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10 Leadership Styles and Leadership Change in Human and Community Service Organizations Hillel Schmid The literature on leadership in political, governmental, public, commercial, industrial, social, and community organizations dates back to the early 1900s and covers a wide range of areas. Almost every conceivable dimension of the topic has been explored, including various perspectives of the concept of leadership, sources and roots of leadership, leadership traits, functions of leaders, and the impact of environments on leadership roles, as well as task-oriented versus people-oriented leadership, among other issues. In this article, I present and analyze different types of leadership and patterns of management in human and community service organizations. My specific aims are to (1) describe, analyze, and evaluate changing situations in organizations, and learn how different leadership styles fit those situations and contingencies at different stages of the organizational life cycle; (2) shed light on the range of leadership styles and how they fit different organizational structures; and (3) help public boards of nonprofit and community organizations select leaders who are suited to the organization's unique characteristics and culture, in accordance with the organization's stage of development in the organizational life cycle. Leadership in the Twentieth Century: Theoretical Approaches and Research Findings A historical review of the theoretical and empirical literature dealing with the concept of leadership reveals a variety of approaches that have developed over the years. One of the first approaches, which prevailed in the literature from 1930 to 1950, was the traits approach (Bargal, 2001; Hersey and Blanchard, 1982). This approach focused on personal attributes of leaders, assuming that leaders are born rather than made. However, the attempts to identify leadership traits were not successful, and this approach was rejected later. Subsequent studies revealed that leadership is a dynamic concept that involves processes of constant change in the leaders themselves, their followers, and the situations that they encounter (Hemphill, 1949). These studies focused on the leadership approach, but never developed a solid theoretical framework to explain their findings (House and Aditya, 1997). In the late 1940s and early 1950s, research on leadership began to emphasize patterns of behavior and leadership styles (Likert, 1961; Stogdill and Coons, 1957). Two concepts that prevailed in the literature during that period were employee orientation and production orientation. To a great extent, the two orientations are parallel to the autocratic (task) and democratic (relationship) patterns, as well as to “initiating structure” and “consideration,” a term used by Halpin (1959) to refer to the human relations aspect of leadership. The next major developments in research on leadership took place in the 1970s with the introduction of contingency theories: Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership (Fiedler, 1967, 1977), the path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness (House, 1971; House and Mitchell, 1974), life cycle theory (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982), cognitive resource theory (Fiedler and Garcia, 1987), and decision process theory (Vroom and Yetton, 1973). All of these theories attempted to link leadership patterns with different types of organizational and personal situations or contingencies. Those approaches reflect a major transition from the traits approach to new theoretical models that emphasize the impact of changing organizational situations on patterns of leadership and claim that leaders need to adapt their leadership patterns and management styles to the demands of the organization's situation. These approaches also led to the development of other leadership theories. For example, the theory of charismatic leadership derived from the path-goal theory (House, 1977), and cognitive resource theory derived from contingency theory. Later paradigms and theories, which are known as neocharismatic theories, were developed in the mid-1970s. These include the theory of charismatic leadership (House, 1977), theory of transformational leadership (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978), attributional theory of charismatic leadership (Conger and Kanungo, 1987), visionary theories (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Nanus, 1992), and the value-based theory of leadership (House, Shane, and Herold, 1996), which is an extended version of House's theory of charismatic leadership (House, 1977). Based on these theoretical approaches and as a conceptual framework for the organizational analysis presented in this article, I propose a perspective that views the leader of an organization as creating a vision. According to that perspective, vision is defined as the capacity to create and communicate a compelling picture of a desired state of affairs, impart clarity to this vision, and induce commitment to it (Bennis and Nanus, 1985). According to Bennis and Nanus, “The critical point is that the vision articulates a view of a realistic, credible, attractive future for the organization, a condition that is better in some important ways than what now exists” (p. 89). Consistent with that view, however, we argue that it is not enough for a leader to create a vision. The real test of a leader is whether he or she can transmit that vision to followers, articulate it to them clearly, and mobilize their support. Moreover, the role of the leader is to cope with the challenges, opportunities, risks, and constraints of the organizational environment. In this context, the leader's function is to create supportive environments that will provide the legitimation necessary for the organization to achieve its desired goals. Another dimension I address is that of the leader's relationship with his or her followers. Clearly, the leader will have difficulty achieving the desired goals without cooperation from staff members. In this connection, House and Baetz (1979) propose a definition stating that “an action by a group member becomes an act of leadership when the act is perceived by another member of the group as an acceptable attempt to