. It is what people do to connect with others. When a team cannot communicate effectively, it lacks the ability to perform at higher levels” (p. 1). This view was supported by other research on teams and communication (Bowditch, 2008; Robbins & Judge, 2007). Research by the Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM) (“Effective organizational communication,” 2008) found: “In today’s global business environment, effective organizational communication—internal and external—has significant impact on an organization’s success” (p. 1). Taylor (2006) provided a workable definition of what an effective communication system should look like in an organization when he defined communication as “giving, receiving or exchanging information, opinions, or ideas by writing, speech or visual means, so that the message communicated is completely understood by the recipient(s)” (p. 12). Of course, we know that the various levels of technology that an organization has adopted will be a major factor in how the communication system functions. One of the premises of this paper is that an organization, in fact, does recognize that a communication system of some formal structure is vital to its success and is, therefore, an essential infrastructure system. Carr (2004) found that “communication is hardly a revelation; its importance is a prevalent theme in leadership and organizational change” (p. 39). With regard to the strategic function of a communication system, research found that communication plays a critical role to ensure companies, their employees, and customers have the mechanisms in place to ensure business continuity (Strategic Communication Management Editorial Board, 2006; Thatcher, 2006). The major functions of a communication system in an organization as identified by Robbins and Judge (2007) are linked to the other infrastructure systems the author believes are essential in organizational development: control (conflict management), motivation (reward), emotional expression (conflict management, reward), and information (education), which puts the system in a very strategic position. Goodman and Truss (2004) gave some perspective on communication in relation to organizational development when they stated: “It has long been recognized that effective and appropriate communication is a vital ingredient 28 in the success of change programs (Lewin, 1951; Goodsler & Warner-Burke, 1991; Kotter, 1996)” (p. 217). Since the infrastructure health is the underlying principle of this paper in supporting organizational development projects in an organization, this recognition is important. SHRM (“Effective organizational communication,” 2008) research supported this when they found “successful change is highly dependent on effective organization communication…In fact, communication largely determines how well change initiatives are received and supported” (p. 6). As Carr (2004) observed, successful change comes when communication is clear about the objectives so that the entire resources of the organization are aligned. The importance of the communication system was articulated by Costantino and Merchant (1996): “OD relies heavily on the collection and feedback of valid information to drive the change intervention process” (p. 30).

In summary, the communication system permeates any organization and touches many functional areas as well as the relationships and interactions of people in the organization. Organizational development success is directly dependent upon the structure and effectiveness of an organization’s communication system. The OD professional can use this information to show potential clients why having a strong communication system is vital to their success. Conflict Management System The idea of conflict in an organization being inherent in the nature of the entity is recognized by researchers in conflict management (Bowditch, 2008; Constantino & Merchant, 1996; Dana, 2001; Liberman, Levy, & Segal, 2009; Wilmot & Hocker, 2007). Liberman, Levy, and Segal (2009) put organizational conflict in a very realistic context: “Today, the inevitability of conflict is accepted, and regarded as an opportunity and catalyst for organizational growth” (p. 64); however, as Haraway and Haraway (2005) validated in their research, “Conflict can be unpleasant and stressful. It distracts people from pursuing more productive endeavors and is personally and professionally expensive” (p.11). As stated by Marcus and Roover (2003), “conflict can be constructive if people recognize and acknowledge it, deal with it, resolve it, and most importantly, learn from it so that is less likely to recur” (p. 17). Hughes and Terrell (2007) supported this idea when they recognized that the purpose of conflict resolution in an organization is to help the employees work together for the benefit of their teams and the organization as a whole. Haraway and Haraway (2005) found other benefits to using conflict in a more constructive manner: “Not all conflicts are destructive. Some lead to a sharpening of critical issues and the creation of new systems and institutions that can be beneficial to Organization Development Journal z Fall 2015 29 McEwan and business impact. Runde and Flanagan (2007) found that “organizations that manage conflict poorly may incur a wide range of costs such as wasted management time, turnover, absenteeism, grievances, lawsuits, sabotage, and even violence” (p. 20).

