Research paper
Theological and Psychological Reflections on Identity in Sport Nick Watson York St John University Abstract:This essay examines ‘‘athletic identity’’ from a Christian theological and psycho- logical standpoint. In discussing the concept of identity within the sports world, I address a range of related issues such as idolatry, sin, and states of heart such as pride and humility.
According to Phil Night, founder and chairperson of Nike, sports ‘‘de ne the culture of the world’’ 1and thus an examination of the cultural context in which identity is formed is also presented. Areas for future research are provided in the conclusion, for example, re ections on identity for sportspersons with physical and intellectual disabilities.
Keywords:Athletic identity, idolatry, humility and pride, sporting excellence, heart Introduction Sport, as many commentators have noted, is the new religion. It has superseded Christianity in many cultural theorists’ eyes as the social practice par excellence that initiates persons into rules and norms of virtuous and vicious behaviours which orientate us more broadly in the world. 2 —Mike McNamee Fourth in the Olympics hurt, but retirement is like a death in the family . . . I struggled for three months . . . I’d walk around and just start lling up. I’d wake up lost. I didn’t know what to do. My emotions were so intense I felt I’d lost a member of the family. I’d lost a major part of my life, something was dead. Everything I’d lived for was over. 3 —British Olympic Decathlete, Dean Macey, on retiring from sport Theologians and philosophers 4have argued that we need to think more philosophically about the meaning of sport participation and competition. Kretchmar has recently suggested that in studying sport ‘‘to do ethicsin vacuo,’’ without some sort of metaphysical (i.e., reli- gious) basis is a questionable endeavour. He sees athletes as ‘‘meaning-seeking, story-telling creatures,’’ who can encounter real drama, experience excellence and self-discovery in healthy sporting contests. 5In relation, a small number of sport psychologists have also chal- lenged the current dominance within their discipline of positivistic research and cognitive- behavioural consultancytechniquesadvocating the need for more holistic, philosophical, existential, and spiritual and religious approaches. 6 These recent shifts toward spiritual and religious concepts, within the disciplines of sport philosophy and sport psychology are encouraging and make a signi cant contribution to my thinking in terms of understanding the complexities of athletic identity. This said, the foundational source of identity (ontologically and epistemologically) 7throughout this body The Journal of Religion and Popular Culture23:2, July 2011 doi:10.3138/jrpc.23.2.182 of work is, as Frankl 8states, ‘‘. . . ahumanphenomenon rather than divine,’’ and thus puts theselfat the centre of the framework of meaning (humanism and naturalism), rather than God (supernaturalism). I will argue that this isdiametrically opposedto a Christian theolog- ical perspective of identity as described in the Bible, in which humans are called to deny themselvesand liveinChrist (Matt. 16:24–27). 9This isnotas burdensome a thing as it may sound to some but rather something that, as C.S Lewis 10 notes, actually leads humans to freedom of heart, peace and becoming ‘‘more truly themselves . . . it is when I turn to Christ, when I give up myself to His personality, that I rst begin to have a personality of my own.’’ In hopefully adding something new to the valuable past psychological, psychiatric and clinical, sociological, and pedagogical work on athletic identity, and related research on self- worth and dispositional neurotic perfectionism in sport that is based on a secular and humanistic worldview 11, this approach provides a signi cantly different understanding of personhood and how we understand ourselves and others in competitive sport. Its core premise is that humans’ identity, that is, their feeling, thinking, attitudes, and behaviour should be grounded in, and ow from, the heart of a loving Father God. As Paul states in the Bible (Acts 17:28) when addressing the Athenian philosophers, ‘‘for in him we live and move and have our being . . .’’ This study is also needed due to longitudinal sports ethics research that has suggested that athletes in Christian and secular American schools show very little difference, if any, in moral-reasoning, and that Christian athletes had a tendency to compartmentalize their faith and exclude it from competitive sport. 12 Why is this so? Can Christian athletes simply learn and follow the strict moral code of the Bible (an important dimension of Christian faith) and feel, think, and act in the heat of competition and in relationships, in a Christ-like manner? I will argue not, due to the foundational biblical principle that the state of the ‘‘heart’’ of the believer, theirdisposition—the depth of relationship and intimacy with God through Jesus Christ—is the source of all right and wrong, feeling, thinking, and acting. Above all else guard your heart, for it is the wellspring of life. —Proverbs 4:23) The mouth speaks out of the over ow of the heart. —Matthew 12:34 My anthropological start point is predicated on the biblical position thatallhumans are made in the image of God—imago Dei(Gen. 1:27) and comprise soul, body, and spirit (1Thess. 5:23). This division of self is useful in analyzing identity in sport. However, throughout this paper, I wish to combat the Platonic-Cartesian mind-body dualism entrenched in the western thought by referring to the soul, body, and spirit holistically as theheart, a Hebrew and Pauline perspective. 13 This view maintains that the human being is thoroughly integrated, though with different aspects.
Consistent with this idea that the Christian faith can be described as apersonaland intimaterelationship with God in the ‘‘heart’’ of the human believer, versus a dry rule- governed legalistic and judgmental religion (arguably an idol and huge defense mechanism in the modern world), and that the word heart is spoken of hundreds of times in the Bible, it is necessary to provide some explanation of this term. In a little known and arguably neglected book,Biblical Psychology, 14 Oswald Chambers provides some clarity on the spiritual nature of the human heart, which he calls the ‘‘radiator of the personal life’’—the source of human identity and moral reasoning: Theological and Psychological Re ections on Identity in Sport 183 The use of the Bible term ‘heart’ is best understood by simply saying ‘me.’ The heart is not merely the seat of the affections, it is the centre of everything. The heart is the central altar, and the body is the outer court. What we offer on the altar of the heart will tell ultimately through the extremities of the body . . . the centre from which God’s working and the devil’s working, the centre from which everything works which moulds the human mechanism . . .
Our Lord undertakes to ll the whole region of the heart with light and holiness . . .
(2 Corinthians. 4: 6) . . . Do I realize that I need it done? Or do I think I can realize myself ?
That is the great phrase today, and it is growing in popularity—‘I must realize myself.’’ ‘‘I must realizemyself ?’’ Indeed, Chambers’ re ections from the early twentieth century are, I would argue, prophetic for the age in which we live. The cultural ethos of ‘‘self-realization,’’ or what has been called ‘‘sel sm’’ by psychologist Paul Vitz, 15 is so encultured in the west that I agree with those who have argued that pride of the heart ‘‘is now synonymous with virtue’’ in the institutions of media, sport and religion. 16 To be sure, this view of identity and self-worth that has no objective foundation, as it is relative to each person, is so deeply woven into the fabric of society, that it is, as the nineteenth-century writer Kierkegaard states, the worst form of despair, a ‘‘ ctitious health.’’ 17 Why? Because it is, as Kierkegaard called it, the disposition of the ‘‘automatic cultural man’’ anunconsciousdenial of the reality of life built onself, instead of the source of our being, a Holy loving God. This idea is not new and supports the maxim, ‘‘read an old book for a new idea!’’ As articulated in the writings of St. Augustine, Kierkegaard, Dostoyevsky, Oswald Chambers, G.K. Chesterton, and C.S. Lewis and of course the fountain of all their musings, the Bible, the insidiousness of pride and narcissism in the west’s cultural value system has resulted in widespread cultural and social fragmentation. This is, in part, a consequence of the liberalization of ethics and the ‘‘human potential’’ movement (e.g., Esalen Institute) in America. The titles of notable books such asThe Culture of Narcissism:Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations(1980),Psychology as Religion:The Cult of Self-Worship(1994), and Ernest Becker’s award winningThe Denial of Death(1973), 18 also accurately conveys our current situation. Nonetheless, liberal-humanist and postmodern voices that dominate academic sports studies (e.g., sociology, philosophy, psychology, pedagogy) and other dis- ciplines, at times seem oblivious to the evidence all around them that the 19th and 20th century utopian ‘‘myths of progress’’ have been unable to prevent, and have often con- tributed to, what David Blankenhorn, and many others in theology and sport and leisure studies 19 have accurately called aFatherless Generation.
