this assignment is for nightingale
12 Writing Reports and Proposals
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to
1 Explain how to adapt to your audiences when writing reports and proposals, and describe the choices involved in drafting report and proposal content.
2 Identify five characteristics of effective writing in online reports, and explain how to adapt your writing approach for wikis.
3 Discuss six principles of graphic design, and identify the most common types of visuals used to present data, information, concepts, and ideas.
4 Explain how to integrate visuals with text effectively and how to verify the quality of your visuals.
On the Job: Communicating at Warby Parker Eyeing a New Way to Sell Eyeglasses
When a company sets out to disrupt an entire industry, it’s not surprising that its communication efforts don’t follow all the old rules, either.
Much of the worldwide market for eyeglasses is controlled by the Italian company Luxottica, which owns such well-known brands as Ray-Ban and Oakley and manufactures glasses for a host of high-fashion labels, from Dolce & Gabbana to Versace. Luxottica also operates more than 7,000 retail stores, including LensCrafters and Sunglass Hut. If you’ve ever purchased a pair of prescription glasses or sunglasses, chances are you’ve done business with Luxottica in one form or another. And business has been very good for Luxottica, earning it some 80 percent of the global market for glasses.
Much of the remaining 20 percent of the market is in the hands of Costco and Walmart, two companies that compete on cost more than fashion. Between high fashion on one hand and low prices on the other, these three giants seem to have wrapped up the market.
Neil Blumenthal and David Gilboa’s unconventional ideas behind the eyewear startup Warby Parker is reflected in the company’s cheeky communication style.
Wenn Ltd/Alamy
Neil Blumenthal and David Gilboa looked at the data and drew a different conclusion, however. They believed an opportunity existed for a company to compete on fashion and price. Together with University of Pennsylvania classmates Andrew Hunt and Jeffrey Raider, they crafted a business model that combines fashion-forward designs and a brand image that appeals to younger consumers with the operational efficiency of online commerce. Echoing their unconventional aspirations, they named the company Warby Parker after two characters from the works of the Beat Generation writer Jack Kerouac.
The quest to connect with buyers in a market dominated by a handful of major corporations gives Warby Parker’s communication efforts a different look and feel. You won’t find supermodels posing on yachts in the company’s promotional campaigns. You’re more likely to find a blog post about what company employees are reading or a wistful goodbye note to a summer intern heading back to high school.
The company’s “annual reports” are a great example of how unconventional thinking can lead to communications that connect with audiences in fresh ways. All U.S. companies that sell stock to the public are required to issue annual reports that disclose a variety of financial details. Most companies expand on these minimum requirements with glossy, persuasive messages about their operations, products, and prospects. As a privately held company (as of 2015), Warby Parker isn’t required to publish an annual report, but it does so anyway—sort of. Its annual reports aren’t anything like normal. One year, the report was an online calendar of major, minor, and just plain goofy things that happened around the company, from product launches to a survey about how many pairs of pants employees wear in a typical month. The following year, it was an interactive message generator that created personalized reports for website visitors based on how good or bad their year had been.
This tradition-defying approach to communication fits the transparent, social, and conversational style of today’s younger consumers. And it helps position Warby Parker as a different kind of company, one more in touch with those customers and their needs and aspirations. The company won’t dethrone Luxottica anytime soon, but it has already carved out a nice chunk of the eyewear market and continues to grow as it heads toward a possible initial public offering in the stock market. At that point, it will have to bend to convention just a little, at least enough to meet government reporting requirements, but it will surely maintain an offbeat approach in the rest of its communication efforts.1
www.warbyparker.com
Composing Reports and Proposals
1 Learning Objective Explain how to adapt to your audiences when writing reports and proposals, and describe the choices involved in drafting report and proposal content.
Like all successful business communicators, Neil Blumenthal and David Gilboa (profiled in the chapter-opening On the Job) know that the writing stage is where you make your ideas from the planning stage come alive. This chapter builds on the writing techniques and ideas you learned in Chapter 5, focusing on issues that are particularly important when preparing longer message formats, including website and wiki content. In addition, you’ll get an introduction to creating effective visuals, which are a vital aspect of many reports and proposals.
