Research paper
The Elite Sport and Christianity Debate: Shifting Focus from Normative Values to the
Conscious Disregard for Health
Author(syf - D Q H / H H 6 L Q G H n
Source: Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 52, No. 1 (March 2013yf S S 9
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23352842
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J Relig Health (2013yf 9
DOI 10.1007/s 10943-012-9595-8
ORIGINAL PAPER
The Elite Sport and Christianity Debate: Shifting Focus
from Normative Values to the Conscious Disregard
for Health
Jane Lee Sinden
Published online: 24 March 2012
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract Scholars and theologians continue to debate whether or not God's intended
purpose of elite sport violates the creational normativity for elite sport. However, while it is
important to be aware of the contradictions between elite sport and Christianity, there is a
need for more deep-seated discussions about emotions and health problems in elite sport
and why so many Christian athletes continue to train for their sport at the expense of their
health. This paper summaries the present debate regarding elite sport and Christianity and
then shifts the reader to an exploration of the normalization of emotion, and the conse
quence of emotional suppression on athletes health. In doing so, the author presents the
disregard of health problems as a more concrete measure of how far athletes should push
themselves in elite sport. The author makes recommendations for emotion education and
suggests directions for future research and practice.
Keywords Christianity • Elite sport ■ Health • Emotions • Normalization ■ Athletes
Introduction
We cannot dismiss the benefits that sport has for Christian and non-Christian athletes, such
as developing diligence, self discipline, interpersonal dependence, cooperation, leadership
skills, commitment to team, meekness and perseverance (Van Reken 1999yf $ V & K U L V W L D Q V ,
we are called to work toward achieving these virtues and to develop our physical abilities.
Jesus taught us the importance of loving God with all of one's self, which includes the
physical dimension. For instance, Jesus instructed, "present your bodies as a living sac
rifice, holy, acceptable to God, which is your reasonable service" (Romans, 12:1, NKJVyf .
"The enjoyable satisfaction of bodily existence and the realization of bodily potential are
among the blessings of God in his creation" (Cooper 1999, p. 13yf .
Unfortunately, often the benefits of sport are outweighed by the consequences, as
athletes pursue high performance in that sport. High performance usually encompasses,
J. Lee Sinden (CE3yf Redeemer University College, Ancaster, ON, Canada e-mail: [email protected]
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336 J Relig Health (2013yf 9
(1yf D K L J K O H Y H O R I F R P S H W L W L R Q \f a high volume and intensity of training (six-18
sessions per weekyf \f a high level of skill from participants in the sport, and (4yf X V X D O O y
participants and coaches are focused on excellence and reaching a higher level in the
sport. Today, elite sport is at the opposite extreme from what God intended for our
physical selves.
Critics continue to question the contradictions between the normative values of current
elite sport and Christianity. For instance, the pragmatic and utilitarian values that dominate
sport in the name of winning and success do not "comport readily with the fruit of the Spirit
and the Kingdom values of the Sermon on the Mount" (Mathisen 2008, p. 37yf ) X U W K H U W K e
"winning at all cost" philosophy so prevalent in elite sport results in athletes identifying
themselves with the role of sportsperson and validating themselves by winning (Hughes and
Coakley 1991; Lee Sinden 2007yf $ V D U H V X O W H O L W H V S R U W L V R I W H Q P L V X V H G W R Z D U G L G R O D W U R X s
ends, preparing the way for a kind of worship that centers on the products of human labor.
Performances become an end unto themselves, resulting in athlete objectification, signified
by records, medals, ribbons, money and winners (White 2008yf .
Christian Athletes in Sport
Christian athletes have attested to the challenges they face when trying to live by the
normative values of the elite sport culture. In two studies, conducted by Stevenson (1997yf
and Dunn and Stevenson (1998yf D W K O H W H V V X P P D U L ] H G W K H V H Q R U P D W L Y H Y D O X H V D V E H L Q J W K e
importance of winning, the importance of social status, conflicts with opponents and
expectations of others. The Christian athletes in the study spoke of the stress they felt, the
strained relationships with other non-athlete friends, the difficulties with their schoolwork
and the injuries they suffered. Some athletes had to withdraw from their sport for a while;
some were able to return, but only into less competitive environments; and some athletes
spoke of their need to search for a deeper meaning in their participation in sports. Never
theless, in general, the athletes entered sport with the perception that their sport experiences
were supposed to "make them feel good, successful and fulfilled, but they ended up feeling
only emptiness, unhappiness and struggle" (Stevenson 2008, p. 271yf $ V D F R Q V H T X H Q F H ,
many of these athletes either quit their sport altogether or had to find a way to come to terms
with the often conflicting normative values between their Christian walk and elite sport.
Among those athletes who continued with their sport, some said they had to ignore
value contradictions or compartmentalizing their sport and their faith. For instance, when
they were at church they were "Christian," but in their sport they were athletes and "left
their Christianity in the locker room" (Stevenson 1997yf 2 W K H U D W K O H W H V V D L G W K D W W K H \ W U L H d
to be as "Christian" as they could be as athletes when they were playing. And some
athletes explained that they played "for Christ" by giving 100 percent of their effort,
strength and will. It was this latter group who turned to Evangelical Christianity as a means
of dealing with the problems they encountered in their high-performance pursuits (Dunn
and Stevenson 1998; Stevenson 1997, 2008yf .