A principal aim of this paper is to suggest that the foundational answer to this problem lies in individuals, communities, and nations coming into a knowledge and personal revela- tion of the love of a Father God. To achieve any clear understanding of individual human identity from this perspective, I must also examine the dominant characteristics (identity) of the society and culture in which individual identity is formed—enculturation. For as Phil Night, founder and chairperson ofNikestates, sports arguably ‘‘de ne the culture of the world.’’ 20 After providing a rationale for the need of this study, my rst task is to analyze the con- ceptual nature of sports competition and its role in understanding ‘‘athletic identity,’’ which has been de ned as ‘‘the degree to which an individual identi es with the athlete role.’’ 21 This will allow for a theological and psychological analysis of identity in sport, focusing on pride, humility, and idolatry. Pride and humility are the two states of heart that I see as fundamental in understanding both positive and negative aspects of identity in sport. I will then provide extendedConcluding Remarksdue to the embryonic nature of the study of identity in sport from a Christian perspective and some suggestions for future empirical research and scholarship and a range of resources to assist in this process. Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23:2 July 2011 184 Identity and Competition in Sport In his bookWinning:The Psychology of Competition.’’ 22 Stuart Walker makes a number of points about athletic competition, which are important when examining issues of identity in sport: Most competitors think of themselves as being primarily motivated to develop, demonstrate, and enjoy competence. Many, however, are also concerned with the demonstration of power, courage, and aggressiveness. They use competition to overcome feelings of dependence, helplessness, and loss of individuality. Others are more concerned with being approved, appreciated, and admired. They use competition to overcome feelings of being separated, abandoned, and unloved. Competition permits the demonstration of individual signi cance, which grati es desire for both assertiveness and approval. The key word is ‘demonstration.’ Competitors perform in public; they assert themselves in the presence of others—of their competitors at the very least. Walker’s psychological thesis holds some weight, however as Newman 23 notes. Walker over- states his point as to how competitions are primarily activated, i.e., winning is the only goal of the athlete. This thesis is far too simplistic and I would agree with Simon, 24 who notes that competition in sport is ethically defensible and that the ‘‘meeting of the demands athletes place upon their talents often involves beauty, courage, dedication, and passion.’’ Nonetheless, the intense emotion and passion often present in the delicately balanced dialectic of competitive sport, Hyland 25 suggests, also carries the risk that ‘‘such intensity will devolve into alienation and violence.’’ This is closely tied to athletes’ (and coaches’, parents’ etc.) need for recognition, love, and demonstrating power and signi cance, which is conveyed by Walker and is arguably one mainstay of modern competitive sport.
A psychoanalytical perspective of these needs in competitive sport, Kohn 26 suggests, would basically run something like: winning¼coach’s approval¼parental acceptance [in child/youth sport]¼acceptance of self (self-worth). In extending Kohn’s social-psychological analysis to include the spiritual, this unhealthy ‘‘disordering of our affections,’’ as church father St. Augustine (354–430c.) put it, may lead to perversion and corruption of the activity in which ‘‘the athlete may delude himself into thinking that his own quest for wealth and fame, or even a championship, will make him happy.’’ 27 In other words, for athletes and coaches of this mindset it would seem that ‘‘sportislife’’28 and to lose, or be unable to play for whatever the reason, can have catastrophic consequences for the emotional and psychological balance of an individual; that is, their identity.
England Rugby Union World Cup star, Johnny Wilkinson, has recently confessed the underlying reason for the ‘‘near destruction of his career—an obsessive quest for perfec- tion.’’ 29 This is something that is acutely conveyed in the title of his recent biography, Tackling Life:Striving for Perfection. 30 In light of the ‘‘win-at-all-costs’’ ethic, it re ects on Wilkinson’s very honest and illustrative comments about his injuries, the meaning of rugby for him and how this has impacted upon his psychological well-being and understanding of life itself: The truth is that I was wracked with anxiety, almost constantly. I wanted it [to achieve] so badly that I was beating myself up. It was the same whether I played for Newcastle, England or the Lions. Before the game it was nerves. After the game it was a harsh post-mortem— why did I miss that tackle? Why did I miss that conversion? . . . All the intensity and attrition brought with it intense fatigue. That resulted in injuries which, in turn, have resulted in a lot of pain and anguish . . . You hear yourself saying only good things will come of this, that there’s a reason for it and you’ve saved yourself for two years of being battered but none ofTheological and Psychological Re ections on Identity in Sport 185 it is really true . . . I would have given anything to have played consistently . . . There have been times when it’s been hugely painful. I’ve been incredibly depressed, demoralised, even bitter . . . I feel as if I’ve let myself down then, because it’s all about setting benchmarks as a person and there have been times when I’ve failed to reach these marks. It has made me lose my way in so far as all my life I’ve done nothing but think and play rugby. When it’s taken away from you for as long as it has been, it makes you unsure over what you’re supposed to do with your life. 31 Interestingly, Wilkinson’s emotional rollercoaster following a catalogue of injuries since his moment of glory with that famous drop-kick in the dying seconds of the 2003 Rugby World Cup Final, has ledTimesjournalist, Souster, 32 to suggest that he has now undergone an almost ‘‘. . . spiritual change.’’ Arguably, Wilkinson has experienced what the Jewish philosopher Martin Buber called a ‘‘shudder of identity,’’ 33 that is, one of the primary sources of meaning inlifehas been removed and he is searching his soul for purpose and meaning.
Ruben 34 captures something of this in stating that for ‘‘many strong competitors, upon reaching the summit of their aspirations . . . the discovery, ultimately, that ‘making it’ is often a hollow gain, is one of the most traumatic events that the successful can experience.’’ Along with many others, Wilkinson has encountered the existential angst, fear and sense of worthlessness that often accompanies the loss of a signi cant ‘‘life project’’ 35 like sport, what cultural anthropologist, Ernest Becker, 36 aptly describes as the ‘‘dread of insigni cance.’’ This anxiety and sense of worthlessness is likely to be more intense for professional full-time athletes 37 such as Wilkinson, in comparison to amateurs due to the greater time, signi - cance, meaning, and ultimately sense of identity invested in sport, a ‘‘life project.’’ Sad stories of retired athletes, for example British soccer players from the 1980s and early 1990s in particular, sliding into alcoholism and suffering from serious relationship problems (e.g., divorce) illustrate the potentially catastrophic identity issues that can ensue when sport, the ‘‘life project,’’ is lost. 38 The poignant and yet often failed and embarrassing ‘‘comebacks’’ of professional athletes at the end of their careers is another example of how sport can become an ‘‘unhealthy obsession.’’ The ‘‘old pro’’ is unable to let go of their sporting life in an anxious quest to hold onto a major source of their identity inlife.
Evidence of this existential angst in elite and youth sport performers has been shown in research on dispositional neurotic perfectionism, ‘‘fear of failure’’ psychiatric writings on the mental health of athletes and theological and philosophical re ection on shame in sport, 39 with athletes suffering from feelings of narcissism, guilt, shame, negative mood and resultant decrements in performance.
For an athlete in competitive sports, the feeling associated with moving teams, athletic retirement, career-ending injuries, and defeat can be great and is often the precursor to feelings of loss and neurotic anxiety, and in some cases what consultant sport psychiatrist Robert Burton classi es as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PSTD). 40 Indeed, for some athletes this loss of identity and self-worth associated with these perceived traumatic occur- rences in sport, has resulted in clinical depression and occasionally suicide attempts, as was sometimes the case in ancient Greek athletics. 41 Although this is not a simple correlation, since many other factors determine an athlete’s sense of identity, such as sex, personality, race and ethnicity, education, culture, family background and past experience, the physical body, the individual’s name and group membership, 42 nevertheless playing and winning equals ‘‘being,’’ and losing equates to ‘‘non- being.’’ ‘‘Non-being threatens man’s self-af rmation’’ suggests theologian Paul Tillich. 43 In the athletic arena this may lead to a sense of unworthiness and insecurity in the athlete when Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23:2 July 2011 186 they lose, or fail to come up to the often unrealistic and unhealthy expectations of pushy coaches, parents and even nations.
Though by de nition, these losses are simply a temporal evaluation, ask any athlete or coach and, if honest, they will admit that at times they allow their performance to de ne their being and so for them alossis tantamount to defeat or failure (symbolic death) as a person. This is what sport psychologists call the ‘‘hero-to-zero’’ syndrome. In discussing the loss and sorrow of losing in competitive sport, Higgs and Braswell use ‘‘the term ‘pseudo- sorrow’ to express the emotional state of losers’’ and state that ‘‘real sorrow lives in hospitals and in funeral homes and indeed ordinary homes without number.’’ 44 While of course there is very real suffering in sport that can be a mix of physical, mental and spiritual, 45 this again conveys how sport has become for many in the west an idol that is intimately tied to the identity and self-worth of athletes and fans. I am not suggesting that athletes should not passionately care about sport and become emotionally involved. This is in part what makes sport participation and competition so exciting, ful lling and healthy.