influence that person or more members of that group” (p. 345). According to that perspective, an act of leadership is considered an interaction between the leader and a group of people with whom and for whom he or she works. Therefore, the leader needs to exhibit empathy and consideration and to actively engage in intellectual stimulation of followers. Toward that end, leaders attempt to influence their followers' thought and imagination, beliefs, and values by teaching them to conceptualize, contemplate, and cope with abstract contents, thereby heightening their capacity for problem awareness and problem solving. This behavior characterizes the transformational leader, who treats followers in an individualized way that caters to their emotional and personal needs and promotes their growth and fulfillment (Dvir, Eden, Avolio, and Shamir, 2002). Regarding the internal orientation, where leaders focus on ongoing maintenance of the organization, we adopted the concept of the transactional leader proposed by Bass (1985). The transactional leader is characterized as the agent at workplaces and organizations who assigns tasks to employees, delivers rewards, and promises rewards for further efforts. This type of leader sets goals, clarifies desired outcomes, provides feedback, and exchanges rewards for accomplishments. Based on these assumptions, I propose an approach that argues that leaders are not selected, trained, and evaluated solely according to their personality traits, but according to the extent to which their qualities fit different and changing organizational situations. I assume that leaders operate in different organizations and should therefore follow organizational and behavioral models that enable them to assess and analyze needs in a given situation and adapt their style and pattern of leadership accordingly. In that way, they will be able to achieve organizational effectiveness, which will allow them to realize the vision of the organization and attain desired outcomes. The assumption underlying this article is that because organizations vary in their ideologies, goals, objectives, organizational cultures, and core activities, as well as in the characteristics of their human resources, levels of professional expertise, and psychological and professional maturity, they will behave differently in their choice of leaders. In a similar vein, it can be argued that leaders shape patterns of organizational and structural behavior in accordance with their personal characteristics and in keeping with their style of leading the organization. Thus, members of the organization need to adapt themselves to the leader's vision, demands, and expectations, as well as to the leader's strategies for attaining goals. If there is a conflict between the demands and contingencies faced by the organization and the pattern of leadership, or if the leaders' demands and expectations conflict with the behavior and expectations of their followers, the organization may encounter difficulties that prevent it from achieving its declared goals. I also assume that across the organizational life cycle there is a need for different types of leaders with different qualities that suit the specific stage of the organization's development. Here, too, if the patterns of leadership are not suited to the organization's stage of development, there may be a crisis that undermines the workers' confidence in the management, impedes the functioning of the organization, reduces the efficiency of the organization's performance, and prevents the attainment of organizational effectiveness. Against this background, I present case studies of four types of human service organizations and evaluate their organizational properties and specific needs at different stages of the organizational life cycle. In so doing, I identify the types of leadership that are most appropriate for predicting the success of these organizations in attaining their goals and adapting to changing environments. First, I present case descriptions of the four types of human service and community organizations. Then, based on the literature review and the four case studies, I propose a theoretical model for analyzing and evaluating the extent to which different patterns of leadership are suitable for different organizational and structural situations. Types of Human Service and Community Service Organizations: The Case Studies The descriptions of the four types of organizations that provide human and community services are based on longitudinal studies dealing with organizational behavior, structure, management, and strategic behavior in these organizations. The first organization is the community service organization, which provides social services according to age groups and areas of specialization. With regard to age groups, the community service organization offers programs for clients of different ages, from infants to senior citizens. The organization operates in an environment characterized by a high level of uncertainty in terms of available resources. To ensure that the activities meet a high standard of quality, the organization has to compete with other neighborhood and governmental organizations for essential scarce resources. Studies on the relationship between variables such as extent of decentralization in decision making among executives and perceived autonomy among workers, on the one hand, and several organizational variables that typify community service organizations, such as coordination of activities and control over the quality of programs, on the other hand, have revealed interesting findings (Schmid, 1992a, 1992b). The extent of perceived decentralization among executives and the extent of perceived autonomy among workers correlated positively and significantly with the other structural variables examined. Clear positive correlations were also found between perceived autonomy among workers and perceived decentralization among executive directors. Similarly, perceived autonomy among program directors correlated positively with their perceived impact on decision making and program implementation. Moreover, positive correlations were found between perceived autonomy, perceived coordination, and perceived control among executive directors as well as among program directors. Regarding the effect of those