Will you be able to complete the full course?

3 What Employees Perceive and How They Learn Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock Learning Objectives After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:• Explain the r ole per ception pla ys in an indi vidual’s w ork e xperience.

• Evaluate int ernally gener ated and e xternally gener ated learning pr ocesses.

• Utilize social learning theory in the w orkplace.

• Apply an understanding of indi vidual diff erences t o management pr actices.

2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Perceptions and Perceptual Processes in the Workplace Section 3.1 3.1 Perceptions and Perceptual Processes in the W orkplace How w ould y ou describe the w orld? Some mig ht r espond that it is a danger ous or thr eaten- ing place, w here one must constantl y be on guar d. Others ma y sa y the w orld consists of some good things and some bad. Others still view the w orld as filled with riches and tr easures. All thr ee ans wers ar e corr ect. This chapt er e xamines tw o important mental pr ocesses that aff ect indi vidual li ves as w ell as ho w people r espond t o v arious elements of the w orkplace: per cep- tions and learning. These tw o pr ocesses e xert a dir ect impact on indi vidual diff erences in personality tr aits and char acteristics, w hich in turn influence the w ays a person adapts t o his or her workplace situation. This fir st section describes the natur e of per ception and per ceptual pr ocesses. The natur e of per ception in volves the int erpretation of r eality. P erception is the selection, or ganization, and int erpretation of stimuli or sensory impr essions in or der t o understand or gi ve meaning t o the en vironment (P omerantz, 2003). A t w ork, unders tanding the natur e of per ceptual pr o- cesses assists managers of all types in de veloping eff ective pr ograms, including those in volv- ing w orkplace saf ety, emplo yee tr aining, manager tr aining, and coping with issues such as discrimination and harassment.

Selection in Perceptual Processes Perception begins with stimulus selection, w hen something captur es a person ’s att ention. As a person encount ers stimuli, some f orms r ecede w hile others r eceive consider ation. The pr ocess of selection e xplains ho w some stimuli get thr ough w hile others do not . Y ou ma y notice that w hile r eading these w ords y ou also tune out back ground noises, such as a w hir- ring f an in the r oom or a r oad noise outside. Some att ention-getting f actors that lead t o stimu - lus selection are displayed in Table 3.1.

Companies can use att ention-getting stimuli t o encour age emplo yees t o mak e important associations with compan y pr ocesses. Brig htly color ed w arning signs and loud back up noises on mo ving equipment help ensur e w orkplace saf ety. Emplo yers can use r epetition in tr aining sessions t o impr ove r etention of inf ormation, or on signage t o r emind staff about rules and r egulations. And the use of a lunch whistle in a factory establishes a consistent work routine. Organization in Perceptual Processes Once a stimul us has been select ed, the sensory input must be or ganized t o gi ve it meaning. Or ganizing pr operties associat ed with per ception include (Kimble & Garmezy , 1963; Leeper , 1935):

• figur e–ground • grouping • constancy • context \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Perceptions and Perceptual Processes in the Workplace Section 3.1 Table 3.1: Selection (attention-getting) factors at work FactorExample Intensity A loud whistle Brightly colored safety signs A strong smell or powerful taste Size Large machinery surrounded by small equipment Tall people in a crowd A large billboard (as opposed to a small sign) Contrast Dark or light print drawing attention to specific words or terms Someone whispering in a noisy room A loud machine abruptly stops running Motion Someone running through an office where others are working silently Moving machinery R epetition A commercial that continually repeats the company’s phone number or website Novelty A new computer screen A book left in your workspace by someone else F amiliarity Noticing a well-known company’s logo while visiting a foreign country Figure–ground det ermines w hich stimuli captur e att ention and w hich r emain in the back- gr ound. What stands out , figur e, captur es att ention, and w hat r ecedes constitut es gr ound. Figur e and gr ound patt erns ar e oft en based on past e xperiences. F or e xample, print on a page stands out and the w hite page r ecedes, because the mind has been tr ained t o encount er writ - ing in that w ay fr om an ear ly age. When w atching a t elevision pr ogram or seeing a speak er in person, the figur e will be the scr een or the indi vidual; gr ound consists of an ything that is tuned out.

Figure–ground becomes part of the w orkplace en vironment in man y w ays. A sales manager gi ving a pep talk t o the sales f orce should be the f ocal point , or figur e. All other elements should become gr ound. The printing on signs indicating saf e zones f or emer gencies should quickl y stand out (think of e xit doors on airplanes), and mat erials ar ound them should r ecede.

A se cond element of or ganizing, gr ouping, is the t endency t o see gr oups as logical patt erns (see T able 3.2). These t endencies e xist because the human mind has an innat e disposition t o per ceive patt erns in stimuli (Banerjee, 1994). Gr ouping at w ork occurs w hen emplo yees see an y “set” of people (f emales/males; minority gr oup members; persons w earing distincti ve clothing or saf ety equipment) in w ays that set them apart . A t times these t endencies ma y be connect ed t o f alse conclusions, or per ceptual dist ortions such as st ereotyping, w hich will be discussed later in this chapter.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Perceptions and Perceptual Processes in the Workplace Section 3.1 Table 3.2: Examples of grouping Principle DefinitionVisual exampleWorkplace example Closure Seeing a whole object (e.g., a triangle and a circle) w hether or not one is actuall y present Perceiving consensus in a r oom even though dissent- ers are present Continuity Perceiving order (e.g., see - ing whole squares rather than an assortment of shapes) Failing to notice missing w ords or letters in words in a report (what editors call “r eading through” a typo) Proximity Perceiving patterns in it ems that are close to one another (e.g., a line made up of dots) Seeing and avoiding a line of warning cones near construction sites or on the hig hway Similarity Gr ouping things that are alik e (e.g., seeing groups of squar es and circles) Seeing three women and tw o men in a break room, r ather than five people The thir d element of or ganizing, c onstancy, has visual and other sensory implications. It is the t endency f or the per ception of a stimulus t o sta y the same, e ven if the stimulus has mo ved. Visuall y, w hen a cab dri ves past with an ad vertisement print ed on the v ehicle, y ou can r ead the cop y e ven thoug h the car k eeps mo ving. Y ou can also r ead fix ed images on billboar ds \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Perceptions and Perceptual Processes in the Workplace Section 3.1 while in a car dri ving b y the sign. Constancy helps e xplain hand –eye coor dination, w hich is oft en r equired t o complet e job-r elated task s, such as r eading a scr oll on a comput er scr een or w orking on an object as it passes thr ough an assembl y or inspection line. W orkers e xhibit constancy w hen the y look f or it ems of fruit or v egetables t o r eject as the y mo ve t oward pack- ing or processing.

Perceptual c ontext occurs w hen a stimulus is assigned meaning. The same stimulus ma y ha ve a diff erent meaning, depending on the cont ext. F or e xample, a r aised e yebrow tr ansmitted b y a supervisor normally means something substantiall y diff erent fr om a r aised e yebrow tr ans- mitted b y a w oman t o a man in a pub. Man y s ymbols and t erms e ventually de velop meaning and cont ext, including icons such as the Nik e “S woosh” and man y r eligious s ymbols. Cont ext combines with other elements of or ganization t o lead t o the final stage of per ception, w hich is interpretation.

Interpretation in Perceptual Processes When the meaning of a stimulus is kno wn, it can be assigned a mor e complet e meaning. F our le vels of interpretation are depicted in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Levels of interpretation Depending on the person and the surrounding circumstances, a stimulus can go through one or many of the different levels of interpretation.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Perceptions and Perceptual Processes in the Workplace Section 3.1 The out er le vel of an indi vidual’s consciousness contains underst anding, such as w hen some- one hears the t erm “ball” or sees a f ork. The person understands the object . A ttitudes consti - tute a mor e in-depth le vel of int erpretation. T erms such as “good” or “bad” and “acceptable” or “una cceptable” appl y t o attitudes. Be liefs ar e mor e str ongly held principles. One mig ht belie ve that a criminal justice s ystem should punish those w ho harm others. V alues r epre- sent the centr al core of a person’s being. Values include r eligious ideologies t o some, political philosophies t o others, and “f amily” t o man y others. V alues ar e the most str ongly held and unchangeable elements of a person’s sense of self.

The same stimulus can penetr ate diff erent le vels of int erpretation. Upon hearing the t erm “cig arette,” most people understand w hat it means. Some ma y ha ve no r eaction, w hile others ma y f eel str ongly that the y should not be subject ed t o secondhand smok e. Still others ma y belie ve that smoking should be outla wed or banned fr om the w orkplace, e ven in ar eas out - side of the work building.

These le vels should be consider ed w hen companies and managers consider policies r elated t o subjects such as same-se x partnership rig hts, discrimination, affirmati ve action, and union acti vities and rig hts. Managers should consider ho w deepl y held emplo yee int erpretations ar e r egarding each subject , w hich will help them mor e eff ectively r espond t o v arious contr o- versies.

Consi der ho w per ception mig ht aff ect v arious or ganizations in OB in A ction: Tattoos in the Workplace. OB in Action: Tattoos in the Workplace How do y ou r eact t o tatt oos? Ther e ar e man y per- ceptions of bod y art . Some ma y view it neg atively; others positi vely, and another gr oup ma y see it as essentiall y a non-issue.

Recently, a r egional uni versity encount ered contr o- versy w hen its nursing department imposed a ban on applicants w ho displa yed observ able tatt oos b y not allo wing them t o appl y f or admission. Unit leaders ar gued that such an adornment w ould tak e a way fr om the indi vidual’s “pr ofessional appear - ance” and might be upsetting to some patients.

Several students r oundly object ed t o the ban, ar gu- ing it impinged on personal fr eedom. The y not ed that other f orms of dr ess (hair coloring; pier cings) w ere not included in the ban. The y further sug - gested that an y f orm of self-e xpression should not be subject to such a “discriminatory” rule.