In support of Hochstetler, Hopsicker and Kretchmar’s holistic conception of sport, 46 neither do I advocate a dualistic worldview in which ‘‘real sorrow’’ only exists in ‘‘real life’’ outside of sport. I hold rmly to a biblical, Pauline, and ultimately Jewish anthropology— mind, body and spirit are viewed asone(nephesh)—supporting the notion that our experience of suffering, loss, joy, and sorrow is valid in all of life’s diverse situations and messiness. 47 However, if ‘‘post-match blues’’ slide into prolonged self-pity, moods, and depression that affects the athlete and isprojectedon to others, then arguably, sport has become an idol.
The destructive consequences of the ‘‘win-at-all-costs’’ ethic of modern sport (especially on individual identity) has been examined in more detail elsewhere 48 and is also prevalent in organized child and youth sport that re ects trends in professional adult sport.
A wealth of studies and writings exist that have documented the negative and worrying trends in elite child and youth sport development strategies and grassroots sport policy, which are linked to the cultural ethos of winning-at-all-costs. I would argue the most com- prehensive analysis of this endemic problem is Paulo David’s important book,Human Rights in Youth Sport:A Critical Review of Children’s rights in Competitive Sports 49 that covers areas such as overtraining, eating disorders, physical and mental burnout, elite youth sport pro- grams and the negative effect of parental pressure and expectations.
Instead of viewing competition as a healthy test or mutual striving toward excellence, the etymological root of the term, 50 or as aplayfulform of developmental recreation, it has become to some degree a questioning of the athlete’s or child’s/youth’s very existence and their source of self-worth. This has been clearly articulated by religious studies scholar, Michael Grimshaw, 51 in his analysis of the idolatrous nature of modern sport, in which he argues a ‘‘pagan mythology of fallible gods’’ has evolved. To be sure, for many participants and spectators modern sport is a religion in the ritualistic and functional sense, with many similarities evident between the practice and rituals of modern sport and religion. 52 For the elite athlete, winning in sport is then frequently in ated to a form of immor- tality53 and thus idolatry, resulting in the individual seeking to justify the meaning of their existence through their sport participation. The complex and differing motivationsof heart to succeed, in the 1924 Olympic Games, shown by Harold Abrahams and Eric Liddle, is beautifully portrayed in the award winning lm,Chariots of Fire, and is a good example of this. As Cashmore has noted in his socio-historical analysis of the lm, Abrahams ‘‘. . . individualistic, self-interested approach to competition . . . is . . . entirely congruent with the ‘win-at-all-costs’ mentality that was to become prevalent in [modern] sport.’’ 54 From a Christian perspective, glori cation of theselfin any human endeavour, as was arguablyone Theological and Psychological Re ections on Identity in Sport 187 motivation of Harold Abrahams in this lm, is rooted in the sin of pride, the ‘‘complete anti- God state of heart,’’ according to C.S. Lewis. 55 The Role of Pride and Humility in Sporting Identity Sporting tales, as those described above, illustrate how the ego of the athlete can predomi- nate in a quest to win and ultimately to appear and feel superior or even god-like, which when you consider Harold Abrahams’ words and the boasts of modern athletes together with the explicit worship of modern sports stars in the media and their institutionalization in Halls of Fame, I would argue is not an exaggeration for some. Drawing on excerpts from Schneider’s theology of personhood and his criticisms of Sartre’s atheism, Pannenberg 56 articulates this clearly: To the extent that human beings try to gain their wholeness and strive to be ‘in and for themselves,’ they are always a ‘desire to be God’ . . . Thus the striving for the self-realization that is directed toward the wholeness of one’s being is in fact to be understood as an expres- sion of sin, of the will ‘to be like God.’ From a psychological standpoint, this can be understood as the athlete, coach, sporting parent (vicariously) needing to attain ‘‘self-actualization’’ 57 through worldly success, adula- tion, and af rmation in competition and their career. Van Kaam 58 in his incisive assessment of modern psychology and modern culture, points to this by suggesting that ‘‘an over- emphasis on introspective attitudes has seriously hindered the spiritual growth of western man . . . we are ego-centered, when we should be God-centered.’’ In support of Van Kaam and the re ections of the theologian Pannenberg, psychologist Paul Vitz concludes in his trenchant critique of humanistic and atheistic-existential psychology—the work of Jung, Rogers, Fromm, and Maslow—that the ‘‘relentless and single-minded search for and glori - cation of the self . . . is at direct cross-purposes with the Christian injunction to lose the self’. 59 Lose theselfin an age of success?
By modernworldly standardsof success,Jesus Christ was the greatest failure in human history, something that, in Christian interpretation, was clearly prophesied in the writings of the Old Testament prophet Isaiah, 700 years before his birth. To be sure, the Christian story does not portray Jesus as a ‘‘self-actualizer’’! No, the Christian narrative records that he ‘‘. . . made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness. And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became obedi- ent to death on a cross!’ (Philippians 2:7–8). The gospels (trans.Greek, good news) in the New Testament, which are both prophetic and historical documents, state that from the time Jesus ‘‘set his face to go to Jerusalem’’ after his wrestling with his calling and destiny in the garden of Gethsemane, the words of Isaiah the prophet began to be ful lled: He was despised and rejected by men, a man of sorrows, and familiar with suffering . . . he was despised and we esteemed him not . . . surely he took up our in rmities and carried our sorrows . . . he was pierced for our transgressions, he was crushed for our iniquities; the punishment that brought us peace was upon him, and by his wounds we are healed . . . he was oppressed and af icted yet he did not open his mouth; he was led like a lamb to the slaughter . . . Yet it was the Lord’s will to crush him and cause him to suffer . . . the Lord makes his life a guilt offering . . . after the suffering of his soul he will see the light of life . . . —Isaiah 53 60 Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23:2 July 2011 188 Why did Jesus have to tread the path that theologian Timothy Savage notes, is a ‘‘ ‘strange’ and ‘alien’ glory anticipated by . . . Isaiah, a light revealed in the darkness of death, a splendour manifested in the most appalling object of antiquity—a cross?’’ 61 Indeed, the blood-soaked cross paradoxically speaks of reconciliation, light and love, as personi ed in Jesus himself being described as the ‘‘light of the world’’ in the prologue to John’s gospel.
The purpose of Jesus Christ’s sacri ce, as described in Christian thought, was to reconcile his Father’s creatures (humans) back into an intimate relationship with himself:at-one- ment. Theologians call this the ‘‘atonement’’ and contend that all three dimensions of the trinity, the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, are involved in the process 62 and that it is the path to eternal life, deep joy and a ‘‘peace . . . which transcends all understanding’’ (Phil. 4: 7a; Isaiah 26: 3) regardless of earth’s circumstances. This is clearly described in an oft-cited bible verse: ‘‘For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.’’ (John 3:16) Commenting on the meaning of the atonement for individual identity, the priest- psychologist, Adrian Van Kaam 63 notes that ‘‘an in nite love tenderly called me forth out of nowhere and nothingness; an unspeakable Love emptied itself to redeem the identity that I lost sight of in sinfulness; an enlightening Love keeps calling me back to what I am.’’ Herein lies the paradox of the Christian faith, articulated by C.S Lewis in that ‘‘the more we let God take us over, the more truly ourselves we become—because he made us . . . it is when I turn to Christ, when I give up myself to His personality, that I rst begin to have a personality of my own,’’ 64 in all domains of life, including sport.
Following this central biblical theme of surrender to Christ—‘‘If anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation’’ (2 Corinthians 5:17)—it is then the relationship in the heart of the Christian believer with a Father God, through the third person of the trinity, the Holy Spirit, that Christians believe ‘‘guards’’ their ‘‘hearts and minds in Christ Jesus’’ (Philippians 4:7b).
Coherent with the Christian anthropology laid out in my introduction, the heart is then understood as the seat of all wrong or right feeling, thinking and behaving, and thus is the foundational source of human identity in all of life’s activities, including sport. Considering that the Psalmist (51:17) states that it is ‘‘a broken and contrite heart . . .’’ that allows for an intimate relationship with God, how does this t with a modern understanding of Christianity in the west, and conceptions of identity in sport?