Bowditch (2008) provided a positive outlook open to organizational leaders: Conflict can also lead to new ideas about novel approaches to organizational processes, the surfacing of longstanding problems that can be resolved, the opportunity for people to test their capabilities, and heightened interest and creativity in dealing with organizational problems. (pp. 182-183) Liberman, Levy, and Segal (2009) supported this position when they found that “it is believed that proper handling of conflicts in an organization can improve management, employee performance, and morale” (p. 64). The CMS needs to be designed in such a way that it steers conflicts onto a constructive path and avoids a destructive result.

The design experts provide excellent advice with regard to the construction of an effective CMS. Here is advice from Liberman, Levy, and Segal (2009): • “An internal conflict management system (CMS) for workplace disputes, must be designed to promote a positive work the organization. In some instances conflict leads to much needed change” (p.11). When executives and managers of organizations think about sources of conflict, they have an opportunity to uncover core issues that can trigger expressions of dissatisfaction or disagreement that can interfere with the operation of the organization. The list of causes of conflict in an organization can be lengthy, but here are some common ones: • Disputes over roles • Scarcity of resources • Misunderstandings in communication • Differences in priorities • Disagreement over goals • Labor unrest • Workplace violence • Retaliatory lawsuits (Bowditch, 2008; Dana, 2001; Hughes & Terrell, 2007; Liberman, Levy, & Segal, 2009; Wilmot & Hocker, 2007) Liberman, Levy, and Segal (2009) opined that it is important to identify these types of causes in an organization, because “identifying the causes of conflict can help an organization recognize and neutralize key problems and failures in management” (p. 64). From a practical management perspective, the negative results of conflict not properly managed can have a critical organizational 30 competition through innovation and reinvention” (“Strategic training and development,” 2008, p. 1). The strength of the education system will determine how successful the organization can be in gaining the competitive edge, which is what SHRM studies have found (“Effective organizational communication,” 2008; “Strategic training and development,” 2008). Through their employees, “knowledge is often the most valuable resource that organizations can possess” (Anand, Glick, & Manz, 2002). Hunsaker and Alessandra (2008) tied the following elements of effective management to education and training needs: (a) learning how to learn and (b) managing conflict. Brandon (2003) espoused support for the importance of this and other types of learning when he stated that “developing skills, competence, knowledge, abilities, and experience leads to increased confidence. A person’s self-image improves as he or she masters certain subjects and tasks and learns new ways to solve problems” (p. 97). He further justified the need for education when he opined that “in this age of rapid change and information, companies should encourage their employees to continually attend to their education” (p. 97). Research found that organizations are recognizing the importance of developing knowledge and skills in employees for creating operational effectiveness to compete in today’s business environment and give organizations environment” (p. 63). • “The goal of the CMS is to provide the organization with an all-encompassing set of practices to apply when potential and actual conflicts arise” (p. 65). • “Designing a conflict management system involves: identifying the types and sources of conflicts, taking into consideration the parties’ interests, and studying possible conflict resolution measures that can satisfy these interests” (p. 65). These are some guidelines that the OD professional can use when discussing the CMS with a client. In summary, the OD professional can benefit if the organization has a CMS that will be able to manage any disruptions that may occur during the change process. Education System The term education is purposely used for this system because it expresses a broad view of the learning process, which is meant to include both formal education and training within the organization. Training teaches an employee how to do something that the employee knows about and expects, whereas, education helps an employee to do something when he or she encounters something unexpected. Research by SHRM found that the “business environment has changed, with intense pressure on organizations to stay ahead of the Organization Development Journal z Fall 2015 31 McEwan a competitive edge (Anand, Glick, & Manz, 2002; Clarke, 2005; Nickels, McHugh, & McHugh, 2008; O’Driscoll, Sugrue, & Vona, 2005). Experts in organizational learning identified a number of common ways and strategies that can be used by employees to gain the knowledge and competencies to improve their value to the organization (Allen & Hartman, 2008; King, 2001; Wellins & Weaver, 2003;). The methods start with the basic job rotation to more sophisticated simulations to use of technology in e-learning to action-based learning to personal development plans and coaching. Developing employees through these various sources creates a collective wisdom which is the accumulated judgment, perceptions, experience, intuition, and intelligence of all employees (Spitzer & Tobia, 1994) that will determine the strength and health of the organization’s education system.