The hist ory of tatt oos has man y elements. In some r egions and nations, tatt ooing is an ancient pr actice closely tied to culture. In the United States, however, tattoos were largely considered(continued) YakobchukOlena/iStock/Thinkstock Though the perception of tattoos and tattooed individuals is shifting, there are still many employers that have banned, or simply frown upon, visible tattoos in the workplace.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Perceptions and Perceptual Processes in the Workplace Section 3.1 Perceptual Errors When a stimulus is not r eceived, pr ocessed, or int erpreted corr ectly, an err or has tak en place. P erceptual err ors occur in tw o primary ar eas: ph ysical per ceptual err ors r elated t o objects, and personal per ception er rors r elated t o indi viduals. Both ha ve implications f or manage- ment and the workplace.

Physical Perceptual Errors Physical err ors tak e tw o f orms. The first r esults fr om a confusing stimulus. F or e xample, hot pa vement can cr eate the optical illusion of “w ater on the r oad,” w hich ma y impact a truck dri ver’s ability t o na vigate saf ely. Similar ly, air line pilots can become confused about the r ela- tionship of the plane t o the gr ound and horizon. The latt er err or has been identified as ha ving caused the 1999 crash that took the life of John F. Kennedy, Jr. (Wald, 2000).

The second type of ph ysical err or r esults fr om a ph ysical disability . A notable e xample is d ys- lexia, a disor der associat ed with difficulties with accur ate and/or fluent w ord r ecognition and b y poor spelling and de coding abilities. The disability also hinders learning. W orkplace accommodation efforts can assist individuals with such challenges. OB in Action: Tattoos in the Workplace (continued) taboo until the lat e 19th century , w hen the y start ed t o g ain popularity with members of the military . In r ecent decades, tatt oos ha ve sur ged in popularity , particular ly among y oung adults. Mor e r ecently, the U .S. Arm y has changed its policy t oward ta ttoos, allo wing them t o be visible if the y ar e not off ensive t o a pr otected gr oup or indi vidual. Pr evious r egulations limit ed the number and size of tatt oos, and banned some f orms, including those on an indi vidual’s neck. Members of the br ass belie ved the r egulations discour aged so me y oung people fr om enlisting. A t the same time, some tatt oos ar e still not allo wed, including mar kings on a person ’s head, f ace, neck (abo ve the shirt line), e yelids, mouth, ears, wris ts, and hands. An y r acist, se xist, indecent , or e xtremist tatt oo is also not allo wed. The military also not es that some members use tattoos to commemorate battles and events in which they were involved. It mig ht be poss ible that per ceptions of tatt oos ha ve a gener ational element , w herein y ounger people ma y be less distur bed b y them. F urther, man y pr ofessional athlet es displa y them, and these individuals could potentially be considered as role models to younger persons.

By 2014, Star bucks and P etSmart changed compan y policies r egarding tatt oos, allo wing them t o be visible (K ell, 2014). In 2016, the w eb sit e lif ehacker.com identified w hat it called the most “tatt oo-friendly companies,” for those wishing to find such organizations.

Reflection and Application Questions 1. How do tattoos capture attention as part of the perceptual process?

2. How might tattoos be related to the levels of interpretation displayed in Figure 3.1?

3. What are your personal views of tattoos and their display in the workplace?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Perceptions and Perceptual Processes in the Workplace Section 3.1 Personal Perception Errors Certain personal per ception err ors r outinely occur . These f aulty per ceptions and judgments r egarding other people affect a series of business-related outcomes. The most notable are • selective perception • halo/horn • stereotyping • contrast effects • projection Selective perception r epresents a per ceptual sh ortcut in w hich people int erpret w hat the y observ e based on their o wn int erests, e xperiences, back ground, and personal attitudes. As an e xample, if y ou pr esent a mor al dilemma t o an att orney, a member of the cler gy, and a medical pr actitioner, the att orney will lik ely see the pr oblem as a leg al issue, the member of the cler gy as a r eligious pr oblem, and the medical pr actitioner as a matt er of health (Dear born & Simon, 1958).

A t w ork, a sales manager mig ht ignor e pr oblems with shipping and deli very and con - centrate onl y on consumer complaints w hen sales ar e lo wer than e xpected, leading t o a f alse conclusion about how to correct the problem.

Halo/horn occurs w hen a gener al impr ession or conclusion has been dr awn about an indi- vidual based on a sing le char acteristic. The halo eff ect link s one positi ve char acteristic with other positi ve char acteristics. Ph ysical attr activeness cr eates a halo eff ect in w hich people ar e lik ely t o per ceive a beautifu l person as also int elligent and kind, w hich in turn enhances the indi vidual’s chances t o be hir ed, pr omoted, and r eceive a mor e positi ve perf ormance e valu- ation.

The horn eff ect is the opposit e; one neg ative char acteristic becomes associat ed with other neg ative char acteristics. Arri ving lat e t o a job int erview oft en link s t o the per ception that the person will be unreliable and not trustworthy.

Stereotyping assigns a set of char acteristics t o a gr oup of people. As discussed in Chapt er 2, such judgments ar e made based on age, r ace, gende r, national origin, se xual identity and orientation, and occupations. St ereotyping influences ho w people immediat ely judge others, based on r eadily observ able common f eatures. St ereotyping has long been associat ed with r acism and discriminat ory pr actices r elated t o f emales, members of minority gr oups, certain r eligious affiliations, and gender identity.

Contrast effects occur w hen a person is per ceived based on contr asts with other persons. F or instance, if y ou ar e in a speech cont est and the person bef ore y ou stumbles thr ough an incoher ent pr esentation, y our speech will lik ely r eceive much mor e f avorable r atings. If, ho w- ever, the speak er bef ore y ou mak es a po werful and compelling ar gument, y our r atings will undoubt edly be lower, simply because of the contrast.

Projection in volves attributing one’s o wn char acteristics t o others. Gr eedy people see e very- one ar ound them as gr eedy. P eople w ho ar e honest and trustw orthy oft en assume those ar ound them are equally honest.

Personal per ception err ors aff ect man y pr actical matt ers on the job. The types of business decisions affected by personal perceptions include the following: • Hiring decisions • Performance appraisal ratings \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Perceptions and Perceptual Processes in the Workplace Section 3.1 • Pay raises • Task assignments • Group composition and roles • Layoff decisions • Promotions • Terminations Managers should seek t o understand and limit the impact of these f actors t o achie ve a mor e ethical and f air business en vironment. F or e xample, human r esource departments oft en utilize the 360 perf ormance r eview s ystem, w hich includes a series of r aters fr om v arious back grounds t o help r educe the impact of per ceptual err ors such as st ereotyping and halo/ horn. As a mor e dr amatic e xample, the A cademy A wards endur ed major criticism thr ough the hashtag “O scarsSoWhite,” w hen all nominees f or a wards in the 2016 cer emonies w ere Whit e. In r esponse, the or ganization added mor e than 600 v oting members fr om di verse back grounds t o impr ove the nomination pr ocess f or the coming y ear and be yond (Hog an, 2016; LA Time s, 2016).

Individual managers and o verall companies can become sensiti ve t o the pot ential f or per cep- tual err ors and seek out w ays t o personall y o vercome them or de velop pr otocols b y w hich emplo yees are selected, evaluated, rewarded, and promoted. In summary , per ception consists of the selection, or ganization, and int erpretation of stimuli. These f actors aff ect the conduct of w ork. P erceptual err ors tak e place w hen stimuli ar e not corr ectly r eceived or ar e misint erpreted, or w hen indi vidual actions or char acteristics ar e incorr ectly judged, w hich in turn aff ects numer ous k ey business decisions made r egarding applicants and employees. Comprehension Exercise 1. In perceptual processes, attention-getting factors such as intensity, size, contrast, and no velty are part of a. selection.

b. organizing.

c. interpretation.

d. stimulus creation.

2. In organizing perceptions, ink on a page represents a. grouping.

b. continuity and proximity.

c. constancy and context.

d. figure and ground.

3. Assuming all Asian women are quiet, deferential, and nonconfrontational is a. selective perception.

b. halo/horn.

c. stereotyping.

d. projection. Answers: 1) a 2) d 3) c \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Learning Processes Section 3.2 3.2 Learning Processes In addition t o per ceptions, a second element of a person ’s mental mak e-up in volves learning. Learning pr ocesses r epresent one of the k ey components of the adjustment t o a w orkplace. Indi viduals learn prior t o joining an or ganization and continue t o do so thr oughout an entir e car eer and int o r etirement. The concept of “lif elong learning” should not be consider ed mer ely an e xplanation of the amount of tr aining needed t o succeed on the job: W e learn thr oughout our lives in order to better cope with the world.

Learning ma y be defined as the pr ocess of acquiring new kno wledge or a new skill. Learning can r esult in changes in beha vior (W eiss, 1990); ho wever, it is possible t o learn something without an y det ectable change in beha vior. F or e xample, b y w atching an inf ormative pr o- gram about popular celebrities, y ou ma y learn that Whoopi Goldber g, T om Cruise, Winst on Chur chill, W alt Disne y, and Richar d Br anson all had d yslexia. The inf ormation is int eresting and is retained without any resultant change in behavior.

At w ork, or ganizational beha vior t ends t o f ocus on learning that impacts beha viors. A s weep- ing number of job-r elated acti vities ar e aff ected b y learning pr ocesses. T able 3.3 pr ovides e xamples.

Table 3.3: Work activities affected by learning processes Recruiting and selection Applicant learns about the company; company learns about the applicant .

Orientation New employee learns about company basics.

Employee training programs Employee learns how to do the job.

Employee discipline systems Employee learns company rules and consequences of breaking them.

Workplace safety Employee learns how to work safely, safety rules, consequences of br eaking safety rules.

Performance appraisal Company teaches employee about performance criteria; employee learns how to improve on-the-job performance.

Management training Candidate learns new technical and managerial skills.

Retirement planning Employee learns how to cope with leaving the company and their v ocation.