Evangelical Christianity and Elite Sport
It is common to hear Christian athletes profess their devotion to Christ as the reason for their
sport achievements. During many Olympics we hear Christian athletes periodically quote
their favorite bible verses in interviews while it is commendable that athletes are committed
to using sport as a platform to speak about their loyalties to Christ, critics question whether
or not we can simply accept athletes' testimonies as justification for their pursuits without
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J Relig Health (2013yf 9 337
taking a more critical look. For example, Null (2008yf H [ S O D L Q V W K D W P L Q L V W U L H V W K U R X J h
athletes" need to be careful not to neglect the most important pastoral need of the athletes
with whom they work, such as being delivered from always having to prove their worth.
"If their athletes have not yet learned to break free of a sporting mentality where
one's value is determined by performance, they will be prone to thinking that the
most important means of winning God's approval is winning others to Him" (Null
2008, p. 253yf .
The author suggests that ministries through athletes need to make clear that Christians
in the world of sport base their identity not on their efforts to evangelize for Christ, but on
what Christ has already done for them on the cross.
Evangelical Christianity has also been criticized for being a marketing tool—"the
selling of Jesus"—where organizations use high-profile athletes as headliners in their
campaigns (Aiken 1993yf 6 S R U W I L J X U H V D U H X V X D O O \ L Q W U R G X F H G Z L W K J U H D W I D Q I D U H D Q G R I W H n
give a testimonial about their own journeys as sports heroes and as Christians. Unfortu
nately, using sports stars as recruiters for Christ can give non-Christians the impression that
believing in Jesus will give them success and prosperity.
Other critics have been concerned about an approach to competition endorsed by
evangelicals, called variously Total Release Performance, or Praise Performance. In this
approach, performance is an act of love toward God, and so you should always put
everything you have into it—your effort, attention, strength, determination, everything—
100 yb , Q W K L V Z D \ \ R X D U H H [ S U H V V L Q J W R * R G \ R X U J U D W L W X G H I R U H Y H U \ W K L Q J + H K D V G R Q e
for you. Critics question such an approach because the implication is that "any instance of
losing must mean that the athlete was in fact not giving 100 yb Q R W W U \ L Q J D V K D U G D V W K H y
could, not obeying the coach as they should" (Stevenson 2008, p. 274yf .
Another implication is that in this way almost anything can become sanctified. If you
are using your gifts to the best of your ability, "for God," then that is all that you have to
be concerned about (Stevenson 2008yf ' R H V W K L V P H D Q W K D W L I D S H U V R Q L V D J L I W H G W K L H I D Q d
he is using his gifts to the best of his ability that is all we need to be concerned about?
There must be some prior, moral, Christian evaluation of the appropriate fit of the activity
itself (Stevenson 2008yf ) X U W K H U Z H P X V W F R Q W L Q X H W R G L V F H U Q W K U R X J K H P S L U L F D O V W X G y
and historical experience, what God's specific norms are for areas of human life that the
Scriptures to not explicitly address—industrial relations, for example, or the mass media,
or literary criticism" (Wolters 2005, p. 39yf R U H Y H Q H O L W H V S R U W .
Hoffman explains that Christian athletes must be careful not to confirm the "goodness"
of sport and ignore the "problems." Further, we need to be wary of whitewashing some of
sport's moral complexities, because ironically "when sport is harnessed to the evangelistic
enterprise, evangelicals become as much endorsers of the myths reinforced by popular
sport as they do of the Christian gospel" (1992, p. 121yf , W V H H P V W K D W ( Y D Q J H O L F D l
Christian organizations that use sport and sport figures would rather turn a blind eye to the
problems and contradictions inherent in elite, competitive sport" (Stevenson 2008, p. 274yf .
Opening Our Eyes to the Problems
Shifting the Focus: Health Problems in Elite Sport
It has been argued that generally the modern version of elite sport "has taken something
God designed as good and corrupted it at its core to such a degree that its negative effects
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338 J Relig Health (2013yf 9
have reached our youth sports" (Hamilton 2008, p. 173yf $ Q G D V D U H V X O W Z H Q H H G W o
continue to ask ourselves, "...ought Christians to engage in competition with the ruthless
abandon that characterizes many sports today?" (Cooper 1999, p. 18yf , Z R X O G V D \ \ H V ,
we do need to continue to encourage elite sport competition because elite sport itself
belongs to the domain of "structure", part of God's creation order. Through "sin and
redemption" many elite sport programs and policies have taken a distorted "direction"
(Wolters 2005yf ) X U W K H U W K H V L Q L Q H O L W H V S R U W G R H V Q R W D E R O L V K D O O R I H O L W H V S R U W Q R U W D N e
away its inherent goodness. "Creation and sin remain distinct" (Wolters 2005yf , Q R W K H r
words, elite sport is distinct from the sin that corrupts it. However, we should not support
elite sport as it is today. Without changes to elite sport policies and programs, we will more
than likely be unsuccessful at leading elite sport back to a way that does not violate the
"creational normativity" (Wolters 2005yf R I V S R U W .