An important way to build a strong education system is to create a learning organization. Championed by Peter Senge, the learning organization is one based on continuous improvement and heuristic learning as recognized in supportive research (Chalofsky, 2005; Frattali, 2007; King, 2001; Senge, 1990; Spitzer & Tobia, 1994). In addressing the training aspect of the education system, Clarke (2005) stated it well from observations in his research: “A training policy articulates the organization’s commitment to employee development, while the strategy identifies how learning needs are to be met” (p. 190). Nickels, McHugh, and McHugh (2008) found that strategy in the education system had a practical element because “employers find that spending money on training is usually money well spent” (p. 297). McEwan (2000) found that training can be made more effective by using adult learning principles in the employee training process. As Munoz and Munoz (1999) discovered in their research: “Training is a tool for learning; learning—and ultimately—performance are the desired outcomes of training…Training plays an important role in developing a productive workforce and in getting operations finely tuned so they can contribute more directly to profits” (p. 2).

In summary, the education system is the part of the infrastructure that provides the employees with the knowledge and skills that leadership decides will give the organization the best competitive edge possible. The OD professional will want to assess the skill level of employees and the ability to comprehend the change process. Reward System The reward system needs to be broadly defined because it must be able to motivate employees from the front line to the executive suite. The reward system must attract top caliber employees, 32 also a strategic decision. Semler (1997) found that “reward systems are designed to provide incentives toward some behaviors” which is reflected in the “patterns of behavior that people choose to display in order to be promoted, gain privileges, or simply stay out of trouble” (p. 34). Miller (2009) cited a Gallup Poll that found 82% of employees identified praise and recognition as motivators of performance. They further stated that “Overwhelming research demonstrates that companies that engage in recognition and rewards programs, including the use of specific incentives programs, significantly outperform their competition” (p. 76). Hastings (2009) found that “Companies that fail to keep their award programs fresh and interesting might be missing out on an opportunity to reinforce desired behaviors” (p. 47). Other research found “programs that offer an array of recognition and rewards mechanisms as diverse as the workforce are especially effective” (Miller, 2009). This shows a need to monitor the reward system continually and make changes as needed to maintain the system’s purpose to motivate desired behavior.

In summary, the reward system encompasses a number of different tools that organizations use to motivate behavior and show appreciation for work well done. The OD professional needs to be aware of how effective the reward system is in order to keep them committed to the organization during a productive career, and recognize their value when they retire. The term reward and reward system can be found in the research literature (Allen, 2008; Bernstein, 2003; Collis, 2008; Lawler, 2003; Sahraoui, 2002). Sahraoui (2002) even identified the factors of a reward system: (a) equity in compensation, (b) competency of performance, (c) group and individual rewards, and (d) an open pay policy where the pay system is understood. Lawler (2003) made the clear statement about why organizations need reward systems: “Virtually every organization has a performance reward system that is expected to attract, retain, and motivate employees to achieve the organization’s goals” (p. 396).

A study by SHRM (2007) on “Benefit Trends and Employee Satisfaction” indicated that employee satisfaction factors that ranked highest fell into the reward system: (a) benefits and (b) compensation pay. This shows that the basics are still uppermost in the minds of the average employee. Blair (2010) opined that rewards, in which he included recognition, must be made a standard protocol within an organization. In establishing guidelines for rewards, Blair recommended making rewards commensurate with accomplishments and ensuring that the incentives are personal and sentimental. Including incentives as part of the reward system is Organization Development Journal z Fall 2015 33 McEwan (Hartley, 2004); education and conflict management (Haraway & Haraway, 2005; Wilmot & Hocker, 2007). Appendix A provides the OD professional with some suggested questions to ask when assessing the health of the infrastructure of an organization.

As OD professionals work on helping organizations improve, it would benefit the field if some research can be done to determine how the strength and health of the four key organizational systems influence and impact the results of the OD projects. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ judge the level of employee commitment to the organization and the change process. Conclusion The model in this paper gives the OD professional a framework to use to perform a pre- project assessment of the organization in order to increase the likelihood of success for the OD change process.