Three primary e xplanations r egarding ho w people lea rn ar e possible. The y ar e int ernally gener ated learning pr ocesses, e xternally gener ated learning pr ocesses, and social learning theory , the latter of which will be discussed in Section 3.3. Internally Generated Learning Processes Internally gener ated learning pr ocesses e xplain ho w and w hat a person learns based on int er- nal mental functioning. P erception is the k ey f actor that shapes int ernally gener ated learning pr ocesses.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Learning Processes Section 3.2 Research in the ar ea of int ernally gener ated learning pr ocesses e xamines ho w the mind cap - tures, st ores, and r etrieves learned inf ormation. A dditional studies e xamine ph ysiological influences on learning, inclu ding the w ays in w hich malnutrition and the lack of sleep inhibit learning.

Also, mind–bod y connections ar e e xamined in the att empt t o e xplain ho w neur al tr ansmissions tak e learned beha viors, such as pla ying the piano, and tr anslate those int o r epeated actions, such as playing a song by memory.

Another primary ar ea of f ocus f or those int erested in int ernally gener ated learning is the natur e and impact of ph ysical disabilities. These f actors aff ect per ceptions (as per ceptual err ors) as w ell as the learning pr ocess. A r ange of menta l abnormalities can inhibit or enhance learning.

F or e xample, an indi vidual ma y displa y e xtraordinary memory y et ha ve difficulty with more routine social interactions.

Externally Generated Learning Processes Externally gener ated learning pr ocesses e xplain ho w and w hat people learn based on f actors pr esent in the en vironment. The basic principles de veloped fr om these ideas ha ve implica - tions f or the w orkplace. Among the ear liest w orks w ere the r esearch of Iv an P avlov, John B. W atson, and E dwin Thornd ike, w ho studied ho w learning occurr ed as a r esponse t o outside stimuli in the en vironment. F or e xample, at w ork, people r espond t o the pr esence of a super- visor in the r oom (b y w orking har der), t o an y kind of signal bell or w histle (r esponding t o w hat it signals), and t o w arning lig hts and sounds (b y looking out f or the danger). E dwin Thorndik e, in particular , studied the eff ects that conseq uences ha ve on beha viors. He e xam- ined the str ength and fr equency of r einforcers (consequences). Thus, if standing close t o a fir e w arms so meone on a cold nig ht, the indi vidual mig ht mo ve ne xt t o a fir e the ne xt time it w as cold. The colder it becomes, the closer the person ma y get t o the flames. F urther, other kinds of conse quences ma y inhibit or st op beha viors. Th erefore, t ouching the fir e and getting burned w ould cause the person t o a void contact with it in the futur e. These out comes ar e summarized as Thorndik e’s (1913/1982) La w of Effect, w hich is a w ell-established concept in the social sciences: Be havior is a function of its consequences. F or the field of or ganizational beha vior, ho wever, per haps the most influential learning theorist w ould be B. F . Skinner , w ho de veloped his mod el of learning based on the pr evious r esearch and theory -building of John B. W atson (1919) , E dwin Thorndik e, and others. Skin - ner (19 53) fr owned on the use of the t erm “learning, ” because he belie ved the w ord w as a construct , or “con venient fiction ” used t o describe an unobserv able pr ocess. Y ou cannot observ e “learning”; y ou can onl y observ e changes in beha vior. Managers should concentr ate on the behaviors rather than the words used to describe them (Skinner, 1977).

Figure 3.2 pr esents a simplified v ersion of w hat Skinner called the “oper ant conditioning pr o- cess.” The concept of “oper ant” is deri ved fr om the concept that indi viduals oper ate on the en vironment. The y do not simpl y r espond t o stimuli or e ven t o r einforcers in a knee-jer k f ashion. The y will, ho wever, o ver time change beha viors based on consequences. Some con - sequences str engthen beha viors or incr ease the lik elihood that a beha vior will be r epeated, w hile others weaken behaviors or decrease the likelihood that they will reappear.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Learning Processes Section 3.2 Consequences That Increase Behaviors The fir st cons equence that incr eases or str engthens beha viors, positi ve reinforcement, occurs w hen a pleasant or pleasing consequence becomes associat ed with a beha vior. E very person encount ers numer ous positi ve r einforcements, such as pleasant con versations, pr aise fr om a supervisor , a pa ycheck, a hug, and others. The de termining f actor in designating some- thing as a posi tive r einforcement is the connection with a beha vioral change such as complet - ing a pr oject, making a quality suggestion t o a supervisor , or gi ving noticeable e xtra eff ort during a moment of crisis. P ositive r einforcement can also be applied w hen an emplo yee eliminat es an undesir able beha vior, such as w hen a supervisor complements and r ewards in some small w ay an indi vidual w ho has been chr onically lat e t o w ork but suddenl y becomes punctual.

The sec ond consequence that incr eases or str engthens beha viors, neg ative reinforcement, ma y be the most misunders tood concept in or ganizational beha vior. Neg ative r einforcement can onl y occur w hen an a versive or neg ative e vent is taking place. A beha vior must occur in or der t o t erminate the a versive or neg ative e vent that is occurring. T o demonstr ate this r ein- forcer, consider a lab r at that has been wir ed so that the animal can be continuousl y shock ed. The onl y w ay t o st op the shock is f or the r at t o t ouch a small metal bar in one corner of the cage.

Doing so br eaks the cir cuit and the pain st ops. Aft er a f ew episodes, y ou will ha ve a par anoid r at standing besid e the bar , w aiting f or the ne xt shock t o begin. The beha vior (bar hitting) has been strengthened and increased.

Negative r einforcement can also occur w hen someone tak es medicine t o r educe ongoing dis- comf ort, such as an antacid f or a st omachache or an aspirin f or a headache. On the job, joking t o br eak up the t ension of an o verly serious meeting, if it w orks, ma y become a r egular f orm of negatively reinforced behavior.

Consequences That Decrease Behaviors Punishment r epresents an unpleasant consequence link ed t o a beha vior. Such a beha vior will quickl y di sappear w hen its consequence is a versive or disagr eeable. If a diff erent r at in a diff erent cage t ouches an electrified metal bar and r eceives a shock, the r at will soon cut a wide path away from the bar. The behavior (bar hitting) has decreased.

Punishment is oft en confus ed with neg ative r einforcement. T wo k ey diff erences e xist. First , punishment is an unpleasant consequence that f ollows the perf ormance of a beha vior; neg a- tive r einforcement is an unpleasant e vent that pr ecedes the perf ormance of a beha vior. In the Figure 3.2: Operant conditioning model When an agreeable consequence results from a specific behavior, it acts as a reinforcement of that beha vior, which in turn strengthens the behavior.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Learning Processes Section 3.2 simplest of t erms, y elling at w orkers f or malingering is punishment . A man - ager w ho sa ys, “Y ou can ’t lea ve w ork until this r eport is finished” is appl ying neg ative reinforcement.

Extinction is the absence of a r ein- forcer.

It can tak e place in tw o w ays. The fir st occurs w hen a beha vior has been emitt ed with no consequence, positi ve or neg ative. Ov er time, such a beha vior lik ely will disappear . Some - one w ho uses a w ord or mak es a ges - ture that other s do not understand and r eceives no r eaction as a consequence will e ventually abandon the w ord or gestur e.

The se cond f orm of e xtinction in volves r emoving consequences that appear ed pr eviously, either b y st opping the use of positi ve r einforcement or b y punishment . F or e xample, consider an emplo yee w ho has consi stently been pr aised f or being cust omer friendl y and helpful but then st ops r eceiving that positi ve att ention. Ov er time, the emplo yee ma y become mor e com - placent about helping cust omers. A second emplo yee is punished f or chewing gum on the job b y being sent home ear ly, losing most of a nig ht’s pa y. A t first , gum chewing will disappear . If the emplo yee f orgets and chew s gum on the job, but do es not r eceive punishment , o ver time gum chewing likely will begin again (Skinner, 1974).

Table 3.4 pr ovides e xamples of oper ant consequences in the w orkplace. These consequences can be deli vered in a v ariety of w ays t o shape emplo yee beha viors. In essence, the y can help guide or teach the employee to achieve at higher levels (Skinner, 1978).

Table 3.4: Operant consequences at work Positive reinforcementpay, praise, promotion, benefits, inclusion in high-status groups or teams, prizes in contests Negative reinforcement meeting deadlines (e.g., filing tax forms on time, breaking up the tension of a meeting with a joke that receives a favorable response by those involved, being allo wed to leave work early for completing a task ahead of schedule) Punishment discipline, termination, unwanted transfer, unpleasant task assignment, demotion Extinction ignoring an unwanted behavior; removing a previously granted reward such as praise or bonuses; ceasing punishment for behaviors, such as not wearing pr oper attire Ajkkafe/iStock/Thinkstock In order to manage effectively, leaders must learn to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Learning Processes Section 3.2 Schedules of Reinforcement The various forms of reinforcement can be deli vered in several w ays. Shaping programs seek t o incr ease certain tar get beha viors, on the job or elsew here. T o achie ve these goals, r ein- forcements ar e deli vered using diff erent schedules. C ontinuous reinforcement means the r einforcer wil l be deli vered e very time a beha vior occurs. The appr oach is difficult t o admin - ister because it requires constant monitoring, watching for the desired or target behavior.

Intermittent reinforcement in volves deli vering r einforcements f or some, but not e very, instance of a desir ed or ta rget beha vior being e xhibited. Int ermittent r einforcement pr o- grams routinely take place on worksites such as those displayed in Table 3.5.

The first tw o pr ograms in volve maintaining a beha vior o ver time. Fix ed-interval r einforce- ments ar e distribut ed at unif orm time periods, so long as the beha vior continues. V ariable- interval r einforcements ar e distribut ed o ver r andom time periods, ag ain as long as the beha v- ior continues.

The sec ond tw o pr ograms gr ant r einforcements based on beha vioral occurr ences. Fix ed-ratio r einforcement will be gr anted on a fix ed number of beha viors, such as e very thir d instance or e very fifth occurr ence. V ariable-ratio r einforcement v aries the number of beha vioral occurr ences.