The Reverend Mark Townsend’s words in his recent thought-provoking book,The Gospel of Falling Down:The Beauty of Failure in an Age of Success, 65 conveys a realistic pic- ture of the god-man who walked the earth 2,000 years ago and the religion he expressed: Failure, rather than success, is at the heart of the life of Jesus and his message. He came to liberate us from the ‘‘gospel of success.’’ It is not in ‘‘climbing the ladder of perfection’’ [i.e., maladaptive perfectionism] that we meet God, but in falling from it. And it is then that we discover the most beautiful spiritual gold . . . The Gospel is not aboutsuccess. . . To make the Gospel into a means of being successful is to seriously miss the point. We live in a success-dominated world, and much of the (especially Western) Church has become a success-dominated religion. What is the central symbolic image for the Christian faith? It’s a cross of wood, with a gure of a man nailed to it—a naked, bleeding man. A man so wounded, so humiliated, so crushed that one can barely imagine. . . Therefore, as Clements and Savage have articulated, it is through a journey of weakness (notin character), brokenness, vulnerability and sacri cial love that Jesus went to the cross, and it is believed by Christians, resurrected by his Father—the event on which the Christian story stands or falls. 66 Interestingly then, consultant sport psychiatrist, Dr Daniel Begel, who Theological and Psychological Re ections on Identity in Sport 189 has worked with amateur and professional American sports teams, elucidates how thoughts of ‘‘weakness and vulnerability’’ in modern sport are often diametrically opposed to the identity of the modern athlete: 67 If there is any character trait that is anathema to an athlete it is that of weakness. Being unable to handle one’s feelings, and confessing that inability to another human being in intimate conversation, is not usually concordant with an athlete’s sense of mastery . . . the role of professional athlete may increase the risk of suffering a speci c narcissistic vulnerabil- ity, and retirement from sports at any level carries with it an increased risk of clinical depres- sion, especially if the retirement is forced by injury, or waning abilities . . . Not to be misinterpreted at this juncture in my argument, achievement and excellence, strength of character and body and success in sport, arenotat all antithetical to the Christian way of life. But they can be dangerous, because of the proud and self-reliant ethos of western culture that dominates big-business professional sport, which is often but certainly not always, characterized by individualism, vain-glory and ultimately pride of the heart. 68 Pride of the heart is what C.S. Lewis and professor of pastoral psychology, Donald Capps,69 calls ‘‘the great sin’’ and is the root of most other sins, which are arguably prevalent in modern sport, such as greed, vanity, and self-glori cation.
Both Lewis and Capps are, however, balanced in their re ections on pride, emphasizing that there are positive and negative forms of pride. For example in sport, having a sense of one’s own self-worth and dignity in performance as an athlete or coach, taking pleasure in being praised by parents, coaches, fans, and teammates and satisfaction in one’s sporting achievements, are all examples of pride in a positive sense. This said, it has been argued, and I agree, that pride ‘‘is now synonymous with virtue’’ in the institutions of sport, religion and the media. 70 According to Christian scripture, ‘‘life projects’’ like sport, can then easily become idols that blind people to deeper spiritual truths about ‘‘who they are’’—their identity—and what isultimatelyimportant in life.
C.S Lewis unwittingly provided a sound theoretical basis for analyzing identity in sport from a Christian theological perspective. 71 If pride, as Lewis 72 suggests, ‘‘isessentiallycom- petitive above all other vices’’ how does this speci cally relate to understanding identity in sport? The ndings of Stevenson’s qualitative investigation of the culture of elite sport and the moral dilemmas this raises for Christian athletes, 73 sheds some light on this. One participant comments, ‘‘It’s weird. I just couldn’t let go of not winning. If we lost, I just couldn’t let it go for a week—it would, like, boil inside me.’’ Another participant states, ‘‘I think there’s times when . . . as an athlete, when we’re excelling to become our best . . . [that] we lose sight of everything [else] around us.’’ Stevenson concludes that ‘‘these athletes struggled with the overwhelming priority placed on winning in the contemporary sport culture’’ that ‘‘led to a number of consequences with which they were uncomfortable.’’ 74 Clearly, organized child and youth sports are also a major vehicle for this cultural ethos and its subsequent problems. ‘‘In childhood, the discovery of athletic talent may determine a person’s role within the family and identity within society in signi cant, if not always salutary, ways,’’ suggests sport psychiatrist, Begel. 75 It seems that the centrifugal forces that act upon and within the microcosm of sport are dif cult to step outside of.
Thomas a´ Kempis (1380–1471c.), in his well-known devotional work,The Imitation of Christ, 76 advises that ‘‘no man can live in the public eye without risk to his soul.’’ Christian teaching suggests that the ‘‘weapons’’ and source of ‘‘power’’ with which humans (modern Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23:2 July 2011 190 athletes) can combat their prideful human nature that will cause them to desire recognition, seek vain praise and glory and act in a manner that will possibly lead to the alienation of others (opponents and family etc.), are love and humility from surrendering to God. As Capps has observed ‘‘pride is also a form ofisolation. . . and personal bondage . . . because it is a form of self-love in which we deny our need for community with others.’’ 77 Humility is the virtue directly opposite the sin of pride that leads to alienation and isolation, which Lewis 78 contends is the ‘‘complete anti-god state of mind,’’ and which had its genesis in the fall from grace of some of God’s angelic realm and humanity. From this point in world history, in every dimension of life including sport, Andrew Murray 79 suggests that ‘‘pride and humility are the two master powers—the two kingdoms at war’’ in our hearts, which will determine our feelings, thoughts, and actions in the heat of sporting competition. Concluding Reflections The aim of this paper was to provide a psychological and theological analysis of identity in sport while also acknowledging the importance of social, cultural, and historical forces in identity formation. Following others, I have argued that as a ‘‘moulder and re ection of twentieth century attitudes towards human nature,’’ 80 modern psychology (and sport psy- chology) that is largely characterized by individualism, humanism, positivism, and a relativist epistemology, is diametrically opposed to Christian psychology (especially anthropology and ontology). As Oswald Chambers suggests, ‘‘Christian psychology is not the study of human nature Christianised, but the endeavour to understand the wonder and the mystery of ‘Christ in you, the hope of glory.’ ’’ 81 Nonetheless, I also heartily support Dallas Willard, 82 who wisely notes that ‘‘psychological and theological understanding of the spiritual life must go hand in hand. Neither of them is complete without the other.’’ Therefore, in any comprehensive study of identity in sport, both empirical and theoretical research in sport psychology, on areas such as ‘‘athletic identity’’ (e.g., Athletic Identity Measurement Scale) motivational theory, human development models (e.g., Erikson), forms of psychological abnormality and mechanisms of the brain must be synthesized with sound theology and biblical anthropology.
In particular, I would emphasize the accuracy of the anthropological starting point when studying identity in sport from a Christian perspective, in that ‘‘the image of God in the New Testament re ects a theological and philosophical struggle with some of the most important questions of human existence. Who are we as humans, and to whom do we ultimately belong?’’ 83 In trying to answer these questions in sport, scholars should carefully examine both Hebrew and Christian anthropology 84 when deciding how they should respond to the tenets of modern psychology, so that, as Johnson in pointing to the bible stresses, they are not taken ‘‘. . . captive through hollow and deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and the basic principles of this world rather than Christ.’’ (Colossians 2:8)—humanism, secularism, nihilism, and sel shness. For those wishing to examine issues of identity in sport from a Christian standpoint there are a number of useful non-sport sources in the psycho-theological literature and writings on the ‘‘Fatherhood of God,’’ 85 which I have argued is central to understanding Christian identity in sport.
Although previous writings speci cally on athletic identity in the sports literature are sparse, the work of scholar Ashley Null, sport psychologist Mark Nesti and analyses of idolatry in sport, should all be of use in grasping the psychological and theological com- plexities of identity in the sports realm. 86 Following the mapping of the human genome at the turn of the twentieth century and the valuable but primarily humanistic analyses of Theological and Psychological Re ections on Identity in Sport 191 genetic enhancement in sport, 87 theological analyses are crucial in assessing the wider im- plications of being able to interfering with the make-up (anthropology) of human-beings. 88 Exploration of how states of heart, such as pride and humility, impact upon moral reason- ing 89 and relationships in sport, is another important area to explore, for as C.S. Lewis has suggested, ‘‘pride has been the chief cause of misery in every nation and every family since the world began . . . pride means enmity—itisenmity.’’ 90 A prideful heart that seeks per- sonal glory, gain, and self-worth primarily in sporting success, will often alienate and dis- regard others, leading to the damage and breakdown of relationships. The role of shame and guilt in this process, which often leads tostrivingfor personal glory and self-worth in sport and to the alienation of others, is a related area for further enquiry. 91 Research on how identity may impact upon sports leadership models from a Christian worldview is also needed. The concept ofServant Leadershipdescribed in Rieke, Hammer- meister, and Chase’s empirical study of basketball coaches, a qualitative investigation by MacDonald and Kirk on Christian identity in health and physical education teachers, and the legendary re ections of ‘‘Coach Wooden’’ all provide a foundation for this. 92 To develop past thought-provoking work on identity in disability sport 93 from a Christian stance, researchers could build on the exploratory theological work of Watson, Watts, and Parker and Watts 94 by examining existential meaning and spirituality in athletes with physical and intellectual disabilities. What does physical movement through sporting activities mean, if anything, for those with profound intellectual disabilities? How does participation in sport impact on the identity of those with physical disabilities and how, if at all, could this have spiritual meaning? How do individuals in a society bound to a dominant worldview of com- petition, physical competence (e.g., able-bodied Olympics), rationality and intellectualism, respond to the broken minds of those with profound intellectual disabilities, that can’t be fully ‘‘understood,’’ ‘‘ xed,’’ or ‘‘cured’’?