selected variables (worker autonomy, decentralization of authority and powers, coordination, and control) on organizational effectiveness, the findings have revealed that decentralization of authority is the most significant variable (Schmid, 1992a, 1992b). The second type of organization includes residential boarding institutions for disadvantaged children and institutions for people with retardation. These settings are closer to the definition of closed systems or total institutions, which function according to a specific set of laws and codes. In those institutions, therapeutic staff work together with other professionals who develop special relationships with the residents. The professional staff members largely determine the children's lifestyle and daily routine, make decisions for them, and mediate with the external environment. There are specific regulations regarding activities, rights and obligations, curriculum, leisure time, social activities, dress code, and time schedules. Control and monitoring mechanisms are applied in all areas of organizational life, and workers acknowledge the authority of the executive director. In this connection, a study on the relationships between different organizational and structural properties that influence the administrative style of the directors in those institutions has revealed several interesting results. First, the directors and staff perceived the level of formalization in those settings to be high. Level of formalization and extent of coordination were found to have the strongest influence on perceived autonomy among the professional and administrative staff as well as on satisfaction among residents (Schmid and Bar-Nir, 2001). It was also found that the combination of a high formalization level, close coordination and supervision, and limited autonomy for the staff are conditions for attainment of organizational effectiveness and satisfaction among staff members and residents. A third type of organization, the home care organization, provides an array of services that may be brought into a home singularly or in combination to assist people with chronic illness and frail elderly people who are highly dependent on others. In this type of organization, service technologies are relatively simple, and the home care worker has a direct relationship with elderly clients who are dependent on others for assistance. The staff of home care organizations consist mainly of women with relatively low levels of education and professional training, whose opportunities for professional advancement are limited. Turnover rates in home care organizations are high due to considerable burnout and low salaries. Despite repeated attempts to introduce and establish advanced methods of supervision and monitoring, this area has turned out to be one of the main weaknesses of home care organizations. Hence, there is a risk that the workers will attempt to compensate for their low salary and poor working conditions by deliberately cutting back on the amount, scope, and quality of services. A longitudinal study of home care organizations revealed several factors that affect the patterns of leadership and management style of their executive directors (Schmid and Nirel, 1995). First, the workers expect to be treated fairly, and the more they perceive their treatment as fair, the higher their level of satisfaction as well as their assessments of the organization's performance and outcomes. Similarly, the more training the workers receive and the better their working conditions, the higher their assessments of the organization's performance. Another finding revealed a positive correlation between control and workers' assessments of organizational performance. The fourth type of organization includes those that provide services for children and youth at risk. The main services provided by these organizations are afternoon drop-in centers, counseling and guidance, social and extracurricular activities, legal advice, hot lines, and hostels, as well as services that aim at socialization to new values, advocacy, and promotion of children's rights. Although most of these organizations are established by private entrepreneurs, their funding sources are diverse. A large share of their revenue (47 percent) derives from government and public budgets, 37 percent derives from foundations and private donors, and a small share (7 percent) derives from fees paid for services (Schmid and others, 2001). Studies indicate that paid employees and volunteer staff enjoy a high level of autonomy. Although the workers express a high level of satisfaction and are willing to work beyond their official hours, they also indicate that they feel burdened by a heavy workload. A study that examined organizational, structural, and managerial patterns in organizations for children at risk revealed several interesting findings (Schmid and others, 2001). One significant finding relates to the high level of perceived autonomy reported by executives and workers alike. In addition, strong positive correlations were found between perceived workload, autonomy, and job satisfaction. The interaction between those variables was found to have a strong impact on attainment of organizational effectiveness (see also Bargal and Guterman, 1996), and autonomy had an especially significant impact on achievement of effectiveness. Findings have also shown that autonomy and job satisfaction generate a high level of commitment to the organization's goals and clients (see also Kendall and Knapp, 1995; Mirvis, 1992). A Theoretical Model Based on the literature review and the case studies, I propose a theoretical model for analysis of the relationships between types of leadership and types of human and community service organizations. The model consists of two main axes that, to my understanding, are central to leadership roles and function. One axis relates to the extent of the leader's task orientation versus people orientation. At one end is task orientation, which relates to the leader's emphasis on planning, organization, implementation, budgeting, administrative communication, coordination, decision making, and functions that are perceived as instrumental aspects of the leader's role and enable him to focus on goal achievement with minimal consideration of the human factor. At the other