Aside from the discrepancies between the value systems in elite sport and Christianity,
we need to ask questions that critically examine the present problems in relation to the
outcomes to athletes' bodies and their physical and emotional health, in hopes of helping
athletes experience elite sport in the manner in which God intended. We need to take a look
at what happens to the health of athletes during and after their elite sport careers and
question why athletes sacrifice their bodies and minds in a manner that often goes beyond
what is healthy.
When it is written "I discipline my body and bring it into subjection" (I Corinthians
9:26, NKJVyf * R G L V Q R W V D \ L Q J W K D W Z H D U H W R E H D W R X U E R G L H V X Q W L O Z H Q R O R Q J H U I X Q F W L R n
physically, especially not for the sake of achieving excellence in sport. Unfortunately, it
has been well documented that most athletes go too far by training their bodies beyond
their limits and developing health problems as a result. Common health problems in elite
sport include substance abuse, eating disorders, osteoporosis, amenorrhea, overtraining,
chronic sport-related injuries, burnout and depression (Berry and Howe 2000; Martin 1998;
Montenegro 2006; Raglin and Wilson 2001; Reinking and Alexander 2005; Storch et al.
2005; Sundgot-Borgen 2002; Voight 2002yf , W L V D O V R F R P P R Q I R U D W K O H W H V W R E H O L H Y H W K D t
adverse effects to their health are "necessary failures" in the achievement of sport
excellence (Shogan 1999yf $ V D U H V X O W D W K O H W H V H [ D F H U E D W H W K H L U K H D O W K S U R E O H P V E y
continuing to train, despite these problems (Lee Sinden 2007; Martin Ginis and Leary
2004; Waddington 2006; Waldron and Krane 2005yf $ W K O H W H V K D Y H O H D U Q H G W R G L V D V V R F L D W e
themselves from their bodies (Williams 1999yf 0 R V W G L V W U H V V L Q J L V W K H V W D W H R I D W K O H W H V '
emotional and mental health, as they consciously choose to continue to train for their sport,
irrespective of health problems.
Athletes' Disregard of Their Health Problems
Despite the fact that our bodies were designed to give us warning signs, such as extreme
pain, to tell us that something is wrong and that we need to rest, most elite athletes and
coaches ignore signals from their bodies. In doing so, many elite athletes fail to recognize
the damage that can be caused by overtraining, irrespective of their health problems
(Waddington 2006yf ) R U L Q V W D Q F H L Q D V W X G \ E \ < R X Q J D Q G : K L W H \f, one athlete
explained, "I simply pushed harder because my injury was causing me to fall behind in my
progress" (p. 51yf 6 L P L O D U O \ L Q D V W X G \ W K D W , F R Q G X F W H G D Q D W K O H W H D G P L W W H G ,
"...[my intercostal tear] would be to the point where I couldn't breathe. I was
scared...I was taking these muscle relaxers every once in a while when there would
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J Relig Health (2013yf 9 339
be a flare up so that I could keep rowing. It was so sore and I just kept rowing....I
would have done anything to keep rowing" (Lee Sinden 2007, p. 85yf .
"Pressure placed on the player to return to action before full recovery is in one sense
intended to enhance the team's ability to win, but in the process, the long-term health of the
athlete is often given little consideration" (Young et al. 1994, p. 190yf .
Research shows that many athletes are in denial about the severity of their health
problems when they are in the training state. For example, in interviews with elite female
rowers, one rower stated, "I was anorexic but I wasn't anorexic to the point where I had to
be hospitalized" (Lee Sinden 2007, p. 89yf + R Z H Y H U L W L V L Q W H U H V W L Q J W K D W D I W H U U H W L U H P H Q t
athletes question why they did not listen to their bodies better when they were pursing elite
sport. As retired athletes begin to suffer consequences to their health from years of ignoring
their bodies for the sake of achievement in their sport, some of them have confessed
regretting not taking time away from their sport to heal their bodies properly (Lee Sinden
2010, 2007yf ) R U L Q V W D Q F H R Q H U H W L U H G D W K O H W H H [ S O D L Q V Q R R Q H L Q W K H L U U L J K W P L Q G D t
16 years old should be wrapping themselves in Saran Wrap or garbage bags sitting in the
sauna" (p. 118yf $ Q R W K H U D W K O H W H F R Q I H V V H V W K H G D P D J H W K D W K D V E H H Q G R Q H L V V H Y H U H I
mean I often have surgeries...I killed my body...I have ruined my spine, my back and my
hips from rowing" (p. 88yf $ Q G D W K L U G D W K O H W H H [ S O D L Q V ,
"I have done major damage to myself... I just had my colon removed because of
ulcerated colitis [which is an ulcer on the colon that causes health complications]...It
started as digestive problems in my earlier days in rowing...and throwing up before
races because of anxiety..." (p. 88yf .
With athletes regretting having disregarded their health problems now that they are no
longer in the training state, we need to ask why athletes choose to ignore their health
problems when they are in the training state.