Every organization must have the four systems identified in this paper. Many organizations, especially smaller ones, may not have formalized the structure of the system or even labeled it as such, but it exists and should be assessed by the OD professional. Research by SHRM (2007) supports the premise of this paper as identified in their work “Organization Development: A Strategic HR Tool.” “OD helps improve organizational effectiveness, with its major focus on both the total system and the interdependent parts of the company” (p. 1). This interdependence has been identified is much of the research cited in this paper: Communication and conflict management (Argenti & Forman, 2004; Constantino & Merchant, 1996; Dana, 2001, “Effective organizational communication: A competitive edge,” 2008; Hartley, 2004; Wellins & Weaver, 2003); Wilmot & Hocker, 2007); communication and education (Hartley, 2004; “Strategic training and development, 2008; Wellins & Weaver, 2003); communication and reward 34 & Sons, Inc. Callahan, J. L. (2008). The four c’s of emotion: A framework for managing emotions in organizations. Organization Development Journal, 26 (2), 33-38. Carr, P. (2004). Riding the tiger of culture change. T&D, 58 (8), 32-41. Chalofsky, N. (2005). Reshaping the way we view the world. T&D, 59 (11), 54-58. Clarke, N. (2005). Workplace learning environment and its relationship with learning outcomes in healthcare organizations. Human Resources Development International, 8 (2), 185-205. Collis, A. (2008). Total rewards. HR Magazine. 53 (8), 34. Costantino, C. A., & Merchant, C. S. (1996). Designing conflict management systems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Dana, D. (2001). Conflict resolution: Mediator tools for everyday worklife . New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Effective organizational communication: A competitive advantage. (2008, Fourth Quarter). SHRM Research Quarterly. Frattali, R. (2007). The company that teaches together performs together. T&D, 61 (7), 37-39. Goodman, J., & Truss, C. (2004). The medium and the message: Communicating effectively during a major change initiative. Journal of Change References Alexander, J. A., Weiner, B. J., Shortell, S. M., Baker, L. C., & Becker, M. P. (2006). The role of organizational infrastructure in implementation of hospitals’ quality improvement. Hospital Topics, 84 (1), 11-20. Allen, S. J. (2008). A hunt for the missing 50 cents: One piece of the leadership development puzzle. Organization Development Journal, 26 (1), 19- 29. Allen, S. J., & Hartman, N. S. (2008). Leader development: An exploration of sources of learning. Organization Development Journal, 26 (2), 75-87. Anand, V., Glick, W. H., & Manz, C. C. (2002). Thriving on knowledge of outsiders: Tapping organizational social capital. Academy of Management Executive, 16 (1), 87-101. Argenti, P. A., & Forman, J. (2004). The employee care revolution. Leader to Leader, 33 , 45-52. Bernstein, W. M. (2003). Empowerment: A task for the self, not the organization. Organization Development Journal, 21 (1), 75-80. Bingham, T., & Jeary, T. (2007). Communicating the value of learning. T&D, 61 (5), 80-84. Blair, G. R. (2010). Everything counts! Hoboken, NJ:John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Bowditch, J. (2008). Primer on organizational behavior, 7th Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Organization Development Journal z Fall 2015 35 McEwan Designing an internal organizational system for conflict management based on needs assessment. Dispute Resolution Journal, 64 (2), 64-72. Louisot, J.P., & Ketcham, C. (2009). Enterprise- wide risk management: Developing and implementing. Malvern, PA: The Institutes. Marcus, L. J., & Roover, J. E. (2003). Healing the conflicts that divide us. ACResolution, 2 (3), 16- 19. McEwan, B. (2000). Employee perceptions of adult learning principles in employee training. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Walden University). Miller, T. (2009, October 15). The time for employee recognition and rewards is now. Webinar retrieved from: http://www.recognition.