As with shorter messages, take a few moments before you start writing to make sure you’re ready to adapt your approach to your audience.
Adapting to Your Audience
Successful report writers adapt to their intended audiences by being sensitive to audience needs, building strong relationships with the audience, and controlling style and tone.
Long or complex reports demand a lot from readers, making the “you” attitude especially important.
Chapter 5 introduced four aspects of audience sensitivity, and all four apply to reports and proposals: adopting the “you” attitude, maintaining a strong sense of etiquette, emphasizing the positive, and using bias-free language. Reports and proposals that are highly technical, complex, or lengthy can put heavy demands on your readers, so the “you” attitude is especially important with these long messages.
Many companies have specific guidelines for reports, particularly those intended for external audiences.
Be sure to plan how you will adapt your style and your language to reflect the image of your organization. Many companies have specific guidelines for communicating with public audiences, so be aware of these preferences before you start writing.
If you know your readers reasonably well and your report is likely to meet with their approval, you can adopt a fairly informal tone (as long as that is appropriate in your organization, of course). A more formal tone is appropriate for longer reports, especially those that deal with controversial or complex information. You also need a more formal tone when your report will be sent to other parts of the organization or to outsiders, such as customers, suppliers, or members of the community (see Figure 12.1 on the next page).
Figure 12.1 Choosing the Appropriate Tone for a Report
This report excerpt (part of the executive summary of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services) uses a number of techniques to create a formal tone. This is a formal policy document whose intended readers are educators, government regulators, and others charged with using the information to help inform consumers. If the document had been written with consumers in mind, you can imagine how the tone might have been lighter and less formal. Source: Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Reports destined for audiences outside the United States often require a more formal tone to match the expectations of audiences in many other countries.
Communicating with people in other cultures often calls for more formality, for two reasons. First, the business environment outside the United States tends to be more formal in general, and that formality must be reflected in your communication. Second, the things you do to make a document informal (such as using humor and idiomatic language) often translate poorly from one culture to another, so you risk offending or confusing your readers.
Drafting Report Content
Your credibility and career advancement are on the line with every business report you write, so make sure your content is
Accurate. Double-check your facts and references and check for typos. If an audience ever gets an inkling that your information is shaky, they’ll start to view all your work with skepticism.
Complete. Tell your readers what they need to know—no more, no less—and present the information in a way that is geared to their needs.
Balanced. Present all sides of the issue fairly and equitably and include all the essential information, even if some of the information doesn’t support your line of reasoning. Omitting relevant information or facts can bias your report.
Clear and logical. Save your readers time by making sure your writing is uncluttered, and proceeds logically from point to point.
Documented properly. If you use primary and secondary sources for your report or proposal, be sure to properly document and give credit to your sources.
Keeping these points in mind will help you draft the most effective introduction, body, and close for your report.
Report Introduction
Your introduction needs to put the report in context for the reader, introduce the subject, preview main ideas, and establish the tone of the document.
As with other written business communications, the text of reports and proposals has three main sections: an introduction, a body, and a close. The introduction (or opening) is the first section in the text of any report or proposal. An effective introduction accomplishes at least four things:
Puts the report or proposal in a broader context by tying it to a problem or an assignment
Introduces the subject or purpose of the report or proposal and indicates why the subject is important
Previews the main ideas and the order in which they’ll be covered
Establishes the tone of the document and the writer’s relationship with the audience
The specific elements you should include in an introduction depend on the nature and length of the report, the circumstances under which you’re writing the report, and your relationship with the audience. An introduction could contain any or all of the following:
Carefully select the elements to include in your introduction; strive for a balance between necessary, expected information and brevity.
Authorization. When, how, and by whom the report was authorized; who wrote it; and when it was submitted. This material is especially important when you don’t accompany the report with a letter of transmittal (see Chapter 13).
Problem/opportunity/purpose. The reason the report was written and what is to be accomplished as a result of your having written it.
