Critical Thinking Report: Moral Claims and Theories

9.5 Moral Theories

All moral claims are grounded in some moral theory. It is the nature of such claims that they are based on a system of beliefs about what is right and wrong, just and unjust.

The table below lists a handful of the moral theories you are most likely to encounter in ethical arguments today. It’s important to note that each one has its own strengths and weaknesses.

Moral theories give you general guidelines, but you still usually have to apply moral reasoning in individual cases to test them out. For example, none of these theories explicitly claim that killing is wrong. The theories are more about how you would ground your claim that killing is wrong.

Moral theories are also not mutually exclusive. The argument that killing is wrong could be grounded in all of these theories.

Whether they know it or not, everyone has a moral theory. It is inescapable. Even if their moral theory is that there are no morals, that still represents a moral theory. But not all moral theories are equal—some hold up to critical thinking better than others.

You may see wisdom in all of these perspectives, or you may strongly identify with a single one. Regardless, it's important for you to recognize the potential weaknesses in any moral theory you favor, and it's helpful for you to understand why others find legitimacy in the moral theories they employ.

Theory

Criticisms

Kantian Ethics

Immanuel Kant put forth the categorical imperative, which states that you should only act on moral principles that you would be willing to turn into universal laws mandating that everyone act the same way.
This is a version of the question, “How would you like it if everyone did that?”

Any two people who want to get married should be able to.

This theory is so absolute that it sometimes goes against moral common sense.

It’s wrong to kiss my spouse because I would not like it if everyone kissed my spouse.

Utilitarianism

The morally right course of action is the one that will produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.
The only thing that matters is the consequences of the action, not the intentions behind the action (the ends justify the means).

Ignores people’s rights, duties, and intentions.
Could be used to justify an act that most would consider morally wrong because it inflicts harm on one person unjustly, even if it brings great happiness to many others.

It’s okay to steal money from my neighbor and take my family on a vacation, because then my whole family would be happy, and only my neighbor would be harmed.

Ethical Egoism

Doing whatever is best for your own interests or would make you happy.
This is not necessarily the same thing as doing whatever you want in the moment, because that might not be in your best interests in the long term.

Can be used to justify terrible actions.

Ethical Altruism

Doing whatever is best for others or would bring the greatest amount of happiness to people besides yourself.

Sometimes it’s hard to figure out what is best for everyone involved.

Authoritarian Moral Theory

Doing whatever an authority figure (a teacher, your boss, the president, etc.) tells you is the right thing to do.

You’re sacrificing your critical thinking skills when you blindly follow what someone else says without scrutinizing it.

Religious Absolutism

Doing whatever your religion, deity, or sacred text says is right.

Like the authoritarian moral theory, it can be dangerous to blindly follow any authority.
There is enduring controversy over which religion is the “correct” one.
Historically, religion has been used to justify many actions generally considered immoral.

Moral Relativism

Believing that morality is completely subjective and each person decides for themselves what they think is right.

Implies that you can’t pass judgment on anybody for anything, assuming they’re doing what they believe is right.
Becomes contradictory—what if you believe an action is wrong and another person believes the same action is right? According to moral relativism, the action would then seem to be both right and wrong.

Cultural Relativism

Believing that whatever your culture approves of is the right thing for you to do.

Has the same problems as moral relativism.
How do you determine what counts as a culture or group? And what if there is disagreement within that group?

Religious Relativism

Believing that whatever your religion approves of is the right thing for you to do.

Has the same problems as the other relativism theories.