Table 3.5: Reinforcement schedules Behavior maintenance Example at work Fixed interval weekly or monthly paycheck Variable interval promotion for continuous high performance; pay raises for high performance gr anted on random timetables Behavior occurrence Example at work Fixed ratio commission per sale; piece-rate pay per item produced; prize for coming to w ork on time five days in a row Variable ratio praise and compliments randomly delivered for good work; prize for com- ing to work on time more regularly than all others (prize delivered to the emplo yee with the most on-time arrivals); contests with elements of gaming in them Skinner not ed an additional element of the connection betw een r einforcement and the acqui - sition of beha viors. The pri nciple of immediate reinforcement suggests that the closer in time a r einforcer appears f ollowing a beha vior, the mor e po werful the r einforcer becomes. Immediat ely deli vered r ewards and punishments ar e mor e po werful than those deli vered f ollowing a delay.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Social Learning Theory Section 3.3 Overuse of Punishment Skinner belie ved that o verreliance on punishment cr eates a tr ap f or par ents, t eachers, go v- ernmental officials, and managers. Punishment has se veral disad vantages. F or one, it f ocuses att ention on un wanted beha viors r ather than desir ed beha viors. In pr actically an y situation, it mak es sense t o point out the beha viors y ou hope t o encour age (trying har d, sta ying on task) r ather than the ones you do not (goofing around, wandering away).

Punishment is subject t o e xtinction, w hich means that w hen punishment st ops f or an un wanted beha vior (e.g., chewing gum on the sales floor), the beha vior e ventually r eturns if it has rewarding elements in it.

At w ork, managers t end t o punish f or thr ee r easons: (a) as a displa y of personal po wer; (b) because it w as w hat the y observ ed w hile tr aining t o become managers; and (c) because it is quick and eas y. Most modern management e xperts r ecommend sa ving punishment f or e xtreme cir cumstances, such as saf ety rules violations and clear ly inappr opriate beha viors. The r est of the time, positi ve r einforcement off ers the bett er alt ernative. T o par aphrase the popular 1980s book The One-Minute Manager, “Help people r each their pot ential: Cat ch someone doin g something ‘rig ht’, r ather than looking f or someone doing something wr ong t o punish ” (Blanchard & Johnson, 1981).

3.3 Social Learning Theory Albert Bandur a (1977) cr eated a theory of learning that int egrates cogniti ve, beha vioral, and en vironmental elements int o a sing le perspecti ve. The social learning theory appr oach empha - sizes a v ariety of sour ces of learning. Bandur a suggest ed that beha viors, human thoug ht, and the consequences of activities all interact to create learning, as displayed in Figure 3.3. Comprehension Exercise 1. When a supervisor says to a group of workers, “We’re not leaving until this project is finished, ” the manager is administering a. positive reinforcement.

b. negative reinforcement.

c. punishment.

d. extinction.

2. The closer in time a reinforcer appears following a behavior, the more powerful the reinforcer will be is which principle?

a. immediate reinforcement b. response discrimination c. extinction d. motoric reproduction Answers: 1) b 2) a \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Social Learning Theory Section 3.3 Stages of Learning Social learning theory e xplains a series of stages in volved in the learning pr ocess. Figur e 3.4 summarizes w hat must tak e place f or learning t o occur . A ttention, r etention, mot oric r epro- duction, and reinforcement all shape the learning process.

Figure 3.3: Behavior-person-environment combinations According to Bandura, learning is achieved through the interaction of behaviors (B), individual char acteristics (or “person”) (P), and one’s environment (E).

Figure 3.4: Social learning theory model Social learning theory suggests that attentional processes, retention processes, motoric reproduction pr ocesses, and reinforcement must take place in order for learning to occur.

Adapted from A. Bandura (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, p. 23.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Social Learning Theory Section 3.3 Attention means a stimulus captur es att ention and is select ed. As not ed ear lier in this chap - ter, f actors such as int ensity, size, contr ast, and no velty attr act att ention. R etention processes r efers t o the ways one keeps or st ores inf ormation. It includes physical and mental elements. Inf ormation that has been coded and r ehearsed becomes r etained in a person ’s mind. Ph ysi- cal memory includes “muscle memory ” associat ed with pr acticed mo vements, such as scales on a musical instrument, shooting a basketball, or replicating a t ae kwon do sequence.

Motoric reproduction pr ocesses ar e essentiall y t ests that a beha vior or conce pt has been cor- r ectly acquir ed or learned. The indi vidual must be con vinced, either b y self-observ ation or the f eedback pr ovided b y others. Mot oric r eproduction includes both int ernally gener ated and e xternally gener ated learning components. A person can observ e his or her beha viors and their out comes, or an outside person can pr ovide inf ormation. A figur e sk ater can w atch a video of her perf ormance and mak e adjustments (self-observ ation) or r eceive counsel fr om a coach (feedback by others).

Reinforcements also pla y an important r ole in social lea rning. R einforcements tak e the f orms described b y Skinner fr om the oper ant pr ocess appr oach, with one diff erence. Inst ead of onl y one sour ce of r einforcement, the en vironment (e xternal f orces), thr ee f orms e xist: e xternal, vicarious, and self-r einforcement. Ext ernal r einforcement is the type pr oposed b y Skinner; it is present in the external environment or given by others.

Vicarious reinforcement r esults fr om observing the impact of consequences on others. Indi viduals can w atch as something happens t o another person and learn fr om the pr ocess. An emplo yee w ho violat es a compan y rule and r eceives a punishment in fr ont of others mak es it less lik ely the y will br eak the same rule, because the y ha ve seen the pot ential or lik ely r esult of the beha vior. Man y emplo yee beha viors, both desir ed and undesir ed, ar e acquir ed b y view- ing the consequences of the experiences of coworkers.

Self-reinforcement in volves a person administ ering his or her o wn consequences. Self- administ ered r einforcements include f eelings of pride, accomplishment , self-est eem, and clo - sure, on the positi ve side, and guilt , frustr ation, and embarr assment as punishments. Neg ative self-r einforcement in volves cr eating f eelings of pr essure or t ension until a task is complet e or a goal has been accomplished. F or e xample, f eeling guilty until y ou ha ve writt en a satisf actory t erm paper can become a form of negative self-reinforcement.

Bandura’s Conclusions Based on this model of learning, Bandur a de veloped a series of conclusions that add v alue t o the social learning model and appl y t o indi viduals at w ork and in other places. F our of the most noted conclusions are the following:

1. Incorporate all three types of reinforcement to achieve desired behavior and learning.

2. Understand the influences of role models and coaches in learning.

3. Become wary of the impact of television programming on children.

4. Recognize that it is possible to “learn by thinking.” \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Social Learning Theory Section 3.3 Regarding the first point , Bandur a not es the po wer of vicarious and self-r einforcement. He pr ovides e vidence of the impact of self-r einforcement on alcoholism, f or e xample. An alco - holic may “reward” himself or herself for completing a task by taking a drink.

Vicarious r einforcement combines with concepts of mot oric r eproduction t o e xplain the influence of r ole models and coaches. These pr ocesses begin ear ly in lif e, with par ents and t eachers as the ear liest r ole models and coaches of y oung people. Lat er, popular peers assume those r oles in the classr oom and on the pla yground. In the w orkplace, successful emplo y- ees ser ve as r ole models di splaying the beha viors that led t o their achie vements and oft en become mentors and coaches to new workers.

Employees also learn b y observ ation. K ey figur es in an or ganization e xhibit beha viors that ar e r ewarded or punished. Successful emplo yees become r ole models. Coaches and ment ors guide w orkers t o perf orm in w ays most suit ed t o the or ganization’s needs. Also, unf ortunately, un wanted beha viors such as discrimination t oward and har assment of co workers can be modeled and coached, alon g with other unethical actions such as theft . Managers should be a ware of the impact of these f orms of acti vity and corr ect them as quickl y as possible thr ough the disciplinary system and other means.Bandura’s w ork appear ed at a time w hen the a verage t elevision set in the Unit ed Stat es w as turned on f or mor e than si x hour s each da y (the number actuall y peak ed at o ver eig ht hours per da y in the 1990s). Bandur a not ed that an a verage child, w atching an a verage amount of t elevision, w ould see the r eenactment of thousands of mur ders b y the age of 18. The le vel of violence in the w orkplace and in other ar enas has continued the debat e, e xpanding it t o the impact of video g ames and other v enues that appear t o g lorify violent or aggr essive beha viors. Such action fig - ures serv e as r ole models and coaches that emplo yees and other members of society encount er. Betw een 1992 and 2012, ther e w ere 14,770 w orkplace homicide victims, or r oughly an a verage of 70 0 per y ear, accor ding t o f ederal go vernment statistics (Sahadi, 2015).

Finall y, Bandu ra ackno wledges that man y people also learn b y thinking. His model can - not account f or e very change in beha vior or piece of kno wledge that has been acquir ed and r etained. Cr eativity and other ad vancements in thinking or pr oblem sol ving ma y occur because someone has a great idea (Bandura, 1976).

In summary , learning is the pr ocess of acquiring new kno wledge or a new skill. Numer ous w orkplace acti vities ar e aff ected b y learning pr ocesses. Int ernally gener ated learning pr o- cesses e xplain ho w a perso n learns based on int ernal mental functioning. The k ey f actors that shape learning include per ceptions, attributions, and indi vidual diff erences such as DragonImages/iStock/Thinkstock Consider how Bandura’s insights apply to modern society, as the use of screens steadily increases.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 self-concept and self-efficac y. Ext ernally gener ated learning pr ocess theories e xamine f actors in the en vironment that lead t o the acquisition of beha viors. Social learning theory incorpo- r ates the elements of man y pr evious theories t o achie ve a fuller pictur e of learning pr ocesses. Managers can use the components of the theory t o impr ove on-the-job t eaching and tr aining pr ograms.

3.4 Individual Differences Individual diff erences shape the w ay people view themsel ves and their jobs, as w ell as ho w the y r espond t o per ceptual stimuli and learning opportunities. These diff erences aff ect a per- son ’s ab ility t o succeed and ho w the emplo yee r esponds emotionall y t o task s, co workers, and other elements of an or ganization. Indi vidual diff erences include those r elated t o attitudes, v alues, attributions, and various elements of personality.