My Experience as a Rower
As a retired elite amateur rower, I still admit that I love rowing. When I think of why I love
rowing, I recall the aspects of rowing that I believe are part of God's created order, such as
the peaceful early mornings on the water before the sun was awake, feeling the oars as
extensions of my arms going into the water, and feeling the flow of the boat running
through the water. And I also love parts of rowing competitions, including the excitement
of testing myself after months of hard practice, the joy of allowing myself to let go and row
as hard as I can, and the satisfaction after a race of realizing that I could not have pulled
one stroke harder.
Unfortunately, I understand first hand how elite sport becomes a distorted image. For
example, I remember what it was like to have to live up the expectations of others, to have
to learn to manage the development of serious health problems, and to take on the inherent
pressure to persevere through health problems. During 16 years as a high-performance
amateur rower, I suffered periodic episodes of bulimia, anorexia, chronic back injuries,
burnout and depression. And, much like many other rowers who I competed with and
against, I accepted my health problems as a "necessary failure" (Shogan 1999yf L Q W K e
pursuit of high performance. I believed that health problems were common because many
of my teammates and competitors also experienced health problems and ignored them as a
part of "doing whatever it takes" to be successful in rowing. I accepted my eating disorder
as common in weight-restricted sports, such as lightweight rowing. And when I was injured
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340 J Relig Health (2013yf 9
from overtraining I drew inspiration from scripture passages, such as "...before you were
born I set you apart and appoint you as my spokesperson to the world (Jeremiah 1:5; NIVyf ,
or "perseverance must finish its work so that you may be mature and complete, not lacking
anything (James 1: 4; NIVyf , E H O L H Y H G W K D W L I * R G J D Y H P H W K H J L I W V + H J D Y H P H W K H Q , Z D s
called to use them to the best of my ability in order that I could be a testimony for Him.
Never did I acknowledge the irrationality of continuing to train for rowing irrespective of
my health problems.
The Role of the Coach and Sport Environment
As a rower, I frequently heard other rowers complain about issues such as the volume and
intensity of training that was required of them, reoccurring injuries that were bothering
them and/or how a coach or coaches treated them. I also recalled how rowers concealed
their emotions and concerns from their coaches and competitors, often because of fears of
being labeled mentally weak. I, too, had similar concerns and concealed my emotions and
feelings from my coaches and competitors, feelings such as anxieties about competing and
worries about the volume of training. However, I could not share my thoughts or feelings
with others out of fear of appearing insecure or overemotional. One coach told me, "there
is no room for emotions in sport." Or, "stop thinking and just pull". These particular
comments pressured me to hide my emotions and refrain from reflecting on whether or not
I should continue rowing.
Fear was a constant emotional state for me and many of the rowers around me, which
should have been a sign that something was wrong; "there is no fear in love; but perfect
love casts out fear, because fear involves torment. But he who fears has not been made
perfect in love" (1 John 4:18, NKJVyf 7 K L V S H U F H L Y H G S U H V V X U H D Q G I H D U W R F R Q F H D O P y
emotions was embedded in most of my relationships with my coaches and other athletes
and eventually resulted in the development of unhealthy, self-destructive emotional outlets
such as bulimia and alcohol abuse.
While research continues to explore athlete/coach relationships (Baker et al. 2003;
Poczwardowski et al. 2006; Short and Short 2005yf P R U H U H V H D U F K L V Q H H G H G W R H [ D P L Q e
the consequences of coaching practices and/or athletic environments that encourage the
manipulation of athletes' emotions (Fry 2003yf ) R U H [ D P S O H ) U \ \f questions the
morality of coaches and athletes who manipulate their own and/or others' emotions in
the quest for enhanced performance and victory. "This approach, when it becomes the
overriding concern, may lead to recklessness with respect to emotion...[and] may lead to
manipulative practices that are morally dubious" (Fry 2003, p. 26yf 7 K H L V V X H R I P R U D O L W y
may arise when the intent is to elicit emotions of self-assessment, such as shame, guilt,
humiliation or pride, in hopes of prompting a desired response from athletes.
"Such compliance is especially problematic in cases where the coach's desires are
morally dubious, and may even be self-destructive for the athlete to carry out, but are
nonetheless heeded by the athlete as the process for achieving athletic ends. This
destabilizing and potentially compromising process may lead to a loss of a center in
the athletes, which is tantamount to loss of the self' (Fry 2003, p.33yf .
Consequences of Emotional Control
In order to understand the consequences of emotional control, we need to appreciate what
emotions are. Emotions are multi-faceted and researchers continue to explore alternative
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J Relig Health (2013yf 9
341
meanings and understandings (Davidson et al. 2005; Fry 2003; Grandey 2000yf 1 H Y H r
theless, for the sake of this paper, I use the working definition of emotion, expanded from
Frijda's (1986yf R U L J L Q D O G H I L Q L W L R Q Z K L F K L V X V H G E \ F R Q W H P S R U D U \ H P R W L R Q U H V H D U F K H U s
(Bernstein et al. 2006; Buck 1990; Oatley and Jenkins 1996; Vallerand and Blanchard
2000; Wade et al. 2007yf .
An emotion is,
"a state of arousal involving facial and bodily changes, brain activation, cognitive
appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action, all shaped by cultural
rules" (Wade et al. 2007, p. 388yf .
The definition of emotion focuses on three major components: psychological changes in
the face, brain and body; cognitive processes such as interpretations of events; and cultural
influences that shape the experience and expression of emotion.