Scope. What is and what isn’t covered in the report. The scope also helps with the critical job of setting the audience’s expectations.
Background. Any relevant historical conditions or factors that can help readers grasp the report’s message.
Sources and methods. The primary and secondary sources of information used. As appropriate, this section can also explain how the information was collected.
Definitions. Definitions of important terms used in the report. Define any terms that might be unfamiliar to the audience or any terms you use in an unfamiliar way.
Limitations. Factors beyond your control that affect the quality of the report, such as budgets, schedule constraints, or limited access to information or people. However, don’t apologize or try to explain away personal shortcomings, such as your own poor planning.
Report organization. The organization of the report. This “road map” helps readers understand what’s coming in the report and why.
In a brief report, these topics may be discussed in only a paragraph or two. In a longer formal report, the discussion of these topics may span several pages and constitute a significant section within the report.
Report Body
The body of your report presents, analyzes, and interprets the information you gathered during your investigation.
The report’s body presents, analyzes, and interprets the information gathered during your investigation and supports the recommendations or conclusions discussed in your document (see Figure 12.2). As with the introduction, the body of your report can require some tough decisions about which elements to include and how much detail to offer. Here again, your decisions depend on many variables, including the needs of your audience. Provide only enough detail in the body to support your conclusions and recommendations.
Figure 12.2 Effective Problem-Solving Report Focusing on Recommendations
In this report recommending that her firm expand its website to full e-commerce capability, the writer uses the body of her report to provide enough information to support her argument, without burdening her high-level readership with a lot of tactical details.
The topics commonly covered in a report body include
The report body should contain only enough information to convey your message in a convincing fashion; don’t overload readers with interesting but unnecessary material.
Explanations of a problem or opportunity
Facts, statistical evidence, and trends
Results of studies or investigations
Discussion and analyses of potential courses of action
Advantages, disadvantages, costs, and benefits of a particular course of action
Procedures or steps in a process
Methods and approaches
Criteria for evaluating alternatives and options
Conclusions and recommendations
Supporting reasons for conclusions or recommendations
For analytical reports that use the direct approach, you generally state your conclusions or recommendations in the introduction and use the body to provide your evidence and support. If you’re using the indirect approach, you’re likely to use the body to discuss your logic and reserve your conclusions or recommendations until the very end.
Report Close
A report’s close has three important functions:
Emphasizes the main points of the message
Summarizes the benefits to the reader if the document suggests a change or some other course of action
Brings all the action items together in one place and gives the details about who should do what, when, where, and how
The close might be the only part of your report some readers have time for, so make sure it conveys the full weight of your message.
Research shows that the final section of a report or proposal leaves a lasting impression. The close gives you one last chance to make sure your report says what you intended.2
The nature of your close depends on the type of report (informational or analytical) and the approach (direct or indirect).
The content and length of your report close depend on your choice of direct or indirect order, among other variables. If you’re using the direct approach, you can end with a summary of key points, listed in the order in which they appear in the report body. If you’re using the indirect approach, you can use the close to present your conclusions or recommendations if you didn’t end the body with them. Just remember that a conclusion or recommendation isn’t the place to introduce new facts; your readers should have all the information they need by the time they reach this point in your report.
If your report is intended to prompt others to action, use the ending to spell out exactly what should happen next and who is responsible for each task. If you’ll be taking all the actions yourself, make sure your readers understand this fact so that they know what to expect from you.
For long reports, you may need to divide your close into separate sections for conclusions, recommendations, and actions.
In a short report, the close may be only a paragraph or two. However, the close of a long report may have separate sections for conclusions, recommendations, and actions. Having separate sections helps your reader locate this material and focus on each element. Such an arrangement also gives you a final opportunity to emphasize this important content. If you have multiple conclusions, recommendations, or actions, you may want to number and list them as well for easier reference.