end is people orientation, which relates to the leader's emphasis on functions such as motivating workers, training and development, listening and empathy, interpersonal communication, building the administrative team, trust, and establishing stable human relations. These are the expressive aspects of the leader's role, including the leader's body language and facial expressions, which convey the leader's expectations of their followers and reflect the relationships that develop between them. The second axis, defined as “internal versus external orientation,” expresses the importance of the external environment in influencing the organizational and structural behavior of social service organizations versus the leader's orientation to the organization's internal affairs. This axis plays an important role in setting priorities for the leader's work. Specifically, in the attempt to maintain the organization's internal stability and achieve maximal effectiveness through standardization of processes, the leader needs to focus on managing external environments that have become more competitive, control resources, and have a major impact on the organization. Thus, the external environment gains considerable power in relation to the organizations. As Aldrich and Pfeffer (1976) aptly stated, “Administrators manage their environments as well as their organizations, and the former activity may be as important or more important than the latter” (p. 83). In a situation of stiff competition for scarce resources, if organizations fail to channel efforts toward raising the funds they need for their activities or fail to change hostile environments into supportive environments, they are likely to face crises that will undermine their stability. Figure 10.1 displays four quadrants, which combine the two axes. The quadrants will be used to analyze existing and potential patterns of leadership in the four case studies described above. Figure 10.1 Types of Leadership and Patterns of Management Discussion and Analysis In this section, I use the four quadrants in Figure 10.1 as a basis for examining the patterns of leadership that are most suitable in each of the four case studies. In the case of residential boarding institutions, it appears that the most appropriate leadership pattern is characterized by a high level of centralized authority, with extensive use of formal powers and very little staff participation (quadrant I). This type of leader fits the profile of the transactional leader, which is appropriate for maintaining the organizational system and ensuring that workers are duly rewarded for their tasks. Executives in these settings have to make sure that the professional level of workers and services remains adequate and that any changes introduced in processes and programs are moderate, slow, and gradual. Thus, the leader's behavior tends to be formalistic and characterized by strict adherence to regulations, processes, and close supervision. Moreover, because these organizations are highly dependent on governmental funding, the executive tends to adopt behavior that conforms to standards, policies, criteria, and service programs dictated by the governmental funding agencies (Schmid, 2001). This conformist behavior ensures the institution of stability and a steady flow of resources. The style of leadership described in quadrant III can also be appropriate in this type of organization. In recent years, residential institutions have encountered increasing competition with private for-profit organizations in the arena of social service provision, which in the past was dominated almost exclusively by nonprofit organizations. Inevitably, these resources, primarily controlled by the government and partially by foundations and private donors, are no longer ensured to nonprofit residential institutions. Consequently, the leaders of those institutions need to channel their efforts toward dealing with the external environment in an attempt to minimize the organization's dependence on external funding agents and rely more on their own professional, organizational, and structural resources. Nonetheless, because of the unique organizational culture of residential institutions, authoritative and centralized management is still the most prevalent. This pattern ensures the organization of the continued stability it needs to serve special and at-risk populations. Professional and administrative staff members usually follow the directions set by the leader, because they recognize that strict adherence to the rules and regulations is essential for maintaining the quality of life among residents of the boarding institutions. The most appropriate leadership pattern in community service organizations, to my understanding, is described in quadrants II and IV. In the initial stages of the organizational life cycle, the pattern described in quadrant II is most suitable. Afterward, once the organization has become established, the leader should focus on developing the internal organizational system and stabilizing the organization's activities, as well as on building and developing the administrative and professional team. In the early stages of the organization's development, there are no clear patterns of activity, and the founding leader runs a one-person show, where his or her directives obligate the members of the organization. However, at subsequent stages, the leader relies on knowledge and information possessed by staff members in the process of making decisions. At that point, the community service organization needs a division of labor based on delegation of tasks and use of the relative advantages of team members who specialize in various fields and areas. Hence, leaders who fail to understand the changing situation may face the phenomenon of founder's trap: failure to make the necessary transition from centralized authority to decentralization of powers and authority may prevent the organization from achieving efficiency and organizational effectiveness. At later stages in the development of the community service organization, a change in leadership style can be expected. Undoubtedly the leader has to stabilize the organization's structure from the inside and needs to focus on positioning the organization and ensuring a steady flow of resources in a dynamic, turbulent political