org/?page=801 Munoz, M. A., Munoz, M. D. (1999). The role of occupational training and evaluation in the learning organization. (Research paper, Educational Foundations Department, University of Louisville). Nickels, W. G., McHugh, J. M., & McHugh, S. M. (2008). Management of human resources: Motivating employees to produce quality goods and services. Understanding Business, Eighth Edition. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies. Management, 4 (3), 217-228. Haraway, D.L., & Haraway, W.M. III. (2005). Analysis of the effect of conflict-management and resolution training on employee stress at healthcare organizations. Hospital Topics, 83 (4), 11-17. Hartley, D. E. (2004). OD wired. T&D, 58 (8), 20- 21. Hastings, R. R. (2009). Length of service awards becoming more personal. HR Magazine/ SHRM’s 2009 HR Trend Book. Hughes, M., & Terrell, J. B. (2007). The emotionally intelligent team . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hultman, K. & Hultman, J. (2008, Fall). Deep teams: Leveraging the implicit organization. Organization Development Journal, 26 (3), 11- 22. Hunsaker, P., & Alessandra, T. (2008). The new art of managing people. New York: Free Press. King, W. R. (2001). Strategies for creating a learning organization. Information Systems Management , 12-20. Krell, E. (2006). The unintended word. HR Magazine. 51 (8), 50-54. Lawler, E. E. III. (2003). Reward practices and performance management system effectiveness. Organizational Dynamics, 32 (4), 396-404. Liberman, E., Levy, Y. F., & Segal, P. (2009). 36 44-47. Strategic Communication Management Editorial Board. (2006). Fast forward: Future trends in corporate communication. Strategic Communication Management. 10 (1), 14-17. Strategic training and development: A gateway to organizational success. (2008, First Quarter). SHRM Research Quarterly . Taylor, S. (2006). Communicating across cultures. British Journal of Administrative Management, 53 (3), 12-13. Thatcher, M. (Ed.) (2006). Breathing life into business strategy. Strategic Communication Management. 10 (2), 14-17. Wellins, R. S., & Weaver, P. S. (2003). From C-level to see-level leadership. T&D, 57 (9), 59-65. Wilmot, W. W., & Hocker, J. L. (2007). Interpersonal conflict 7th edition . New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. lll Organizational development: A strategic HR tool. (2007, Third Quarter). SHRM Research Quarterly. O’Driscoll, T., Sugrue, B., & Vona, M. K. (2005). The C-level and the value of learning. T&D, 59 (10), 70-75. Prosen, B. (2006). Kiss theory good bye: Five proven ways to get extraordinary results in any company. Dallas, TX: Golden Pen Publishing. Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2007). Organizational Behavior 12th Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Runde, C. E., & Flanagan, T. A. (2007). Skills that can prevent workplace disputes. ACResolution, 8(4), 20-21. Sahraoui, S. (2002). How to pay for knowledge: Illustration within an IT planning context. Human Systems Management, 21 (3),159-167. Semler, S. W. (1997). Systematic agreement: A theory of organizational alignment. Human Resources Management Quarterly, 8 (1), 23-40. Senge, P.M. (1990). The fifth discipline. New York: Doubleday. Society of Human Resource Management Workplace Visions. (2007). Benefit trends and employee satisfaction. Spitzer, T. Q., Jr., & Tobia, P. M. (1994, October). People-wise organizations: The human side of change. American Management Association, Organization Development Journal z Fall 2015 37 employee-related conflicts? 5. What is the organization’s position on use of the five major forms of conflict management? 6. Do employees believe that conflict is positively managed? Education System 1. Does the organization have a formal education and/or training program for employees? If so, what are the details? 2. How important does the organization’s leadership consider employee training and development? 3. Does the organization have an evaluation process for its education program? 4. Does the organization understand the needs related to adult education? 5. What benefits do the employees believe they are receiving from their education and training? Reward System 1. How does the organization reward its employees beyond normal wages? 2. Does the organization use individual rewards, team rewards, or both? 3. What rewards does the organization use besides money? 4. Do employees believe they are being APPENDIX A Infrastructure Assessment Worksheet Use: This worksheet will help evaluate the health of the organization’s infrastructure by getting answers to key questions. This generic set of questions can be amended for specific requirements in client organizations.

Communication System 1. How do the organizational leaders describe their communication system? 2. Is the system based on a specific communication theory? If so, which one? 3. Is there clear upward and downward communication? 4. What examples are there of types of organizational communication? 5. Do employees believe the communication system is effective? Conflict Management System 1. What is the organization’s perception of the role of conflict in an organization? 2. Does the organization have a formal conflict management system? What are the details? 3. What examples can the organization leaders give of managing conflict? 4. What are the major conflicts in which the organization has been engaged, including McEwan 38 rewarded beyond their wages for the work they do? 5. Does the organization have a budget for their reward system? c l d Organization Development Journal z Fall 2015 R epro duce d w ith p erm is sio n o f th e c o pyrig ht o w ner. F urth er r e pro ductio n p ro hib ite d w ith out p erm is sio n.