Attitudes An attitude is a pr edisposition t oward a person, object , concept , or e vent. A ttitudes can be f avorable or unf avorable. P eople f orm attitudes about f amous people and politicians. Con- sider the wide variation in attitudes toward President Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton.

Attitudes contain thr ee components: cogniti ve, aff ective, and beha vioral. The c ognitive com- ponent of an attitude r epresents the thoug htful r easoning part of an attitude. One can r eason that discrimination is wrong because it violates the law and ethical premises.

The affecti ve component of an attitude contains the f eelings and emotions about the object being consider ed. One person ma y become angry at the thoug ht of affirmati ve action because his r easoning pr ocess consi ders it t o be a f orm of r everse discrimination. A second person ma y become equall y angry , because she belie ves that people misunderstand affirmati ve action and use it as an e xcuse t o continue t o discriminat e. Aff ective elements can also be posi- ti ve emotions, such as affection. Comprehension Exercise 1. An employee who sees a coworker being chastised for using the photocopier to make personal copies and who then decides not to make the same mistake engages in a. external reinforcement.

b. vicarious reinforcement.

c. self-reinforcement.

d. punishment.

2. Role models and coaches emerge from concepts regarding vicarious reinforcement and a. attention.

b. retention.

c. motoric reproduction.

d. reinforcement. Answers: 1) b 2) c \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 The beha vioral component of an atti- tude r efers t o ho w a person int ends t o act or r espond t oward an objecti ve or e vent. If someone has lost a par ent t o lung cancer and sees someone smok- ing in a nonsmoking zone, the cogni - tive compone nt r easons that the per- son is doing something wr ong and possibl y is in violation of a local or di- nance.

The aff ective component lik ely w ould be f eeling anno yed or angry . The beha vioral component w ould be either asking the person t o st op or finding someone in authority t o han - dle the situation. P eople hold man y attitudes and ma y ha ve se veral k ey v alues. A ttitudes also summariz e f eelings about concepts, such as affirmati ve action in the w orkplace or mobile phone use in public spaces.

A ttitudes v ary r egarding e vents such as Christmas or Independence Da y.

T wo important attitudes studied in or ganizational beha vior are job satisfaction and job involvement. Job Satisfaction Job satisf action includes a set of personal f eelings about a job. T able 3.6 displa ys some of the components that aff ect ho w emplo yees f eel about their jobs, as w ell as the out comes, or indi- cat ors, of job satisfaction. Table 3.6 Components of job satisfaction Indicators of satisfaction Satisfaction with . . . Rates of . . .

Pay Absenteeism Supervision Tardiness Chances for advancement or promotion Turnover Coworkers Accidents Job duties and responsibilities Grievances Vandalism Self-destruction (alcohol, substance abuse) Satisfaction ma y or ma y not be link ed t o pr oductivity. Some r esearch indicat es that pr oduc- tivity leads t o satisf action. In essence, if y ou ar e a hig her perf ormer, y ou r eceive a gr eater number of or ganizational r ewards and ar e satisfied as a r esult. A t the or ganization-wide le vel, Radachynskyi/iStock/Thinkstock The three components of an attitude are cognitive, affective, and behavioral. When managers are able to distinguish between these distinct elements, they are enabled to better understand employees’ values and motivations.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 however, the possibility e xists that hig her o verall le vels of satisf action in the entir e w orkforce ar e connected to company performance (Ostroff, 1992).

Whether satisf action causes pr oductivity or vice v ersa, man y companies cr eate policies and acti vities desi gned t o impr ove w orker satisf action, in lar ge part because the b y-products of a satisfied w orkforce ar e f ewer people calling in sick, f ewer people arri ving lat e, and lo wer turno ver r ates (Hom & Griff eth, 1995; McShane, 1984) . Also, w hile no cause-and-eff ect r ela- tionship can be established, lo w job satisf action is of ten associat ed with substance abuse (K ohan, 2002). Mor eover, job satisf action impacts per ceived le vels of on-the-job str ess and the des ire t o get a way thr ough withdr awal cognitions , or thinking about quitting (Hom & Kinicki, 2001). Thus, it benefits the organization to try to develop a satisfied workforce.

Job satisf action corr elates with or ganizational citizenship behaviors , or actions associat ed with the desir e t o be a good or ganizational citizen, such as pr oviding constructi ve stat ements t o others, making suggestions f or impr ovement, tr aining new emplo yees, and sho wing r espect f or compan y pr operty. Citiz enship beha viors ar e r elated t o cust omer satisf action and other perf ormance r atings. Satisfied emplo yees mak e good or ganizational citizens w ho ar e com - mitted t o seeing the compan y do w ell and w ho sa y positi ve things about the compan y (K oys, 2001; Or gan, 1990). In gener al, b y seeking t o build hig h le vels of job satisf action thr oughout the or ganization, managers can influence se veral out comes, including o verall compan y per- f ormance (Harter, Schmidt & Hayes, 2002).

Job Involvement When a perso n ps ychologically identifies with his or her job, the indi vidual e xpresses job in volvement. Emplo yees w ho r eport hig her le vels of job in volvement r elate on-the-job per- f ormance t o a personal sense of self-w orth because the y car e about the w ork the y do (Blau & Boal, 1987). P eople in volved in their jobs ar e less lik ely t o be absent fr om w ork and ar e less lik ely t o quit or r esign. Gener al agr eement e xists that a w orkforce f eaturing numer ous emplo yees with hig h le vels of job in volvement lik ely will succeed at hig her le vels than or gani- zations without such an advantage.

Values Values ar e str ongly held con victions r egarding objects and ideas. As depict ed in Figur e 3.1, the y r epresent the centr al cor e of a person ’s per ceptual pr ocess. V alues ar e mor e perma - nently held and ar e unlik ely t o be changed without the occurr ence of something f airly dr a- matic.

V alues normall y appl y t o mor e gener al cat egories of thoug ht, such as r eligious belief s, political affiliations, and views of the importance of justice and equality.

Individuals of ten e xpress their v alues b y w orking or r efusing t o w ork in certain v ocations, companies, and industries w hen the y f eel their principles w ould be compr omised b y the w ork the y w ould be e xpected or r equired t o perf orm. Some indi viduals w ould also tak e e xception t o w orking f or businesses or institutions with questionable business pr actices. Con versely, personal v alues mig ht lead certain indi viduals t o seek emplo yment in companies the y belie ve ar e ethical or that e xpress the same ideals. The r ecent “R ace T ogether” pr ogram initiat ed at Star bucks pr ovides an e xample, as not ed in the upcoming OB in A ction f eature bo x, because the publicity of such an effort might attract some individuals to work in the company.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 At times, attitu des and v alues int ertwine seamlessl y. In others, disconnects mig ht occur . F or e xample, som eone w ho is in dir e need of emplo yment ma y, out of necessity , accept an off er fr om a compan y with a r eputation f or unethical business pr actices. The ideal will be t o find congruence between the individual’s values and attitudes, and the company’s environment.

Attributions The concept of personal per ception has led t o the de velopment of theories about ho w people per ceive other people and their actions. The most notable is attribution theory . A t the most gener al le vel, attributions ar e per ceptions of cause and eff ect designed t o help indi viduals understand the en vironment (Heider , 1958). P eople continuall y mak e attributions. Thr ee common attributions include explanatory, predictive, and interpersonal versions. OB in Action: The “Race Together” Program at Starbucks Racial t ensions ha ve surf aced in man y dr amatic w ays during the past se veral y ears. Int erac- tions betw een police f orces and citizens and the r esulting “Black Li ves Matt er” mo vement ar e e vidence of a national sense of uncertainty.

Howard Schultz, CEO and f ounder of Star bucks, w as tr oubled b y w hat seemed t o be a rising le vel of r acial unr est. He committ ed the compan y t o w orking t oward gr eater understanding of the issues dividing persons of color with others in the country.

Starbucks emplo yees and managers w ere in vited t o discuss r acial issues in f orums held in Oakland, Los Angeles, St . Louis, New Y ork, and Chicago o ver a thr ee-month period in 2015. In one pr ess r elease, Star bucks described r eactions t o one man ’s stat ement that “he w as pr oud t o ha ve r eached the age of 20” (Star bucks, 2015, par a. 8). One Star bucks emplo yee, K elly Shep - pard, was quoted as saying, The magnitude of that statement might have been lost on many in the room, but for me, it brought to light a deeply troubling situation. For some young people in our country, just staying alive is their biggest and most important accomplishment . . .

How could that be in 21st century America with all of the promise and opportunity our nation provides? (quoted in Starbucks, 2015, para. 9) The pr ogram e xtended t o solicitations fr om cust omers t o pr ovide their inputs thr ough com - ments writt en on Star bucks cups, a pr ogram titled “R ace T ogether.” The purpose w as t o r aise a wareness with the goal of starting a conversation about this troubling situation.

Not all r eactions w ere positi ve. Some African American cust omers w ondered ho w it w ould be possible t o e xplain 200 y ears of r acial injustice with a comment fr om a cup. The y further ask ed w hy it w as their r esponsibility t o e xplain institutional and cultur al pr oblems t o baristas w hen the y simply wanted to relax and enjoy a refreshment.

Reflection and Application Questions 1. What role might attitudes play in the perspectives of African Americans and Whites in r esponding to the Race Together program?

2. What role might values play in the same situation regarding this highly sensitive issue?

3. What are your personal views of racism and how it might become manifest in the w orkplace?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 An explanatory attribution occurs when a cause is attached to an effect: “The last time I tried to quit smoking I gained weight because I was hungry all the time.” The attribution attaches a cause (quitting smoking) to an effect (gaining weight). A predictive attribution connects a cause to a prediction of the effect: “So, if I try to quit smoking again, I know I’ll gain more weight.” In or ganizational beha vior studies, int erpersonal attributions, r egarding the w ays others beha ve, r eceive the most att ention (K elley, 1972). In gener al, w hen a person ’s beha vior is observ ed, people att empt t o e xplain w hether that beha vior w as int ernally det ermined, b y personality traits, or externally determined, by the environment.