Commenting on the theme of my last question, Graeme Watts 95 draws on the pro- vocative suggestion of Wolf Wolfensburger 96 that people with an intellectual disability may have actually been chosen by God to be the prophets of our age—an age in which many seek to win-at-all-costs, to appear competent, to ‘‘have it all together.’’ Watts observes that Wolfensberger may be making this case with more than a touch of hyperbole but argues that in promoting values opposite to those so tightly held as ‘‘normal,’’ it is perhaps the obviously limited capacity of those with an intellectual disability which acts as a reminder that to be human also includes those who are dependent and fall short of generally held ideals. In this context I would also agree with Stanley Hauerwas’ 97 assertion that those with profound disabilities often ‘‘. . . remind us of the limits of our power, and we do not like those who remind us,’’ something that has perhaps signi cantly affected the Church’s limited theological re ection on disability. Further study in this area may help ‘‘self-reliant’’ westerners to consider life’s purpose, which of course includes the meaning and purpose in sports and accurate conceptions of humility. Some sections of the Church have historically had a false view of humility, in which God-given gifts, talents and desires of the heart have been de-emphasized and shunned ‘‘under the guise ofdevotion to Christ.’’ 98 Following Bill Johnson, I would argue this is not an accurate portrayal of Christian life, in which creativity, joy, and excellence should, where possible, be sought in all domains of life, including sport. I also wholeheartedly support some of the conclusions of Smart, 99 in his comprehensive analysis ofThe Sport Star . . . Sporting Celebrity: ‘‘the achievements of high pro le professional sporting gures possess a quality that is increasingly rare in a world made cynical (corruption in sport) . . . the excitement and emotion aroused by the uncer- Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23:2 July 2011 192 tainty of sporting encounters . . . the pleasure derived, and frequently collectively shared . . .
as a spectator or viewer.’’ In this vein, through analyzing Karl Barth’s work on the famous composer, Wolfgang Amadaeus Mozart and his appreciation of Mozart’s playful creativity and expression of his musical giftinthe world, Metzger 100 reminds us that the Christian God delights in his creatures being: . . . creative within human culture . . . to give glory to God by simply being . . . bysimplyworking or playing, one glori es God . . . God is glori ed in the very imaginative and enterprising acts of human creation and recreation. Before God, there is room for free play’.
Beginning with the seminal work of Dutch historian Johan Huizinga and followed by re ections from theologians and sport philosophers, 101 this playful, aesthetic, and creative dimension of life that is often seen in sport, has been well-documented. It seems to most readily manifest itself in fun ‘‘pick-up games’’ and when sport competition is played in the spirit of a ‘‘mutual stringing together for excellence,’’ the etymological root meaning of the term, competition. 102 In the modern era, the men’s 2008 Wimbledon Tennis nal (and the 2009 Australian Open nal) between Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal was perhaps, an example of this. The TV commentator and ex-British number one tennis player, Andrew Castle, said of this exciting and passionate dual between two men at the height of excellence in the eld, that it was not solely a demonstration of great tennis but an advert for the value and beauty of sportitself—it had a transcendent dimension (my paraphrase). There seemed to be a deep mutual respect between the Spaniard (Nadal) and the Swiss (Federer) and a form of humility that ironically is often only witnessed in those at the very peak of their eld, in this case sport. Because, from a humanist’s standpoint, they are secure (if with a degree of fragility, perhaps), in who they are and con dent intheirabilities, theirselves.
Sport itself could then be argued to possess a spiritual dimension, in that it seems to provide opportunity akin to what the sociologist of religion, Peter Berger, 103 called ‘‘signals of transcendence . . . within the human condition.’’ Indeed, the great nineteeth-century Russian novelist, Dostoyevsky, 104 was not ignorant to the fact that ‘‘the universal and ever- lasting craving of humanity’’ is ‘‘to nd someone to worship’’ and in the sporting realm it is perhaps these ‘‘moments of transcendence’’ and aesthetic beauty (among many other ‘‘earthy’’ things), and the sporting demi-gods who provide them, that t the bill. There is, however, a real danger in this quasi-transcendent understanding of life and sport, as poeti- cally described by C.S. Lewis: The books or the music [and sporting moments] in which we thought the beauty was located will betray us if we trust to them; it was notinthem, it only camethroughthem, and what came through them was longing. These things—the beauty, the memory of our own past—are good images of what we really desire; but if they are mistaken for the thing itself they turn into dumb idols, breaking the hearts of their worshippers. For they are not the thing in itself; they are only the scent of a ower we have not found, the echo of a tune we have not heard, news from another country we have never visited . . . Our lifelong nostalgia, our longing to be reunited with something in the universe from which we now feel cut off . . . is no mere neurotic fancy, but the truest index of our real situation. 105 Our ‘‘real’’ situation? In his analysis of the idol-pride interface in the human heart, in both Augustine’s autobiography,Confessions, and his most well-known theological work,The City of God, Reno concludes that ‘‘. . . we wrap our love of worldly things in this false tinsel of divinity and propose them to ourselves as idols worthy of worship. This strategy of self- deception allows us to pursue the nite goods of creaturely life as if they were images of Theological and Psychological Re ections on Identity in Sport 193 the divine.’’ 106 Similarly, when describing the human’s often unconscious yearning for eternity, Van Kaam suggests, this leads to seeking ‘‘. . . something lasting amidst the transi- toriness of countless self-expressions.’’ 107 It is argued that sport could just be one such ‘‘transitory self-expression’’ among many others,ifit is an idolatrous quest and thus may lead to self-deception as to the deeper spiritual meaning of life. As C.S. Lewis contends above, if a human-being takes a ‘‘life- project’’ like sport, which Christians believe is a gift from God, but mistakes it ‘‘. . . for the thing itself they turn into dumb idols, breaking the hearts of their worshippers.’’ History shows that human beings begin to consider and commit to religious faith for a whole range of reasons, nonetheless, it is quite often only when there is, as the Jewish philosopher Martin Buber called it, a ‘‘shudder of identity,’’ 108 when the pride and self-suf ciency of the human heart (notcharacter) has been ‘‘weakened,’’ or what Wolfensburger 109 calls ‘‘gentled,’’ through an athlete’s life—retirement, career-ending injury, or failure—that the deep religious- existential question might be asked: who am I withoutmyabilities,mysource of self-worth, myimportance and status in the media, sporting subculture and world? This said, I do not want to propose a false dichotomy in this broken and messy world and I emphasize again, personal excellence, aesthetic beauty, creativity, and human achievement should be sought in all walks of life, including sport. Nelson Mandela, in his inaugural presidential speech, conveys something of this: Our deepest fear is not that we are inadequate. Our deepest fear is that we are powerful beyond measure. It is our light, not our darkness, that most frightens us. We ask ourselves, who am I to be brilliant . . . talented . . . ? Actually, who are younotto be? You are a child of God. Your playing small doesn’t serve the world. There is nothing enlightening about shrinking so that other people won’t feel insecure around you [false humility]. We were born to manifest the glory of God that is within us. It’s not just in some of us; it’s in every- one. And as we let our own light shine, we unconsciously give other people permission to do the same. As we are liberated from our own fear, our presence automatically liberates others. 110 To be sure, such inspirational words resonate deep into all our hearts but I challenge the reader to consider where this inspiration and motivation comes from? The Catholic priest- psychologist, Adrian Van Kaam, I would argue was writing prophetically in 1975, when he observed that ‘‘we are on the rebirth of the awareness of human need for the trans- cendent . . .’’ 111 The following two quotes I then believe canbothbe true, if we ‘‘. . . seek rst his kingdom and his righteousness’’ (Matthew 6:33). A recent newspaper advertisement for Gillette 112 that features three of the sporting world’s demi-gods, Tiger Woods (until recently), Roger Federer, and Thierry Henry, encourages the reader to: ‘‘Show the world how phenomenal you can be.’’ In the gospels, the founder and cornerstone of Christianity, Jesus of Nazareth, a humble carpenter and who Christians believe to be the son of God, encourages the reader to con- sider where this talent came from and whatultimatelymatters: If anyone would come after me, he must deny himself and take up his cross and follow me.