Cognitive processes or appraisal is one of a multitude of ways that a person experi
encing an emotion evaluates the emotion. Most researchers agree that a common first step
to the experience of emotion is "appraisal"—the recognition of an event as significant to a
goal (Oatley and Jenkins 1996yf 7 K H U H I R U H R Q O \ L I D Q H Y H Q W L V U H O H Y D Q W W R D F R Q F H U Q Z L O O D n
emotion occur—an emotion usually "moves" a person in some way. Emotion is a sub
jective experience (Averill 1980, 1994; Deci 1980yf W K H U H I R U H D O O H P R W L R Q V U H I H U E D F N W o
the person who feels, defines and experiences them (Denzin 1989yf .
Generally, negative, or unpleasant emotions occur when the event is perceived by a
person to have moved them away from a goal. When an athlete is injured, he or she may
evaluate this event as an impediment to achieving their goal. This evaluation may be
followed by negative emotions, such as distress, worry and/or fear. Guilt or humiliation may
develop if the athlete believes he or she has failed at achieving their goal. Fear may result in
the athlete if they feel that their goal is being threatened, and anger may result in the athlete
if others try to interfere with these goals. In sport, negative emotions are commonly char
acterized as harmful or dysfunctional. Harmful or negative emotions may include "worried,
insecure, nervous, angry, panicky, doubtful, tense, and/or afraid" (Hanin 2000, p. 305yf .
The degree to which an emotion is experienced as negative, unpleasant, positive and/or
pleasant depends on how important the event is to the person experiencing the emotion.
Most elite and aspiring elite athletes will experience more negative emotions than positive
emotions because most events will impede their goals to achieve high performance. Few
athletes can achieve their dreams of competing at the Olympics. Negative emotions are
most likely to be the more common experience among high-performance amateur athletes
with health problems because health problems impede most high-performance athletes'
Olympic goals.
This paper is primarily concerned about the control of negative emotions. Although God
calls us to be self controlled; "to virtue knowledge, to knowledge self control..." (2 Peter
1:5,6; NKJVyf V H O I F R Q W U R O V K R X O G E H D Q D W X U D O S D U W R I I U X L W I X O J U R Z W K Q R W D V D P H D Q V R f
forced suppression or deception of self and others. Although control of emotions can
sometimes be good temporarily to achieve a certain purpose, control becomes unhealthy
when it leads to suppression of stressful emotions. Specifically, when stressful emotions
are suppressed, the consequences may be the development of unhealthy or self-destructive
emotional management outlets or techniques, and/or the development of health problems.
Health problems have been reciprocally correlated to the suppression of stressful emotions
such as anger, fear, and/or anxiety (Broderick et al. 2005; Diamond et al. 2003; Oatley and
Jenkins 1996; Rojo et al. 2006; Sobel 1996; Taylor et al. 1991; Traue and Pennebaker
1993; Wenzlaff and Bates 1998yf ) R U L Q V W D Q F H W K H G H Y H O R S P H Q W R I H D W L Q J G L V R U G H U V K D s
Springer
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342 J Relig Health (2013yf 9
been associated with athletes' inability to manage their stressful emotions in a healthy
manner, thus turning to alternative, more self-destructive emotional outlets (Anorexia
Nervosa and Related Eating Disorders Inc. 2002; Rojo et al. 2006yf , Q D G G L W L R Q & R U Q H O L X s
(2002yf I R X Q G W K D W D Q D W K O H W H
V L Q D E L O L W \ W R P D Q D J H V W U H V V I X O H P R W L R Q V V X F K D V J X L O W D Q J H U ,
shame, and/or fear, is a factor that predisposes athletes to injury. Further, athletes need
better coping strategies when they retire from sport, as many leave sport depressed and
unable to deal with the loss of their athletic identities.
Emotional Control and Athletes' Decision to Disregard Their Health
With vast research warning athletes about the health consequences of emotional sup
pression and disregarding their health problems, why are so many athletes choosing to
ignore what their thoughts, feelings and bodies are telling them when they are training for
elite sport? According to Lee Sinden (2010, 2007yf D W K O H W H V F K R R V H W R V X S S U H V V W K H L r
emotions and continue training despite the development of health problems because they
are persuaded, or "normalized," to do so in their sport environments. In a study conducted
of retired female rowers who had suffered health problems when they were elite rowers, all
11 athletes who were interviewed admitted to having ignored warning signs regarding their
health and training, even after the problems escalated. Although the study did not indicate
whether the athletes were Christians or non-Christians (Lee Sinden 2007yf W K H U H V X O W s
provide insight into how we can bring elite sport one step closer to what God intended.
The following explains this study in more detail.
Normalization of Emotion
Lee Sinden (2010, 2007yf L Q Y H V W L J D W H G ) R X F D X O W
V \f concept of normalization in
relation to negative emotions in elite amateur rowing. Normalization refers to the estab
lishing of "normal" as a standard for judgment that sets standards and ideals for human
thought and human conduct against which individuals are assessed, measured and judged
(Foucault 1977, as cited in Lee Sinden 2010yf 1 R U P D O L ] D W L R Q L V L Q W H U Q D O L ] H G L Q X V W K U R X J h
the mechanisms of disciplinary power that can function both positively and negatively.