environment. Whereas in the past these resources were ensured to community organizations by the government, today the flow of resources from the government is minimal. The organization's revenue derives mainly from sale of services and programs, and some funds are raised from foundations and donors. In the light of the decline in governmental resources and the increasing competition with private for-profit organizations, the most appropriate pattern of leadership at the later stages of development is the one described in quadrant IV. Notably, this style is represented in the transformational leader, who can function best under these conditions because he or she has the vision, determination, and ability to arouse intellectual stimulation and mobilize support among followers. The transformational leader recognizes the need to gain a better understanding of the environment and its political dynamics in the light of stiff competition for scarce resources. Hence, his or her efforts are directed to reducing the organization's dependence on external elements that try to undermine its status. In this context, it is important to manage the environment and map its strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and risks. In community service organizations, this orientation is more important than a strategy that focuses on maintaining existing processes and on routine management of the organization. The external orientation and efforts to scan the environment entail cooperation with other agencies, institutions, and organizations, as well as forming alliances and partnerships with them. Furthermore, leaders in these organizations need to have the vision and political acumen to mobilize support from their staff and ensure the smooth functioning of their organization. Staff members have the potential to assume leadership positions, and their level of professional maturity is relatively high. They are selected for their positions in accordance with criteria such as a high level of formal education, high motivation, ability, and willingness to take on jobs and responsibilities. In these contexts, the appropriate style of leadership is delegation of authority and powers and collaboration (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982). An authoritative, directive style can inhibit initiative, independent thought, and willingness to perform tasks and take responsibility. By developing the staff, delegating authority, and empowering workers, the leader can be free to deal with special issues that arise, while workers with appropriate abilities and functional maturity can take charge of routine tasks and ensure the organization's effective functioning. In the case of home care organizations that provide services to the elderly, the most appropriate leadership style, in my view, is the one presented in quadrant III of Figure 10.1, which reflects task-oriented behavior and emphasizes relations with the external environment. Whereas the milieu of home care services was dominated by nonprofit organizations in the past, today the share of the private for-profit sector has increased to 70 percent, and the share of the nonprofit sector has diminished to 30 percent. In this situation, it is clear that leaders need to channel their efforts to the external environment, with emphasis on governmental agencies, which provide most of the funding for the organization's activities and service programs. Moreover, in the light of the diminishing share of nonprofit organizations in the market of home care services, nonprofit providers have had to seek other service domains and target populations in order to ensure the flow of income they need for their survival. Toward that end, the leaders of those organizations need to scan their environment and search for new opportunities, while removing existing and potential threats to the organization's stability. At the same time, the pattern of leadership needs to be task oriented, particularly because the staff members are home care workers with a low level of formal education and a low to average level of functional maturity. They receive a limited amount of training, their wages are low, and opportunities for advancement are minimal. The large staff of home care workers is supervised by a small team of professionals such as social workers. Under these circumstances, Hersey and Blanchard (1982) argue, the most appropriate style of leadership is authoritative and task oriented, with very little staff participation. The workers use relatively simple technologies, and the tasks are specified in the care plan dictated by the institution that funds most of the organization's activities. Finally, in the case of organizations that provide services for children and youth at risk, most of the workers are professionals and volunteer staff, and almost all of the characteristics described in every quadrant of Figure 10.1 are appropriate. Many organizations that serve children and youth at risk were established by private entrepreneurs who were committed to found an organization that responds to the needs of those children. Therefore, in the initial stages of the organization's development, the founder acts as an entrepreneur, and the main mission is to create a niche in which the organization defines its domain and positions itself. At this stage, the organization is characterized by a high level of informality and lacks clear mechanisms for decision making, coordination, and communication with other members. The external environment is characterized by a high level of uncertainty, because the founding leader lacks sufficient information about the institutions and agencies operating there. Under these conditions, the leader-founder is usually committed to his or her vision and ideals while maintaining a strong task orientation. The leader relies extensively on charisma and concentrates most of the power in his or her own hands without delegating authority or enabling staff members to participate in decision making. Once the leader-founder succeeds in stabilizing the organization's environment and achieving a steady increase in the number of administrative and professional staff members, the style of leadership will have to be adapted. In my view, the most appropriate style at that point is the one described in quadrant II of Figure 