Attribution theory e xplains w hy indi viduals mak e int ernal or e xternal attributions. An int er- nal attr ibution is the belief that another person ’s actions ar e under his (or her) contr ol. An e xternal attribution occurs w hen an indi vidual belie ves that another person ’s actions ar e the r esult of outside, uncontr ollable f orces. Thr ee elements contribut e t o det erminations made (R oss, 1977):

• distinctiveness (if a behavior is unusual for the individual) • consensus (if other people would have behaved the same way in the same situation) • consistency (if the behavior is part of a larger pattern of behavior) Distinctiveness refers t o w hen an indi vidual displa ys unu sual beha viors in a specific situation. Does the pers on al ways beha ve in a certain w ay, or w as the beha vior une xpected? F or e xam- ple, a manager w ho thr ows do wn a coff ee cup in disgust f ollowing a neg ative r eport about his department w ould lack distincti veness if the beha vior w ere common. P eople w ould attribut e the beha vior t o the manage r’s bad t emper. If emplo yees w ere shock ed and made comments such as, “I’v e ne ver seen him get that mad bef ore,” then it w as a distincti ve beha vior. A hig hly distincti ve beha vior w ould be attribut ed t o the e xternal cause that the r eport w as unf air. A beha vior with lo w distincti veness will pr obably be assi gned the int ernal cause that the man - ager is a hothead. The paths of these two conclusions are as follows:

The manager with a bad t emper has pr eviously displa yed angry beha vior, so the gr oup assumes it is part of his personality . The manager w ho ne ver “loses it” will be view ed diff er- ently, and the beha vior will be attribut ed t o an e xternal cause, because such an out burst is not part of his personality.

Consensus r eflects a cir cumstance in w hich e veryone r esponds in the same w ay t o a situation. If a massi ve r ainstorm r esulted in numer ous emplo yees arri ving lat e f or w ork, the attribution w ould be that an e xternal cause (the st orm) r esulted in tar diness, and hig h consensus e xists. \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 On the other hand, if during the same r ainstorm onl y one emplo yee w as lat e, the attribution w ould be that an int ernal cause r elated t o the specific emplo yee w as pr esent, such as, “He used the st orm as an e xcuse t o run an err and bef ore coming t o w ork; he al ways uses e xcuses.” Consistency is similar t o distincti veness. The diff erence is that consist ency r eflects a patt ern of beha vior o ver time r ather than a unique incident . Someone w ho al ways arri ves lat e, not onl y t o w ork in the morning but also t o meetings and w hen coming back fr om lunch, displa ys hig h consist ency, and an int ernal attribution that the person is “irr esponsible” w ould be made. If the tar diness is unusual f or the person, a violation of consist ency w ould lead t o an e xternal attribution that something must have happened to make the person late, as follows:

Individuals mak e attributio ns about their o wn beha viors as w ell. When another person has err ed, an observ er t ends t o mak e an int ernal attribution , sa ying it is due t o int ernal personal - ity f actors. When someone causes a car accident , the t endency is t o attribut e the cr ash t o the person ’s “not pa ying att ention,” or “dri ving lik e an idiot .” When a person errs, the indi vidual will mor e lik ely emplo y an e xternal attribution, attributi ng causes t o situational f actors r ather than blaming oursel ves. E ven w hen the person causes the wr eck, it will be because “the sun w as in my eyes,” or “the intersection was blocked so I couldn’t see.” When judging the beha viors of others, people t end t o under estimate the importance of e xter- nal f actors and o verestimate the importance of int ernal f actors as influences on those beha v- iors, w hich is kno wn as a fundamental attribution error.

In judging personal beha viors, a similar type of r easoning occurs w hen someone attribut es his or her o wn success t o int ernal personal f actors but attribut es personal f ailures t o e xternal sour ces, w hich r eflects a self- serving bias (Miller & La wson, 1989). In other w ords, “I succeeded because I’m smart and try har d,” versus, “I failed because management was out to ruin my career.” Attribution theory off ers insig hts r egarding the w ays emplo yees per ceive others. It also e xplains ho w a person mig ht cope with success or f ailure. A ttribution models ha ve been used t o help tr ain indi viduals t o become mor e empathetic t owards others. The tr aining t eaches emplo yees ho w t o “w alk a mile in another person ’s sh oes.” Managers can be sho wn ho w t o uplift a person w hen the indi vidual f ails or does not achie ve a desir ed le vel of success and t o not simply resort to blaming others. A ttribution models ha ve also been emplo yed t o help per sons mor e r ealistically cope with their o wn beha viors and the out comes that r esult. T rainers and managers can w ork t oward helping a person accept r esponsibility f or an err or or f ailure and use it as a “t eaching moment” r ather than t o assign blame or assess penalties. Indi viduals can be taug ht t o r ecognize cir cumstances in w hich the y o verestimate personal success or contributions t o a compan y and tak e mor e of a team approach. Attributions are further connected to other elements of personality.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 Elements of Personality Just as per ceptions influence the w orkplace e xperience, indi vidual diff erences shape the w ay people view themsel ves and their jobs. These e valuations aff ect the ability t o succeed and ho w the y r espond emotionall y t o task s, co workers, and other or ganizational elements. Fi ve personality traits have been associated with workplace outcomes:

• self-concept • self-esteem • self-efficacy • self-monitoring • emotional intelligence Self-Concept Personality theorists ha ve used the t erm “self ” t o desc ribe the cor e of a person ’s conscious e xistence. The self det ermines “ps ychological r eality,” or ho w one sees the w orld. A wareness of the self constitut es the essence of a self-c oncept, or the view a person has of hims elf as a ph ysical, so cial, spiri- tual, or mor al being (Gecas, 1982). A w ell-developed self-concept is pr es- ent w hen a person has a str ong sense of her o wn uniqueness. Someone w ho is not “self-a ware,” or w ho has a less de veloped se lf-concept, spends less time thinking about personal char ac- teristics and ho w he (or she) diff ers fr om others. Self-concept connects t o the other elements of an indi vidual’s persona and methods of adapting and adjusting t o the w orld ( Johnson, R osen & Levy, 2008).

Individuals with a str ong, positi ve self-concept ar e mor e lik ely t o assume mor e challenging task s. The y ar e mor e inclined t o k eep trying w hen cir cumstances become difficult . The y ar e mor e able t o adapt t o changing cir cumstances. Indi vidual ps ychologists and compan y tr ainers can utilize pr ograms designed t o incr ease a person ’s self-a wareness and str engthen the indi vidual’s self-concept in positi ve ways. This, in turn, leads to higher levels of self-esteem.

Self-Esteem Do y ou lik e y ourself ? S elf-esteem constitut es a belief about ho w a person e valuates his or her self-w orth as part of an o verall self-e valuation (Br anden, 1998; Gecas, 1982). P eople with hig h le vels of self-est eem mak e positi ve stat ements abou t themsel ves and disagr ee with neg a- tive stat ements. Lo w self-es teem connects t o self-doubt and neg ative thoug hts about oneself. JeremyRichards/iStock/Thinkstock Having a sense of your own uniqueness can help you focus on goals that fall in line with your personal values, which can be a source of intrinsic motivation.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 At w ork, a person with hig her self-est eem ma y be mor e willing t o tak e risk s based on per cep- tions of perso nal talents and abilities. A str onger sens e of self-est eem means the appr oval of peers has a lo wer v alue. A person with lo wer self-es teem will be mor e lik ely t o desir e the appr oval of peers, leading t o conf ormity and seeking t o please others. Oft en this means a manager with lo wer self-est eem is less lik ely t o tak e an unpopular but necessary position on a workplace issue (Branden, 1998; Brockner, 1998).

According t o the American Management Association, se ven st eps can be tak en t o impr ove and enhance employee self-esteem.

• Acknowledge weaknesses, but play to people’s strengths.

• Don’t assume people know how good they are.

• When people do something well, acknowledge it immediately.

• Encourage people to “go public” about their accomplishments.

• Help people identify their strengths and help them capitalize on them.

• Create small victories.

• Plan for the future.

These tactics can be implement ed as part of the perf ormance appr aisal pr ocess, thr ough coaching and ment oring, and b y simple “in the hall way” contacts. Self-est eem is associat ed closel y with self-efficacy.

Self-Efficacy Do y ou belie ve y ou will earn a gr ade of “ A” in this course? Ho w confident ar e y ou in that belief ? S elf-efficacy r eflects a person ’s belief about his or her ability t o successfull y complet e a task, assignment , or challenge (Gist , 1987). The e xpectation a person has that she will suc - ceed, r egardless of the chall enge or cir cumstance, e volves o ver a series of y ears, man y times based on the encour agement of par ents, r ole models, and friends. F urther, successi ve achie ve- ments ar e oft en f ollowed b y the per ception that one’s goals ar e mor e attainable. A t w ork, f our f actors influence a person ’s degr ee of self-efficacy: prior e xperiences, beha vior models, persuasion or encour agement fr om others, and an indi vidual’s personal assessment of his or her emotional and physical state at any given moment (Bandura, 1989).

Prior e xperiences fr equently lead indi viduals t o belie ve that success does, in f act, br eed suc - cess.

Kno wing this, managers can w ork t o ensur e that new emplo yees and manager tr ainees enjo y small victories, ther eby building self-efficacy. A new college student w ho mak es a good gr ade on a quiz gains confidence that he can succeed.

Behavior mod els ar e those w ho demonstr ate ho w t o succeed. These indi viduals can pr ovide coaching and help with setting r easonable and achie vable goals. The y off er constructi ve criti- cism about how to reach those goals.

Persuasion and encour agement come fr om a v ariety of sour ces, including peers, supervisors, and subor dinates. E ven pers ons a way fr om the emplo yment sit e, such as par ents, friends, and r omantic partners, offer similar words of support.