For whoever loses his life for me will nd it. What good will it be for a man if he gains the whole world, yet forfeits his soul? —Matthew 16:24–26 Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23:2 July 2011 194 Acknowledgements Major sections of this paper are taken from a signi cantly longer book chapter: N.J. Watson, ‘‘Identity in Sport: A Psychological and Theological Analysis,’’ in J. Parry, M. Nesti, and N.J.
Watson,Theology, Ethics and Transcendence in Sports(London: Routledge, 2011), 107–148. I would like to thank Professor Drew Gibson (Union Theological College, Belfast, Northern Ireland), Professor Scott Kretchmar (Penn State University, USA), and Professor Andrew Parker (University of Gloucester, UK) for their most insightful comments on my rst draft.
I would also like to thank Dr. Chris Bell and Kath Watson for their invaluable help in proofreading this work.
Notes 1. B. Smart,The Sport Star:Modern Sport and the Cultural Economy of Sporting Celebrity(London: Sage Publications Ltd., 2005).
2. Cited in the Foreword of J. Steenbergen, P. De Knop, A.H.F. Elling, ed.,Values and Norms on Sport:
Critical Re ections on the Position and Meanings of Sport in Society(New York: Meyer and Meyer Sport, 2001), 11.
3. O. Slot, ‘‘Fourth in the Olympics Hurt, but Retirement is Like a Death in the Family,’’The Times (Sport), December 19, 2008.
4. Recent examples include: N.J. Watson and A. Parker ed.,Sports and Christianity: Historical and Con- temporary Perspectives(London: Routledge, 2012); J. Parry, M. Nesti, and N.J. Watson ed.,Theology, Ethics and Transcendence in Sports(London: Routledge, 2011); S. Hoffman,Good Game: Christianity and the Culture of Sports(Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2010); D. Deardoff II, and J. White ed.,The Image of God in the Human Body:Essays on Christianity and Sports(Lampeter, Wales: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2008); H.L. Reid,The Philosophical Athlete(Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press, 2002).
5. S.R. Kretchmar, ‘‘Soft Metaphysics: A Precursor to Good Sports Ethics’’ in M. Mcnamee and I.
Parry, ed.,Ethics and Sport(London: Routledge, 1998), 19–34.
6. See J. Corlett, ‘‘Sophistry, Socrates, and Sport Psychology,’’The Sport Psychologist,10 (1996): 84–94; N.J. Watson and M. Nesti, ‘‘ The Role of Spirituality in Sport Psychology Consulting: An Analysis and Integrative Review of Literature,’’Journal of Applied Sport Psychology17 (2005): 228–39, http:// pdfserve.informaworld.com/657886_731218473_725758807.pdf (accessed 29 July 2010); M. Nesti, Existential Psychology and Sport:Implications for Research and Practice(London: Routledge, 2004).
7. Ontology is a philosophical term that relates to questions ofbeingand is ‘‘speci c to the problem of identity.’’ J.D. Zizioulas, ‘‘On Being a Person: Towards an Ontology of Personhood,’’ in C. Schwobel and C.E. Gunton, ed.,Persons, Divine and Human(Edinburgh: T and T Clark, 1991), 133.
8. V.E. Frankl,The Doctor and the Soul: From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy(New York: Vintage Books, 1986),xii.
9. All Biblical citations, unless otherwise stated, are from NIV (International Bible Society, 2002).
10. Cited in R. Warren,The Purpose Driven Life(Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan), 80.
11. See B.W. Brewer, J.L. Van Raalte, and A.J. Petitpas, ‘‘Self-Identity Issues in Sport Career Transis- tions,’’ in D. Lavallee and P. Wylleman, ed.,Career Transitions in Sport:International Perspectives (Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology, Publisher, 2000), 29–43; D. Begel and R.W.
Burton, ed.,Sport Psychiatry: Theory and Practice(New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2000); M. Roderick,The Work of Professional Football:A Labour of Love?(London: Routledge, 2006); D.
Macdonald and D. Kirk, ‘‘Pedagogy, the Body and Christian Identity,’’Sport, Education and Society, 2, 4 (1999): 131–142; H.K. Hall, ‘‘Perfectionism: A Hallmark Quality of World Class Performers, or a Psychological Impediment to Athletic Development,’’ in D. Hackfort and U.K. Tenenbaum, Essential Processes for Attaining Peak Performance(Oxford: Meyer and Meyer Sport Ltd., 2008), 178–211.
12. S.K. Stoll, and J.M. Beller, ‘‘Moral Reasoning in Athletic Populations: A 20 Year Review,’’Centre for Ethics(University of Idaho, 2008), http://www.educ.uidaho.edu/center_for_ethics/research_fact_ sheet.htm (accessed 11 November 2008); J.M. Beller, S.K. Stoll, B. Burwell, and J. Cole, ‘‘ The Rela- Theological and Psychological Re ections on Identity in Sport 195 tionship of Competition and a Christian Liberal Arts Education on Moral Reasoning of College Student Athletes,’’Research on Christian Higher Education3 (1996): 99–114.
13. M.A. Jeeves, ‘‘Human Nature: Biblical and Psychological Portraits,’’ in M.A. Jeeves, ed.,Human Nature and the Millennium: Re ections on the Integration of Psychology and Christianity(Grand Rapids, MI: Bake Books, 1997), 98–126.
14. O. Chambers,Biblical Psychology(London: Oswald Chambers Publications Association and Marshall Morgan Scott, 1962/1936), 97–105.
15. P.C. Vitz,Psychology as Religion: The Cult of Self-Worship(Grand Rapids, MI: Williams Eerdmans Publishing, 1994).
16. R.J. Higgs and M. Braswell,An Unholy Alliance:The Sacred and Modern Sports,(Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2004), 372.
17. S. Kierkegaard,The Sickness Unto Death: A Christian Exposition of Edi cation and Awakening,trans.
Alastair Hannay (London: Penguin Books, 1989/1849).
18. C. Lasch,The Culture of Narcissism: Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations(London: Abacus, 1980); E. Becker,The Denial of Death(New York: The Free Press, 1973).
19. D. Blankenhorn,Fatherless America: Confronting our Most Urgent Social Problem(New York: Harper Perennial, 1995); H.J.M. Nouwen,The Wounded Healer(New York: Image Books, 1979); F.
McClung,The Father Heart of God(Eastbourne: Kingsway Publications, 2005); T. Kay,Fathering through Sport and Leisure(London: Routledge).
20. Smart,The Sport Star,1.
21. B.H. Brewer, J.L. Van Raalte, and D.E. Linder, ‘‘Athletic Identity: Hercules’ Muscles or Achilles Heel?,’’Academic Athletic Journal24 (1993): 237.
22. S.H. Walker,Winning:The Psychology of Competition(New York: W.W. Norton, 1980), 4.
23. J. Newman,Competition in Religious Life(Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1989).
24. R.L. Simon, ‘‘ The Ethics of Competition,’’ in ed., R.L. Simon,Fair Play:Sports, Values and Society (Oxford: Westview Press, 1991), 33.
25. D.A. Hyland, ‘‘Opponents, Contestants, and Competitors: The Dialectic of Sport,’’ in W.J. Morgan and K.V. Keier, eds.,Philosophic Inquiry in Sport, 2nd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, Publisher, 1988), 177.
26. A. Kohn,No Contest:The Case Against Competition, revised ed. (New York: Houghton Mif in, 1992), 106.
27. M. Hamilton, ‘‘An Augustinian Critique of our Relationship to Sport,’’ in J. Parry, M. Nesti, and N.J. Watson, eds.,Theology, Ethics and Transcendence in Sports(London: Routledge), 25–34.
28. Reid,The Philosophical Athlete, 106.
29. P. Jackson, ‘‘My Rugby Obsession Has Left Me in Agony,’’Daily Mail, March 7, 2006.
30. J. Wilkinson,Tackling Life:Striving for Perfection(London: Headline, 2008).
31. Jackson, ‘‘My Rugby Obsession,’’ 80.
32. M. Souster, ‘‘Wounded Hero Finally Set to Take His Leave in Pursuit of Fresh Challenge,’’The Times(Sport), March 13, 2009.
33. J.B. Agassi, ed.,Martin Buber on Psychology and Psychotherapy:Essays, Letters, and Dialogue(Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1999).