10.1, which combines people-oriented and internal-oriented leadership because the environment is more certain and the founding leader is more familiar with the agencies operating in it. As the leader tries to position the organization in its domain, he or she also begins to build a team, delegate more authority, and establish a division of labor among the staff members. From the people-oriented perspective, the leader devotes a considerable amount of time to building and developing his or her team while fostering an esprit de corps needed to gain support from the team members. This style of leadership resembles a democratic and participatory one, where team members are encouraged to assume more responsibility. Nonetheless, based on the characteristics of these organizations as described earlier and in the light of the growing competition with for-profit organizations, it appears that the organization requires a new type of leadership—and the most appropriate pattern, in my view, is the one presented in quadrant IV of Figure 10.1. Under these circumstances, the leader's orientation should be toward managing the task environment and acquiring more resources, while also delegating authority and power to competent and highly committed followers. The leader needs to develop special skills, particularly in the areas of politics and external relations, in addition to a profound awareness of the changing turbulent environments. At the same time, the leader can adopt people-oriented behavior, because the staff members are professionals whose level of psychological and functional maturity enables them to assume more responsibility. Thus, the leaders can delegate authority and involve their staff in processes of decision making and mobilizing resources. In so doing, they give their workers information and knowledge about the tasks and missions to be performed and strategies for carrying them out, while fostering an esprit de corps and a high level of commitment (Bass and Avolio, 1990). Conclusion This article dealt with leadership patterns and their relationships to different types of organizations at various stages of the organizational life cycle. The underlying assumption was that these patterns should vary in accordance with the changing situation and contingencies of the organization. If there is a mismatch between the pattern of leadership and the unique circumstances of the organization, obstacles will be encountered in the attempt to achieve the organization's espoused goals. At the same time, the leader has the power and capacity to have an impact on the organization in accordance with his or her vision, values, codes of behavior, and modes of leadership. In addition, the leader has the ability to inspire the organization, but must be particularly sensitive to its unique culture if he or she wishes to continue leading it. The basic assumption here is that the ideal situation is one in which the leader is able to adapt his or her behavior in the transition from one stage of the organization's life cycle to another, consistent with the four quadrants presented in Figure 10.1. This does not always happen, since leaders with specific characteristics and skills can be suitable for one type of organization in a given situation, whereas the same characteristics might not be appropriate at other stages of the organization's development and in other situations or environments. If the leader is unable to adapt his or her behavior patterns to the situation at hand, it is best to choose a new leader with the appropriate qualities. Therefore, the model proposed can be useful for boards of directors in the processes of selecting and hiring leaders for their organization. These processes should reflect the changes that take place in the organizational environment, the organization itself, and the organization's human resources. I am not taking a stand on the issue of whether personality traits or situations make the leader. Rather, I am suggesting a need to integrate all of those elements. The traits and qualities of leaders undoubtedly play an important role in shaping and building the organization and in influencing its culture. Nonetheless, those very characteristics can lead to failure if the organization's specific situation is not properly assessed and the leaders are unable to understand the organization's nature and spirit. Fiedler (1996) argued that “all of the reviews of leadership training… stress that we know very little about the processes of leadership and managerial training that contribute to organizational performance” (p. 244). In addition, many researchers have found that it is difficult for people to change their cognitive style of orientation, dominant motives, or global behavior patterns (Fiedler, 1967). However, I propose a different approach: individuals have to make adaptations in their leadership pattern—whether they are autocratic, democratic-participatory, charismatic, task-oriented, or person-oriented—if they wish to be effective and achieve their goals. In the case of organizational leadership, innate characteristics can be affected by the environments in which individuals, groups, and organizations operate, as well as by values, expectations, and behavior of others, and by cultures in general and organizational culture in particular. I am not claiming that the basic characteristics and style of different leaders can change appreciably. Nonetheless, it is important to develop potential leaders' awareness of different patterns that can be adopted, as well as the ability to recognize their personal strengths and weaknesses. This is particularly true of nonprofit human service and community service organizations, which have to cope with constant transitions and changes, especially in the light of the declining legitimacy of the welfare state. Concomitantly, these organizations have witnessed processes of decentralization, devolution, and outsourcing or contracting out of services. All of these processes require leadership that promotes vision and ideals and is characterized by perseverance, consistency, flexibility, and an orientation toward achieving the organization's goals. References Aldrich, H., and Pfeffer, J. “Environments of Organizations.” Annual Review of Sociology, 1976, 11, 79–105. 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