Drafting Proposal Content
With proposals, the content for each section is governed by many variables—the most important of which is the source of your proposal. If your proposal is unsolicited, you have some latitude in the scope and organization of content. However, if you are responding to a request for proposals (RFP), you need to follow the instructions in the RFP in every detail. Most RFPs spell out precisely what a proposal must cover and in what order so that all bids will be similar in form and therefore easier to compare.
Approach proposals the same way you approach persuasive messages.
The general purpose of any proposal is to persuade readers to do something, such as purchase goods or services, fund a project, or implement a program. Thus, your writing approach for a proposal is similar to that used for persuasive messages (see Chapter 10). As with other persuasive messages, the AIDA model of gaining attention, building interest, creating desire, and motivating action is an effective structure. Here are key strategies to strengthen your argument:3
Demonstrate your knowledge in terms that are meaningful to the audience.
Provide concrete information and examples.
Research the competition so you know what other proposals your audience is likely to read.
Prove that your proposal is appropriate and feasible for your audience.
Relate your product, service, or personnel to the reader’s exact needs.
Produce your proposal in a format and medium that meets audience expectations.
In addition, make sure your proposal is letter perfect, inviting, and readable. Readers will prejudge the quality of your products, services, and capabilities by the quality of the proposal you submit.
Proposal Introduction
The introduction of a proposal presents and summarizes the problem or opportunity you want to address, along with your proposed solution. If your proposal is solicited, follow the RFP’s instructions about indicating which RFP you’re responding to. If your proposal is unsolicited, your introduction should mention any factors that led you to submit your proposal, such as previous conversations you’ve had with readers. The following topics are commonly covered in a proposal introduction:
In an unsolicited proposal, your introduction needs to convince readers that a problem or an opportunity exists.
Background or statement of the problem or opportunity. Briefly review the reader’s situation and establish the need for action. Remember that readers may not perceive a problem or an opportunity the same way you do. In unsolicited proposals in particular, you need to convince them that a problem or an opportunity exists before you can convince them to accept your solution.
Solution. Briefly describe the change you propose and highlight your key selling points and their benefits, showing how your proposal will help readers meet their business objectives.
Scope. State the boundaries of the proposal—what you will and will not do. Sometimes called delimitations.
Organization. Orient the reader to the remainder of the proposal and call attention to the major divisions of information.
In short proposals, your discussion of these topics will be brief—perhaps only a sentence or two for each. For long, formal proposals, each topic may warrant separate subheadings and several paragraphs of discussion.
Proposal Body
Readers understand that a proposal is a persuasive message, so they’re willing to accommodate a degree of promotional emphasis—as long as it is focused on their needs.
The proposal’s body gives complete details on the proposed solution and specifies what the anticipated results will be. Because a proposal is by definition a persuasive message, your audience expects you to promote your offering in a confident but professional manner.
In addition to providing facts and evidence to support your conclusions, an effective body covers this information:
Proposed solution. Describe what you have to offer: your concept, product, or service (see Figure 12.3). Stress the benefits of your product, service, or investment opportunity that are relevant to your readers’ needs and point out any advantages that you have over your competitors.
The work plan indicates exactly how you will accomplish the solution presented in the proposal.
Work plan. Explain the steps you’ll take, the methods or resources you’ll use, and the person(s) responsible. For solicited proposals, make sure your dates match those specified in the RFP. Keep in mind that if your proposal is accepted, the work plan is contractually binding, so don’t promise more than you can deliver.
Statement of qualifications. Describe your organization’s experience, personnel, and facilities—all in relation to reader needs. You can supplement your qualifications by including a list of client references, but get permission ahead of time to use those references.
Costs. Cover pricing, reimbursable expenses, discounts, and other financial concerns.
In an informal proposal, discussion of some or all of these elements may be grouped together and presented in a letter format, such as in Figure 12.3. In a formal proposal, the discussion of these elements can be quite long and thorough. The format may resemble long reports with multiple parts, as Chapter 13 discusses.
Figure 12.3 Effective Solicited Proposal in Letter Format
This informal solicited proposal in letter format provides the information the customer needs in order to make a purchase. Note that by signing the proposal and returning it, the customer will enter into a legal contract to pay for the services described.