While this study primarily examined the negative aspects of normalization, to examine the
problems in some elite amateur rowing environments, by no means did the study take for
granted the positive experiences that athletes have through sport. Positive aspects of
normalization occur when athletes learn skills and develop mastery over the performance
of their bodies. It can also be said that normalization functions positively when athletes
develop Godly character, such as diligence, self discipline, interpersonal dependence,
cooperation, leadership skills, commitment to team, meekness and perseverance, as was
aforementioned. On the other hand, normalization functions negatively when athletes have
lost control of their own bodies. Athletes developing health problems, for instance, are an
example of athletes losing control over their bodies.
Lee Sinden (2010, 2007yf H [ S O R U H G K R Z Q R U P D O L ] D W L R Q I X Q F W L R Q H G Q H J D W L Y H O \ W K U R X J h
athletes' emotions. The "normalization of emotion" (Lee Sinden 2010yf I X Q F W L R Q H d
through normalizing methods, namely "hierarchical observation," "normalizing judg
ment" and "the examination" (Foucault 1977, as cited in Lee Sinden 2010yf X V H G W o
persuade athletes to conform to established norms. Further, together with the normalization
of emotion, this study examined whether, in addition to technologies of gender, sexuality,
race and ability (Shogan 1999, as cited in Lee Sinden 2010yf W K H U H Z D V D W H F K Q R O R J \ R f
emotion—mechanisms that convince athletes that emotions are mentally weak, irrational,
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J Relig Health (2013yf 9 343
feminine and negative-—acting on and through female rowers' athletic experiences in high
performance rowing. Ultimately, the study examined whether normalizing methods and the
technology of emotion contributed to female high-performance rowers' decisions to con
tinue training after they developed health problems.
Hierarchical Observation
The study showed how technologies of emotions worked through an observing hierarchy to
encourage athletes to watch each others' outward emotional expressions in order to learn
what was and what was not appropriate in their rowing environments. For instance, one
athlete explained, "I don't see [champions]...get upset...You don't trust someone who is
breaking down or showing emotion...Emotionally tough people never really complain"
(Lee Sinden 2010, p. 249yf .
The environments in rowing were conducive to those in which an observing hierarchy
could take place. In particular, environments tended to be places where the athletes were
isolated. This isolation created an atmosphere where surveillance made it possible to gain
knowledge about the athletes in an attempt to alter them. Surveillance worked as the
athletes watched other rowers refrain from showing fears, anxieties, and/or worries. For
example, one rower stated, "...emotional is bad in the rowing circle because emotional
means you are crazy" (Lee Sinden 2010, p. 249yf .
In the course of surveillance and comparison, the technologies of emotions coerced the
rowers to accept which emotions and behaviors were acceptable in elite amateur rowers.
Rowers in this study learned that being positive and mentally strong were the two main
characteristics that successful rowers possessed.
Lee Sinden (2010yf V K R Z H G K R Z W H F K Q R O R J L H V R I H P R W L R Q Z R U N V X E W O \ D V W K H U R Z H U s
were unaware that their emotions were being normalized. One athlete explained, "I really
had no idea what was going on, I just sat in the boat and pulled hard with everyone
else"...[E]veryone or other people were [ignoring their health issues] too...I thought it was
normal in the sport" (p. 248yf .
Slowly, as the rowers watched each other hide their fears, anxieties, worries and/or
doubts, the technologies of emotion increased the rowers' desires to conform their emo
tionality to what they believed were desirable characteristics in elite rowers. For instance,
the rowers controlled their fears and anxieties in order to avoid the appearance of mental
weakness, particularly to their competitors, which lead to the suppression of their concerns
about training (Lee Sinden 2010yf .
Normalizing Judgment
According to Foucault (1977, as cited in Lee Sinden 2010yf W K H S X U S R V H R I W K H Q R U P D O L ] L Q g
judgment in the penal system and/or the military is to punish the individuals who are not
conforming to the established norms. Similarly, Lee Sinden (2010, 2007yf V K R Z H G W K D t
normalizing judgment worked to punish rowers if they were not conforming to the estab
lished norms in relation to their emotions. The data showed how normalizing judgment
worked through small judgment and punishing mechanisms to close gaps between those
who were successfully normalizing their emotions to the standards of emotionality in their
rowing environments and those who were not. For instance, the rowers described instances
when they felt humiliated because their coaches yelled at them in front of their teammates,
after they had questioned why the training was progressing in the manner in which it was.
The common response was that the rowers did not want to express themselves again after
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344 J Relig Health (2013yf 9
these incidences. Punishment was also evident when coaches ignored the athletes, took
away the use of the best equipment and/or removed the rowers from their seats or places in
the boats. Two athletes describe normalizing judgment in the following responses,
"...If you didn't conform to what [the coach] wanted he just rejected you"...He just
wanted winning athletes...he would take away privileges...I felt like I had no control
over the situation...it was like a cult (Lee Sinden 2007, p. 110 and 2010, p. 249yf .