An indi vidual’s ph ysical and emotional stat e mig ht str engthen or inhibit her self-efficacy at an y gi ven moment . A singer w ho de velops a sor e thr oat ma y suddenl y lose confidence on the nig ht of a perf ormance (W ood & Bandur a, 1989). A t the other e xtreme, a person with a \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 powerful sense of self-efficacy finds w ays t o o vercome e ven these obstacles. Bask etball stars Michael Jor dan and Dir k No witzki f amously o vercame hig h t emperatures and flu s ymptoms during NBA championship games, leading their teams to victory.

Self-efficacy has been used t o e xplain ho w people succeed and ho w the y f ail (Bandur a, 1989). Success r esults fr om a combination of hig her self-effi cacy and a set of specific beha viors. A chievement-oriented behaviors include the following:

• looking for the best opportunities • overcoming obstacles • setting challenging goals • planning and preparation • using creativity in solving problems • learning from setbacks • visualizing success At the other e xtreme, learned he lplessness r esults fr om a self-fulfilling pr ophecy of e xpect- ing t o f ail and then f ailing. Lo w self-efficacy combines with being passi ve, a voiding difficult task s, ha ving w eak perf ormance e xpectations, not trying, quitting easil y, blaming pr oblems on outside sour ces, and making other e xcuses t o cr eate learned helplessness. F ortunately, some e vidence indicat es that self-efficacy can be str engthened, e ven in those with lo w le vels (Campbell & Martink o, 1998 ). B y capitalizing on prior e xperiences, f ollowing beha vior mod- els, seeking out persuasion and encour agement, and using personal assessments, an indi- vidual can achie ve self-efficacy thr ough successi ve achie vements o ver time. Man y tr aining pr ograms incorpor ate this appr oach b y leading emplo yees t o r ecognize the y ha ve learned something (a rule or compan y pr ocedure), mast ered a task (successfull y complet ed a r eport or f orm), or become f aster at completing an assignment (filling an or der). Each time a tr ainee succeeds and r eceives a small r eward as a r esult, the pr ogram encour ages a heig htened le vel of effort and a more difficult task may be assigned next.

Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring in volves observ ations of personal beha viors leading t o the ability t o adjust t o changing situations and en vironments. A person with a hig h degr ee of self-monit oring quickl y adapts t o new en vironments b y pa ying att ention t o the beha viors of others and conf orming t o them.

Someone with a lo wer degr ee of self-monit oring ma y appear t o be mor e rigid in think- ing patterns and behaviors and will be less likely to change to mesh with the situation.

At w ork, hig her le vels of se lf-monitoring ha ve been associat ed with the t erm “chameleon, ” w hich mig ht impl y a degr ee of manipulation or phoniness. Con versely, hig h self-monit oring has also been associat ed with mor e positi ve char acteristics such as situation sensiti vity and fle xibility in dealing with others. R esearch suggests that those with hig her le vels of self- monitoring achie ve bett er perf ormance r atings, ar e mor e lik ely t o become managers or leaders, and r eport hig her le vels of commitment t o their or ganizations (Da y et al., 2002). Self- monit oring links with concepts regarding emotional intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence (EI) r eflects a person ’s ability t o det ect and manage emotional cues and information. The five dimensions of emotional intelligence are:

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Individual Differences Section 3.4 • self-awareness—being aware of personal feelings and emotions • self-management—the ability to manage personal emotions and impulses • self-motivation or persistence—the ability to continue giving effort even after setbacks or failures • empathy—the ability to sense the feelings of others • social skills—the ability to cope with the emotions of others Emotional int elligence ma y pla y a r ole in success at w ork. It pot entially pr edicts the ability t o lead, and constitut es a major asset w hen w orking in jobs with hig h le vels of social int eraction (Goleman, 1995; Mayer, Salovey, & Sluyter, 1997). Mor e r ecent r esearch suggests that emotional int elligence is link ed t o hig her le vels of per- f ormance in jobs that r equire gr eater le vels of int erpersonal int eraction, especiall y positions that r equire the ability t o influence or dir ect others. Con versely, as Zeider , Matthew s, and R oberts (2004 , p. 371) summarize, “ . . . the r atio of h yperbole t o har d e vidence is hig h, with o ver-reliance in the lit erature on e xpert opinion, anecdot e, case studies, and unpublished pr oprietary surveys.” In an y case, tr aining pr ograms, such as those off ered b y the R utgers Consortium f or R esearch on Emotional Int elligence ar e a vailable (Cherniss & Goleman, 2001). Human r esource pr o- grams and managerial pr actices can be adapt ed t o build on the ability t o manage one’s emo - tions, monitor oneself, and display empathy toward others.

These fi ve personality tr aits ha ve implications f or mor e gener al out comes as w ell, such as lif e satisf action. An une xamined self-concept , poor self-est eem, lo w self-efficacy , the lack of self- monit oring, and lesser degr ees of emotional int elligence r educe lif e coping skills, or the abil- ity t o function eff ectively in social settings. Managers can spend additional time w orking with emplo yees that e xhibit such char acteristics t o help them succeed. Unf ortunately, most of the tr aining pr ograms associat ed with emotional int elligence ar e pr oprietary in natur e, and ther efore elements of them ar e not uni versally distribut ed nor ar e r esearch r esults indicating their effectiveness (Janovics & Christiansen, 2001).

Comprehension Exercise 1. Which constitut es a belief about one’s o wn self-w orth as part of an o verall self-e valuation?

a. self-concept b. self-esteem c. self-efficacy d. self-control 2. The willingness to provide constructive statements to others, make suggestions for impr ovement, train new employees, and show respect for company property shows a. job satisfaction.

b. organizational citizenship behaviors.

c. job involvement.

d. a display of values. Answers: 1) b 2) b \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Summary and Resources Chapter Summary Perception involves the selection, organization, and interpretation of stimuli or sensory impr essions in or der t o understand or gi ve meaning to the en vironment. Ph ysical per ceptual err ors occur when an individual encounters confusing stimuli or when an individual has a learning disability. Person perceptual errors include selective perception, halo/horn, stereo- typing, contrast effects, and projection.

Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge or a new skill. Internally generated learning processes e xplain ho w and what a person learns based on internal mental function - ing.

Externally generated learning processes explain how and what people learn based on f actors in the environment.

B.

F. Skinner’s operant process model concentrates on the various types of reinforcements or consequences that shape behaviors, including positive reinforcement, negative reinforce- ment, punishment, and extinction. Intermittent reinforcement involves delivering reinforce- ments for some, but not every, instance of a desired or target behavior being exhibited. Fix ed- and variable-interval reinforcement schedules apply to maintaining a behavior over a period of time. Fixed- and variable-ratio reinforcement schedules correspond with numbers of behavioral occurrences.

The principle of immediate reinforcement suggests that the closer in time a reinforcer appears following a behavior, the more powerful the reinforcer becomes. Skinner argues that punishment has been overemphasized and suggests a stronger emphasis on positive r einforcement.

Social learning theory integrates cognitive, behavioral, and environmental elements into a sing le perspective. It explains a series of stages involved in the learning process. Attention, r etention, motoric reproduction, and reinforcement all shape the learning process. Rein- forcement includes external, vicarious, and self-imposed forms.

Bandura suggests that managers can incorpor ate al l thr ee types of r einforcement int o accounts of beha vior and learning. He ar gues that the y should understand the influences of r ole models and coaches in learning. P arents should be w ary of the impact of t elevision pr o- gramming on children. Finally, he acknowledges that it is possible to learn by thinking.

An atti tude is a pr edisposition t oward a person, object , concept , or e vent. A ttitudes can be f avorable or unf avorable. A ttitudes contain cogniti ve, aff ective, and beha vioral components. In organizational behavior, two key attitudes are job satisfaction and job involvement.

Values ar e str ongly held con victions r egarding objects and ideas. The ideal is t o find congru - ence between a person’s values, his or her attitudes, and the company’s environment.

Work-related personal per ceptions ar e used t o understand w hen another person beha ves based on int ernal causes and w hen e xternal causes r esult in the beha vior. Distincti veness, consensus, and consistency shape perceptions of internal and external attributions.

Five k ey personality tr aits ar e self-concept , self-est eem, self-efficacy , self-monit oring, and emotional int elligence. Self-concept is the view a person has of himself or herself as a \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources physical, social, spiritual, or mor al being. Self-est eem constitut es a belief about ho w a person e valuates his or her self-w orth as part of an o verall self-e valuation. Self-efficacy r eflects a person ’s belief about his or her ability t o successfull y complet e a task, assignment , or chal - lenge.

Self-monit oring is the ability t o adjust personal beha viors t o e xternal, situational f ac- tors based on observ ations of personal self-e xpressive beha viors. Emotional int elligence r eflects a person’s ability to detect and manage emotional cues and information. CASE STUDY: The Seminar Rick Spalding r ead his compan y’s annual r eports with pride and concern. He w as pr oud of the le vel of pr ofitability, the gr owth in sales, and the number of new visit ors t o his st ore. Rick’s Sporting Goods had been able t o successfull y compet e with the big-bo x r etailers that oft en pushed smaller companies out of business. He belie ved that b y pr oviding a v ariety of quality sporting it ems in a brig htly lit , wide-aisle st ore in a con venient location, accompanied b y a friendl y, helpful staff and effective marketing programs, the store could remain strong.

The part of the r eports that r aised concerns came fr om human r esources. The number of indi- viduals w ho w ere tar dy t o w ork mor e than thr ee times per month had gone up dr amatically. A bsenteeism had also risen and se veral v aluable emplo yees had v oluntarily left the compan y t o work elsewhere.

Rick commissioned a local college pr ofessor t o surv ey the w orkforce, w hich consist ed of about 30 w orkers and 6 supervisors. The goal w as t o identify the f actors that mig ht contribut e t o w hat he belie ved w ere mor ale pr oblems. F rom the 26 usable surv eys r eturned b y entry -level emplo yees, mor e than 60% e xpressed frustr ations with supervisors. In contr ast, onl y 20% com - plained about pa y, 22% complained about hours, and less than 10% e xpressed dissatisf action with co workers. Rick belie ved that his willingness t o pa y abo ve minimum w age, coupled with gener ous mer chandise discounts, account ed f or the lo w le vel of pr oblems with pa y. H e allo wed fle xible scheduling, with w orkers being able t o tr ade hours or shifts as needed, w hich helped with that r esponse. And, althoug h the surv ey did not ask, Rick w as con vinced most emplo yees lik ed their job assignments, because only sports enthusiasts were hired to work in the store.