34. Cited in A. Kohn,No Contest:The Case Against Competition,revised ed., (New York: Houghton Mif in, 1992), 111.
35. J. Sartre,Being and Nothingness,trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York: The Philosophical Library, Inc., 1956).
36. Becker,The Denial of Death,3.
37. A. Null, ‘‘Finding the Right Place’’: Professional Sport as a Christian Vocation,’’ in D. Deardoff II and J. White, eds.The Image of God in the Human Body:Essays on Christianity and Sports(Lampeter, Wales: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2008), 315–66.
38. Roderick,The Work of Professional Football.
39. See Hall, ‘‘Perfectionism’’; S.S. Sager, D. Lavallee, and C.M. Spray, ‘‘Coping with the Effects of Fear of Failure: A Preliminary Investigation of Young Elite Athletes,’’Journal of Clinical Sports Psychology, 3 (2009): 73–98; D. Begel, ‘‘An Overview of Sport Psychiatry,’’American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, (1992): 606–614; M.J. Hamilton, ‘‘Shamelessness and its Effects on Contemporary Sport,’’ paper Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23:2 July 2011 196 presented at the30th International Association of Philosophy of Sport Conference, Penn State Univer- sity, PH, 23–27 October 2002, and M. McNamee,Sports, Virtues and Vices:Morality Plays(London:
Routledge, 2008).
40. D. Lavallee, and P. Wylleman ed.,Career Transitions in Sport: International Perspectives,(Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology, 2000); E. Udry, D. Gould, D. Bridges, and L. Beck, ‘‘Down but Not Out: Athlete Responses to Season-Ending Ski Injuries,’’Journal of Sport and Exercise Psy- chology3 (1997): 229–248, and R.W. Burton, ‘‘Mental Illness in Athletes,’’Sport Psychiatry: Theory and Practice(New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2000), 61–81.
41. B.C. Ogilvie, ‘‘Counseling for Sports Career Termination,’’ in J.R. May and M.J. Asken, eds.,Sport Psychology: The Psychological Health of the Athlete(New York: PMA, 1987), 213–230, and Higgs and Braswell,An Unholy Alliance.
42. W. Pannenberg,Anthropology in Theological Perspective(Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1985), and Brewer, Van Raalte and Petitpas, ‘‘Self-Identity Issues.’’ 43. P. Tillich,The Courage to Be(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), 41.
44. Higgs and Braswell,An Unholy Alliance, 75.
45. M. Nesti, ‘‘Suffering, Sacri ce, Sport Psychology and the Spirit,’’ in J. Parry, S. Robinson, N.J.
Watson, and M.S. Nesti, eds.,Sport and Spirituality: An Introduction(London: Routledge, 2007), 151–69.
46. D. Hochstetler, P. Hopsicker, and S.R. Kretchmar, ‘‘ The Ambiguity of Embodiment and Sport:
Overcoming Theological Dichotomies’’ in D. Deardorff and J. White, eds.A Christian Theology of Sport(Lametere, Wales: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2008), 61–77.
47. E.L. Johnson, ‘‘Whatever Happened to the Human Soul? A Brief Christian Genealogy of a Psychol- ogical Term,’’Journal of Psychology and Theology, 26, 1 (1998): 16–28.
48. N.J. Watson and J. White, ‘‘Winning at all Costs’’ in ‘‘Modern Sport: Re ections on Pride and Humility in the Writings of C.S. Lewis,’’ in J. Parry, S. Robinson, N.J. Watson, and M.S. Nesti,Sport and Spirituality: An Introduction(London: Routledge, 2007), 61–79.
49. P. David,Human Rights in Youth Sport: A Critical Review of Children’s Rights in Competitive Sport (London: Routledge, 2005).
50. D. Hyland, ‘‘Competition and Friendship,’’Journal of the Philosophy of Sport5 (1978): 27–37.
51. M. Grimshaw, ‘‘I Can’t Believe my Eyes: The Religious Aesthetics of Sport as Postmodern Salvi c Moments,’’Implicit Religion3, 2 (2000): 87–99.
52. C.S. Prebish, ‘‘Religion and Sport: Convergence or Identity?,’’ in ed., C.S. Prebish,Religion and Sport:
The Meeting of Sacred and Profane(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993), 45–76.
53. R.L. Schmitt and W.M. Leonard II, ‘‘Immortalizing the Self through Sport,’’American Journal of Sociology91, 5 (1986): 1088–111.
54. E. Cashmore, ‘‘Chariots of Fire: Bigotry, Manhood and Moral Certitude in an Age of Individualism,’’ Sport and Society, 11, 2/3 (2008): 162.
55. C.S. Lewis,Mere Christianity(New York: Harper Collins, 1997/1952), 100.
56. Pannenberg,Anthropology in Theological Perspective,234.
57. A. Maslow,Toward a Psychology of Being(Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1962).
58. A.L. Van Kaam,In Search of Spiritual Identity(Denville, NJ: Dimension Books, 1975), 177, 195.
59. Vitz,Psychology as Religion, 91.
60. See Isaiah 9:1–7; 52:13–15; 53:1–12.
61. T.B. Savage,Power through Weakness: Paul’s Understanding of the Christian Ministry in 2 Corinthians (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 86) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 188.
62. A. McGrath,Christian Theology:An Introduction, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2001). See chapters 10 and 13 of McGrath. The doctrine of atonement explains how following the separation of God the Father (creator) from humans (creatures) at the fall of humanity (Genesis 3), in which humans in theirpride,wilfully choseto disobey God’s will for their lives, God the Father mercifully sent his Son, the second person of the trinity, the ‘‘sacri cial lamb,’’ toatonefor the sins of humanity. This, it is argued in Christian thought, was so that God the Father could come back into a relationship with his creatures (humans)—at-one-ment—and offer eternal life, deep joy and a ‘‘peace . . . which transcends all understanding’’ (Phil. 4:7a). Theological and Psychological Re ections on Identity in Sport 197 63. Van Kaam,In Search of Spiritual Identity, 143.
64. Warren,The Purpose Driven Life, 80.
65. M. Townsend,The Gospel of Falling Down:The Beauty of Failure in an Age of Success(Winchester, UK: O books, 2007), 44-45.
66. R. Clements,The Strength of Weakness: How God Uses our Flaws to Achieve His Goals(Scotland:
Christian Focus Publications, 1994), and Savage,Power through Weakness.
67. D. Begel, ‘‘Introduction: The Origins and Aims of Sport Psychiatry,’’ in D. Begel and R.W. Burton, eds.,Sport Psychiatry: Theory and Practice(New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2000),xiii–xx.
68. N.J. Watson, ‘‘Identity in Sport: A Psychological and Theological Analysis,’’ in ed., J. Parry, M.N.
Nesti, and N.J. Watson,Theology, Ethics and Transcendence in Sports(London: Routledge, 2011), 107–48, and Watson and White, ‘‘Winning at All Costs.’’ 69. D. Capps,Deadly Sins and Saving Virtues(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 46–52, and Lewis, Mere Christianity.
70. Higgs and Braswell,An Unholy Alliance,372.
71. Watson and White, ‘‘Winning at All Costs.’’ 72. Lewis,Mere Christianity, 101.
73. C.L. Stevenson, ‘‘Christian Athletes and the Culture of Elite Sport: Dilemmas and Solutions,’’ Sociology of Sport Journal14 (1997): 241–62.
74. Ibid., 244–245.
75. Begel, ‘‘An Overview of Sport Psychiatry.’’ 76. T. A´ Kempis,The Imitation of Christ, trans. Leo Sherley-Price (London: Penguin Books, 1952).
77. Capps,Deadly Sins and Saving Virtues,50.
78. Lewis,Mere Christianity, 100.
79. A. Murray,Humility(New Kensington, PA: Whitaker House, 1982).
80. E.L. Johnson, ‘‘Christ, The Lord of Psychology,’’Journal of Psychology and Theology, 25, 1 (1997):
11–27.
81. O. Chambers, ‘‘ The Psychology of Redemption,’’ in ed., D. McCasland,The Complete Works of Oswald Chambers(Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House Publishers, 1922), 1059–104.
82. D. Willard, ‘‘Spiritual Formation in Christ: A Perspective on What is and How it Might be Done,’’ Journal of Psychology and Theology, 28, 4 (2000): 254–58.
83. D. Krause, ‘‘Keeping it Real: The Image of God in the New Testament,’’Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology, 59, 4 (2005): 358–68.