"I learned...that even if I was upset about something for the most part I kept it to
myself...I hide my emotions to look mentally tough...If you are tired and not
capable of doing any more you didn't say anything because...you wouldn't want
anyone...to think that you were incapable" (Lee Sinden 2007, p. 113yf
Normalizing judgment was initially successful because the rowers continually
attempted to conceal their emotions in order to escape being judged and punished. For
example, all the rowers described instances when they wanted to address certain concerns
with their coaches, yet refrained from doing so because they did not want to be labeled
weak or "high maintenance." Concerns about unrealistic training expectations were
common grievances that the rowers wanted to speak to their coaches about but instead
suppressed their concerns. Eventually, normalizing judgment worked through their emo
tions, as the rowers felt guilt, shame, fear and anxiety if they were having difficulty
concealing their emotions. As a result, the rowers continued training at volumes that
eventually had a reverse effect on their rowing performances and their health. The athletes
continued training beyond what their bodies were capable of because they did not want to
be portrayed and as weak and incapable (Lee Sinden 2010yf .
According to Foucault (1990yf S R Z H U F L U F X O D W H V W K U R X J K R X W O R F D O L ] H G V \ V W H P V U D W K H r
than imposing itself from the top down. Similarly, normalizing judgment functioned
through relationships, as the rowers in this study learned from other rowers and their
coaches what was accepted as the standards of emotionality and training. The data showed
how all the rowers were taught through surveillance to train at high volumes without
outwardly complaining, and when they suffered health problems they learned to train
through the health problems without complaint (Lee Sinden 2010yf 7 K H D W K O H W H V D G P L W W K D t
they did not want their teammates to know when they were injured. The rowers did not
want to show their emotions in order to avoid being judged by their teammates as being
untrustworthy and then punished for being thought of as an athlete who was mentally
weak. As a consequence, the rowers developed a perception that emotions were control
lable and that health problems were something they need not consider seriously.
The Examination
According to Foucault (1977, as cited in Lee Sinden 2010yf W K H H [ D P L Q D W L R Q F R P E L Q H V W K e
techniques of an observing hierarchy and those of a normalizing judgment. The study
expanded Foucault's examination, by showing how the rowers' abilities to hide their
emotions were the subject of assessment, which took place during ergometer tests, time
trials and rowing competitions. Through tests, trials, and competitions the coaches, com
petitors, and teammates examined which athletes were able to cope with the pressures of
competition and which rowers were not. In the rowing environments described in this
study, coping was displayed by controlling fears, anxieties, doubts, and worries. In addi
tion, during competitions, the athletes admit not wanting to show their emotions in order to
"gain a mental edge" over the other competitors. For instance, an athlete explains,
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J Relig Health (2013yf 9 345
"If I had raced against someone who was emotional in the single I would have used
that against them...I have used other people's emotions and felt that it was a
weakness on their part..." (Lee Sinden 2010, p. 251yf
In turn, being able to cope with the pressures of competition and controlling their
negative emotions gave the rowers a perceived sense of competence as rowers. The
examination was used to present a visual gap between the athlete who could control their
emotions and those who could not, in an attempt to try to homogenize the athletes'
emotional responses (Lee Sinden 2010yf ) X U W K H U R Q F H D W K O H W H V H [ S H U L H Q F H G V X F F H V V L Q W K H L r
sport, they felt even more pressure to hide their emotions and to persevere through their
health problems.
However, although the athletes were initially successful in their attempts at controlling
their emotions, this control was only temporary. Without healthy reflection in relation to
their emotions, their emotions became suppressed and the athletes failed to develop proper
emotional outlets for their stress. Over time, the rowers' bodies broke down to the point
where they were no longer able to conform to the training that was required.
Summary of Findings
At the beginning of the interviews, the athletes were asked why they thought they stayed in
rowing irrespective of their health problems. The rowers believed they continued rowing
because they did not want to lose their positions on their team. In addition, the rowers were
afraid of losing the training effect and/or allowing their competitors to "gain an edge" over
them. However, with further probing during the interviews, the data showed that nor
malization of emotion was an influential factor in the rowers' decisions to continue training
after they developed health problems. Normalization of emotion persuaded the rowers to
suppress their fears, doubts, worries and/or anxieties regarding their injuries, and eating
disorders in particular. Specific technologies of emotion coerced the rowers to develop the
opinion that outward emotional expressions of fear, anxiety, doubt and/or worry were signs
of mental weakness, irrationality and/or negativity. The rowers suppressed these emotions
because they did not want to portray the image that they were incapable as rowers (Lee
Sinden 2010yf $ V D U H V X O W W K H U R Z H U V I D L O H G W R W D O N W R W K H L U W H D P P D W H V D Q G F R D F K H V Z K H n
they were worried about the training levels, anxious about their inability to perform,
discouraged about the ways in which the coach was coaching, when they had concerns
about their injuries and/or when they had other issues. In turn, the rowers continued to train
despite their injuries, ignored the potential seriousness of these problems and failed to seek
medical help. Over time, the rowers' bodies could no longer perform at previous perfor
mance levels. Eventually, all the rowers retired from rowing due to complications stem
ming from initial injuries and/or disordered eating patterns that went untreated, or
complications related to one or more other health problems including chronic injuries,
burnout and/or depression (Lee Sinden 2010yf .