Proposal Close
The close is your last chance to convince the reader of the merits of your proposal, so make especially sure it’s clear, compelling, and audience oriented.
The final section of a proposal generally summarizes your key points, emphasizes the benefits readers will get from your solution, and asks for a decision from the reader. The close is your last opportunity to persuade readers to accept your proposal. In both formal and informal proposals, make this section relatively brief, assertive (but not brash or abrupt), and confident.
Helping Report Readers Find Their Way
Help your audiences navigate through your reports by providing clear directions to key pieces of content.
Today’s time-pressed readers want to browse reports and quickly find information of interest. To help them find what they’re looking for and stay on track as they navigate through your documents, learn to make good use of headings and links, smooth transitions, and previews and reviews:
Headings. Readers should be able to follow the structure of your document and pick up the key points of your message from the headings and subheadings. (See Chapter 6 for a review of what makes an effective heading.) Follow a simple, consistent arrangement that clearly distinguishes levels.
Transitions. Chapter 5 defines transitions as words or phrases that tie ideas together and show how one thought is related to another. In a long report, an entire paragraph might be used to highlight transitions from one section to the next.
Previews help readers prepare for upcoming information, and reviews help them verify and clarify what they’ve just read.
Previews and reviews. Preview sections introduce important or complex topics by helping readers get ready for new information. Review sections come after a body of material and summarize key points to help readers absorb the information just read.
To review the tasks discussed in this section, see “Checklist: Composing Business Reports and Proposals.”
Checklist ✔ Composing Business Reports and Proposals
Review and fine-tune your outline.
Match your parallel headings to the tone of your report or proposal.
Understand how the introduction, body, and close work together to convey your message.
Draft report content.
Use the introduction to establish the purpose, scope, and organization of your report or proposal.
Use the body to present and interpret the information you gathered.
Use the close to summarize major points, discuss conclusions, or make recommendations.
Draft proposal content.
Use the introduction to discuss the background or problem, your solution, the scope, and organization.
Use the body to persuasively explain the benefits of your proposed approach.
Use the close to emphasize reader benefits and summarize the merits of your approach.
Help readers find their way.
Provide headings to improve readability and clarify the framework of your ideas.
Use hyperlinks online to allow readers to jump from section to section.
Create transitions that tie together ideas and show how one thought relates to another.
Preview important topics to help readers get ready for new information.
Review key information to help readers absorb details and keep the big picture in mind.
Using Technology to Craft Reports and Proposals
Look for ways to use technology to reduce the mechanical work involved in writing long reports.
Writing lengthy reports and proposals can be a huge task, so be sure to take advantage of technological tools to help throughout the process. Be sure to explore the advantages of these capabilities:
Linked and embedded documents. In many reports and proposals, you’ll include graphics, spreadsheets, databases, and other elements produced in other software programs. Make sure you know how your software handles the files. For instance, in Microsoft Office, linking to a file maintains a live connection to it, so changes in the original file will show up in the document you’re working on. However, embedding a file breaks that link, so any subsequent changes made to the original will not automatically appear in the new document.
Electronic forms. For recurring reports such as sales reports and compliance reports, consider creating a document that uses form tools such as text boxes (in which users can type new text) and check boxes (which can be used to select from a set of predetermined choices).
Electronic documents. Portable document format (PDF) files have become a universal replacement for printed reports and proposals. Using Adobe Acrobat or similar products, you can quickly convert reports and proposals to PDF files that are easy to share electronically.
Multimedia documents. Video clips, animation, presentation software slides, screencasts (recordings of on-screen activity), and other media elements can enhance the communication and persuasion powers of the written word.
Proposal-writing software. Proposal-writing software can automatically personalize proposals, ensure proper structure (making sure you don’t forget any sections, for instance), organize storage of all your boilerplate text, integrate contact information from sales databases, scan RFPs to identify questions (and even assign them to content experts), and fill in preliminary answers to common questions from a centralized knowledge base.4