84. A. McFadyen,The Call to Personhood: A Christian Theory of the Individual in Social Relationships (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990); O. Chambers, ‘‘Our Portrait in Genesis,’’ in D. McCasland,The Complete Works of Oswald Chambers(Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House Publishers, 1957), 957–981; John Paul II,The Theology of the Body: Human Love in the Divine Plan (Boston: Pauline Books and Media, 1997); J.A.T. Robinson,The Body: A Study in Pauline Theology (Colorado Springs, CO: Bimillenial Press, 2002).
85. SeeJournal of Psychology and Theology, theJournal of Psychology and Christianity, theJournal of Psychology and Judaismand the recent text: W.R. Miller and H.D. Delaney, eds.Judeo-Christian Perspectives on Psychology: Human Nature, Motivation, and Change(Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2005). The work of psychologists such as: P.C. Vitz,Faith of the Fatherless:
The Psychology of Atheism(Dallas: Spence Publishing Company, 1999); P. Morea,In Search of Personality:Christianity and Modern Psychology(London: SCM Press, 1997), and the writings of Swiss psychiatrist Paul Tournier, see, C.R. Collins,The Christian Psychology of Paul Tournier(Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1973). As I have argued, the doctrine of the ‘‘Fatherhood of God’’ is also central to understanding Christian identity in sport, see: M. Stibbe,From Orphans to Heirs:
Celebrating our Spiritual Adoption(Oxford, UK: The Bible Reading Fellowship, 1999) and C.J.H.
Wright,Knowing God the Father through the Old Testament(Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2007).
86. Watson and White, ‘‘ ‘Winning at all Costs’ ’’; M. Nesti, ‘‘ The Spirit of Sport: An Existential Psychology Perspective,’’ inSport and Spirituality: An Introduction, by J. Parry, S. Robinson, N.J. Watson, and M.S. Nesti (London: Routledge, 2007), 119–134; M. Nesti, ‘‘Persons and Players: a Psychological Perspective,’’ inSport and Spirituality: An Introduction, by J. Parry, S. Robinson, N.J. Watson, and Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23:2 July 2011 198 M.S. Nesti (London: Routledge, 2007), 135–150; J. White, ‘‘Idols in the Stadium: Sport as an ‘Idol Factory,’ ’’ in D. II Deardorff and J. White, eds.The Image of God in the Human Body:Essays on Christianity and Sports(Lampeter, Wales: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2008), 127–172; J. Moltmann, ‘‘Olympia between Politics and Religion,’’ in Gregory and John Coleman Baum,Sport(Edinburgh:
T and T Clark, 1989), 101–109.
87. For example, A. Miah,Genetically Modi ed Athletes:Biomedical Ethics, Gene Doping and Sport (London: Routledge, 2004).
88. T.J. Trothen, ‘‘Better than Normal? Constructing Modi ed Athletes and a Relational Theological Ethic,’’ in J. Parry., M.S. Nesti, and N.J. Watson,Theology, Ethics and Transcendence in Sports (London: Routledge, 2011), 64-81; T.J. Trothen, ‘‘Rede ning Human, Rede ning Sport: The Imago Dei and Genetic Modi cation Technologies,’’ in D. Deardorff II and J. White, eds.The Image of God in the Human Body:Essays on Christianity and Sports(Lampeter, Wales: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2008), 217–234.
89. E.L. Worthington Jr. and J.W. Berry, ‘‘Virtues, Vices, and Character Development,’’ in W.R. Miller and H.D. Delaney,Judeo-Christian Perspectives on Psychology: Human Nature, Motivation, and Change(Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2005), 145–64.
90. Lewis,Mere Christianity,102.
91. Hamilton, ‘‘An Augustinian Critique.’’ 92. M. Rieke, J. Hammermeister, and M. Chase, ‘‘Servant Leadership in Sport: A New Paradigm for Effective Coaching Behaviour,’’International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching3, 2 (2008):
227–239; MacDonald and Kirk, ‘‘Pedagogy, the Body and Christian Identity’’; P.J. Schroeder and J.P. Scribner, ‘‘ To Honor and Glorify God: The Role of Religion in One Intercollegiate Athletics Culture,’’Sport, Education and Society, 11, 1 (2006): 39–54; J. Wooden,Wooden on Leadershipwith Steve Jamison (London: McGraw-Hill, 2005).
93. For example: B. Smith and A.C. Sparkes, ‘‘Changing Bodies, Changing Narratives and the Con- sequences of Tellability: A Case Study of Becoming Disabled through Sport,’’Sociology of Health and Illness30, 2 (2008): 217–236; A.C. Sparkes and B. Smith, ‘‘Sport, Spinal Cord Injury, Embodies Masculinities, and the Dilemmas of Narrative Identity,’’Men and Masculinities4, 3 (2002): 258–85.
94. N.J. Watson, ‘‘Special Olympians as a ‘Prophetic Sign’ to the Modern Sporting Babel,’’ in N.J.
Watson and A. Parker, eds.,Sports and Christianity: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives(London:
Routledge, 2012); N.J. Watson and A. Parker, (manuscript in preparation), ‘‘Step Aside We’re Coming Through: A Case Study of the Role of Sport in the Life of a Father and his Son who has Profound Disabilities,’’Practical Theology(manuscript to be submitted for consideration); A. Parker and N.J. Watson, ‘‘From Rural Kenya to London 2012: a Case Study of Anne Wafula Strike, a Christian Female Paralympian,’’Journal of Religion, Disability and Health(manuscript to be sub- mitted for consideration); G. Watts, ‘‘Athletes with a Disability—Mixed Messages from the Bible,’’ paper presented at the Inaugural International Conference on Sport and Spirituality, Centre for the Study of Sport and Spirituality(2003–2009), York St John University, York, UK, 28–31 August 2007.
95. G. Watts, ‘‘Spirituality in the Context of Profound Intellectual Disability,’’ paper read at a conference on Spirituality, Human Development and Well-being, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia, 24–25 July 2008, 8–9.
96. W. Wolfensberger, ‘‘ The Prophetic Voice and the Presence of Mentally Retarded People in the World Today,’’ in W. Gaventa and C. Coulter,The Theological Voice of Wolf Wolfensberger(Binghamton, New York: The Haworth Pastoral Press, 2001), 11–48.
97. S. Hauerwas,Suffering Presence(Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 1986), 176.
98. B. Johnson,Dreaming with God: Secrets of Redesigning your World through God’s Creative Flow (Shippensburg, PA: Destiny Image Publishers Inc., 2006), 38.
99. Smart,The Sport Star, 198–99.
100. P.L. Metzger,The Word of Christ and the World of Culture: Sacred and Secular through the Theology of Karl Barth(Cambridge, UK: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003), 197.
101. J. Huizinga,Homo Ludens:A Study of the Play Element in Culture(Boston: Beacon, 1950); J.
Moltmann,Theology of Play(New York: Harper, 1972); R.K. Johnston,The Christian at Play(Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1983); S. Kretchmar, ‘‘Why Dichotomies Make Theological and Psychological Re ections on Identity in Sport 199 it Dif cult to See Games as Gifts from God’’, in ed., J. Parry, M. Nesti, and N.J. Watson,Theology, Ethics and Transcendence in Sports(London: Routledge. 2011), 185–200.
102. Hyland, ‘‘Competition and Friendship.’’ 103. P. Berger,A Rumour of Angels(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970), 52.
104. F. Dostoyevsky,The Brothers Karamazov1, trans. Constance Garnett (London: J.M. Dent and Sons, 1967/1927), cited in Metzger, 188.
105. This quote from chapter 2 of Lewis’s book,Transposition and Other Addresseswas cited in ed., C.S.
Kilby,A Mind Awake: An Anthology of C.S. Lewis(New York: Harvest Books, 1968), 22–23.
106. R.R. Reno, ‘‘Pride and Idolatry,’’Interpretation:A Journal of Bible and Theology60, 2 (2006): 176.
107. Van Kaam,In Search of Spiritual Identity, 138.
108. Agassi,Martin Buber on Psychology.
109. W. Wolfensberger, ‘‘ The Most Urgent Issues Facing Us as Christians Concerned with Handicapped Persons Today,’’ W. Gaventa and C. Coulter, eds.,The Theological Voice of Wolf Wolfensberger (Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Pastoral Press, 1983), 98.
110. Cited in M. Mason,Practicing the Presence of People:How We Learn to Love(Colorado Springs, CO:
WaterBrook, 1999).
111. Van Kaam,In Search of Spiritual Identity, 181.
112. See Gillette Mens Razors and Blades Range—Gillette Fusion Roger, Thierry And Tiger, http://www.visit4info.com/advert/Gillette-Fusion-Roger-Thierry-And-Tiger-Gillette-Mens-Razors- Blades-Range/55260 (accessed 30 May 2011). Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 23:2 July 2011 200