Four athletes in this study described what they called good or positive experiences with
a coach or in a rowing environment. Each acknowledged that they were free to express
themselves in the environments they thought were good or positive, and they believed that
they were achieving their best performances. These descriptions could be contrasted to the
descriptions of their experiences that negatively normalized their emotions. The rowers
described how they felt more confident, more joy, and did not feel inhibited in relation to
their ability to express themselves. When they related both negative and positive rowing
experiences, it was evident that rowers who felt their emotions were less constrained, were
<£yf 6 S U L Q J H r
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346 J Relig Health (2013yf 9
more positive about training and competing. Moreover, two athletes stated that they were
physically and emotionally healthier when they were rowing in these positive environ
ments. From these limited data, it may be concluded that coaches who work to open lines
of communication and who encourage their rowers to express their feelings are not nor
malizing the athletes' emotions in a negative and destructive manner, but are contributing
to the maintenance of good health and improved sport performance among their rowers.
Where Do We Go from Here?
Although it can be said that the normalization of emotion and the subsequent emotional
suppression was an influential factor in some female rowers' decisions to continue training
despite their health problems, a generalization cannot be made that the normalization of
emotion works in all athletic environments (Lee Sinden 2010yf 7 K H U H D U H G L I I H U H Q F H s
between rowing environments and other sport environments, and the fact that each athlete
is unique indicates that further research is needed to examine the impact of normalization
of emotion on a broader scale.
Nevertheless, generalized questions can be asked about the emotional health of athletes
in elite sport, the role that coaches play in the development of athletes' health problems,
and how we can encourage athletes to listen to their emotions and view their health
problems as possible signs that they have pushed their bodies too far. For instance, with
respect to coaches having a negative impact on the lives of elite athletes, I question what
we can do to help coaches stay away from practices that make use of destructive nor
malizing techniques? Would advanced education training, such as courses in counseling,
sociology in sport, and/or health, provide the coaches with adequate skills and confidence
to help them implement healthier training environments? And if these programs were
established to help coaches, would the majority of coaches choose to implement them?
Worded differently, I wonder whether or not education would be enough to convince
coaches that they need to take the emotional health of their athletes seriously and perhaps
alter previous coaching paradigms?
Perhaps a place to start is at the localized systems of organized competitive sport, where
young athletes and coaches are discovering what their sport participation means to them. It
is at this level where we need to help young athletes slow down heir training. Elite sport
philosophy has trickled down into youth sport programs to the point that young athletes are
also being forced to train at levels that are often beyond their bodies' capabilities. Athletes
from the start of their sport participation need to take time to develop, in order to prevent
some of the health problems that are so prevalent in elite sport programs today. Further,
young athletes can learn that negative emotions are not always "dysfunctional"; emotions,
including negative ones, are part of God's creation in us, which can be used in a healthy
manner, to communicate with ourselves and others in ways that can take us to different
levels of understanding and awareness. "Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be
comforted" (Matthew 5:4; NKJVyf .
Conclusion
This paper briefly examines the ongoing debate about whether or not elite sport is a
Christian endeavor. Undeniably, few would argue that sport leaders and educators need to
take a hard look at alternatives to the "winning at all cost" philosophy in order to create a
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J Relig Health (2013yf 9 347
sport ethic that is more pleasing to God. However, to date, arguments discussing the
normative values in sport have been ineffective in making major systemic and sustainable
changes to high-performance sport.
This paper proposes, as an alternative, a shift in focus from debates about the normative
values in elite sport and Christianity to addressing health problems in sport as a sign that
achieving high performance in modern sport goes beyond what God asks of us as Chris
tians. More deeply, this paper attempts to understand athletes' decisions to consciously
persevere in their sport training despite their health problems, in order to offer practical
suggestions for improving the health of elite athletes and progressing one step closer to
redeeming elite sport practices. God wants us to enjoy good health and provided us with
the knowledge and power to keep us well (Byl 2008yf : L W K R X W D I R F X V R Q L P S U R Y L Q J R X r
bodies "we risk viewing the body as merely a temporal dwelling place (Williams 1999yf .
Through healthier elite sport environments athletes can honor their bodies as the "temple
of the holy spirit" (1 Corinthians 6:19, NKJVyf .
Further research is needed into the development of policies that systematically identify
and support the needs of all high-performance athletes, and at all fundamental levels. In
addition, programs need to be developed that teach coaches about the roles they play in the
lives of their athletes, and how they can create environments that are healthy for their
athletes' overall development and wellbeing. Until these such programs are implemented,
health problems will more than likely continue to be viewed as a price that athletes have to
pay in their pursuit of high performance in sport. At present, we need to continue ques
tioning whether or not we should be encouraging and supporting athletes' high-perfor
mance sport goals; unarguably on the basis that elite sport is currently an emotionally and
physically unhealthy place for athletes to be.
Ideally, with the improvement of elite sport practices and policies, elite athletes will
learn to identify, accept, and manage their emotions in a manner that leads to better health.
Moreover, with the improvement of high-performance sport practices, athletes will
experience more positive emotions, including joy, as they experience competitive sport in
the manner in which God created it.
"Rejoice in the Lord always. Again I will say, rejoice!" (Philippians 4:4yf .
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