Rick intr oduced a second w ave of data collection. The coll ege pr ofessor and tw o gr aduate assistants int erviewed 15 of the r ank-and-file w orkers e xtensively. Complaints about supervi- sors r anged fr om “Their attitudes, the y think the y’re bett er than us, ” t o “ All the y car e about is numbers, not how they treat us,” to “They micro-manage every single thing I do.” Rick decided t o r etain a mana gement e xpert t o w ork with supervisors. The purpose w as t o help supervisor s become mor e emplo yee-friendly w hile maintaining other quality standar ds. The e xpert, a published and r elatively f amous speak er, R aymond Jones, made his standar d pr esentation to open the seminar. He then asked for questions and comments.

“It seems t o me, ” said one of the six managers, “that y ou ar e in the business of passing out e xcuses.” “Pardon me?” Raymond responded.

“Have you ever heard of Will Rogers?” the manager asked.

“Sure.” “Well, old Will used t o sa y that people ar e just about as happ y as the y mak e up their minds t o be, ” the manager comment ed, “but w hat I’m hearing her e is that bosses mak e emplo yees unhapp y. That takes away their responsibility and makes it our problem.”(continued) CASE STUDY: The Seminar (continued) “Interesting,” Raymond responded, “So you believe that these employees simply need some- thing to bellyache about, and managers make the most logical target?” “Something like that,” the manager replied.

“Are you happy with your boss, and your job?” Raymond asked?

“I’m happy with most of my job, and I like my boss,” the manager replied, “but I don’t let the bad parts make me unhappy.” “And do you suppose everyone can make themselves happy, just like you?” Raymond queried.

“I don’t know,” the manager answered, “but giving them excuses to blame us isn’t the answer.” Raymond then shifted the presentation to things managers could do to make the workplace a more pleasant environment by avoiding being so critical and moving toward more posi- tive interactions with employees. He noted that it was not unusual for people to enjoy some aspects of their job but focus on the parts they did not like. He suggested that by doing their part, supervisors could improve the work experience for everyone. The managers acted as though they were satisfied with the presentation.

Rick had watched the exchange between the manager and Raymond with great interest. He wondered if the manager simply had “a bad attitude” toward employees, and whether that attitude was common among other managers. He concluded that it was time to think more carefully about how he would hire and train supervisors in the future.

Case Questions 1. Explain the manager’s responses to Raymond using the concepts of distinctiveness, con- sensus, and consistency.

2. Explain the manager’s responses to Raymond using the concepts of selective perception, stereotyping, and projection.

3. Explain the survey results in which employees expressed high dissatisfaction with supervisors using the concepts of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of attitudes.

4. How could Rick employ the concepts present in social learning theory to retrain current managers and train new supervisors?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Review Questions Define perception and explain the three main elements of the perceptual process.

Perception involves the selection, organization, and interpretation of stimuli or sensory impr essions in order to understand or give meaning to the environment. The three main elements are selection, organizing, and interpretation.

What organizing processes are associated with perception?

Organizing properties associated with perception include figure–ground, grouping, constancy, and context. physical, social, spiritual, or moral being. Self-esteem constitutes a belief about how a person evaluates his or her self-worth as part of an overall self-evaluation. Self-efficacy reflects a person’s belief about his or her ability to successfully complete a task, assignment, or chal- lenge. Self-monitoring is the ability to adjust personal behaviors to external, situational fac- tors based on observations of personal self-expressive behaviors. Emotional intelligence reflects a person’s ability to detect and manage emotional cues and information. CASE STUDY: The Seminar Rick Spalding read his company’s annual reports with pride and concern. He was proud of the level of profitability, the growth in sales, and the number of new visitors to his store. Rick’s Sporting Goods had been able to successfully compete with the big-box retailers that often pushed smaller companies out of business. He believed that by providing a variety of quality sporting items in a brightly lit, wide-aisle store in a convenient location, accompanied by a friendly, helpful staff and effective marketing programs, the store could remain strong.

The part of the reports that raised concerns came from human resources. The number of indi - viduals who were tardy to work more than three times per month had gone up dramatically. Absenteeism had also risen and several valuable employees had voluntarily left the company to work elsewhere.

Rick commissioned a local college professor to survey the workforce, which consisted of about 30 workers and 6 supervisors. The goal was to identify the factors that might contribute to what he believed were morale problems. From the 26 usable surveys returned by entry-level employees, more than 60% expressed frustrations with supervisors. In contrast, only 20% com- plained about pay, 22% complained about hours, and less than 10% expressed dissatisfaction with coworkers. Rick believed that his willingness to pay above minimum wage, coupled with generous merchandise discounts, accounted for the low level of problems with pay. He allowed flexible scheduling, with workers being able to trade hours or shifts as needed, which helped with that response. And, although the survey did not ask, Rick was convinced most employees liked their job assignments, because only sports enthusiasts were hired to work in the store.

Rick introduced a second wave of data collection. The college professor and two graduate assistants interviewed 15 of the rank-and-file workers extensively. Complaints about supervi - sors r anged from “Their attitudes, they think they’re better than us,” to “All they care about is numbers, not how they treat us,” to “They micro-manage every single thing I do.” Rick decided to retain a management expert to work with supervisors. The purpose was to help supervisors become more employee-friendly while maintaining other quality standards. The expert, a published and relatively famous speaker, Raymond Jones, made his standard presentation to open the seminar. He then asked for questions and comments.

“It seems to me,” said one of the six managers, “that you are in the business of passing out excuses.” “Pardon me?” Raymond responded.

“Have you ever heard of Will Rogers?” the manager asked.

“Sure.” “Well, old Will used to say that people are just about as happy as they make up their minds to be,” the manager commented, “but what I’m hearing here is that bosses make employees unhappy. That takes away their responsibility and makes it our problem.” (continued) CASE STUDY: The Seminar (continued) “Interesting,” R aymond r esponded, “So y ou belie ve that these emplo yees simpl y need some- thing to bellyache about, and managers make the most logical target?” “Something like that,” the manager replied.

“Are you happy with your boss, and your job?” Raymond asked?

“I’m happ y with most of m y job, and I lik e m y boss, ” the manager r eplied, “but I don ’t let the bad parts make me unhappy.” “And do you suppose everyone can make themselves happy, just like you?” Raymond queried.

“I don’t know,” the manager answered, “but giving them excuses to blame us isn’t the answer.” Raymond then shift ed the pr esentation t o things managers could do t o mak e the w orkplace a mor e pleasant en vironment b y a voiding being so critical and mo ving t oward mor e posi- ti ve int eractions with emplo yees. He not ed that it w as not unusual f or people t o enjo y some aspects of their job but f ocus on the parts the y did not lik e. He suggest ed that b y doing their part , superviso rs could impr ove the w ork e xperience f or e veryone. The managers act ed as thoug h they were satisfied with the presentation.

Rick had w atched the e xchange betw een the manager and R aymond with gr eat int erest. He w ondered if the manager sim ply had “a bad attitude” t oward emplo yees, and w hether that attitude w as common among other managers. He concluded that it w as time t o think mor e car efully about how he would hire and train supervisors in the future.

Case Questions 1. Explain the manager’s responses to Raymond using the concepts of distinctiveness, con- sensus, and consistency.

2. Explain the manager’s responses to Raymond using the concepts of selective perception, st ereotyping, and projection.

3. Explain the survey results in which employees expressed high dissatisfaction with supervisors using the concepts of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of attitudes.

4. How could Rick employ the concepts present in social learning theory to retrain current managers and train new supervisors?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources What are the personal perception errors that can influence organizational activities?

Personal perception errors include fundamental attribution errors, the self-serving bias, selecti ve perception, halo/horn, stereotyping, contrast effects, and projection.

Define learning.

Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge or a new skill.

What are the four consequences of behaviors in B. F. Skinner’s operant process model?

The four consequences of behaviors in B. F. Skinner’s operant process model are positive r einforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.

What types of reinforcements can be administered to shape behaviors in the operant process model?

Both fixed and variable ratio and fixed and variable interval can be administered to shape beha viors in the operant process model.

What are the four events associated with learning in Bandura’s social learning theory model?

The four events associated with Bandura’s social learning theory model are attention, retention, motoric reproduction, and reinforcement.

What are the three main components of attitudes?

The three main components of attitudes are cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements.

What is an attribution, and what three elements contribute to internal and external attributions?

Attributions are perceptions of cause and effect designed to help individuals understand the en vironment. The three elements are distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency.

Which five individual personality traits have been associated with workplace outcomes?

Five personality traits that have been associated with workplace outcomes are self-concept, self-est eem, self-efficacy, self-monitoring, and emotional intelligence.

Analytical Exercises 1. Using the elements displayed in Table 3.1 (Selection or attention-getting factors at w ork), design programs for the following circumstances: • A workplace safety program • An employee rules and discipline system • A new employee training program • A manager training program • An advertising campaign 2. You have a coworker who is extremely competitive and aggressive, to the point of angering opponents, when playing sports in city recreational leagues for \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources company-sponsored teams. The same individual is completely different in every other setting. Explain this behavior in terms of distinctiveness, consensus, and con- sistency.

Does gender make a difference in your explanation? Are all males competi- tive when engaging in sports activities? Defend your answer.

3. Provide examples of how selective perception, halo/horn tendencies, stereotyping, contr ast effects, and projection could affect the following: • Hiring decisions • Performance appraisal ratings • Pay raises • Task assignments • Group composition and roles • Layoff decisions • Promotions • Terminations 4. One important employee attitude is job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. One viewpoint suggests that dissatisfaction may be expressed through • Exit—lea ving the organization • Voice—attempting to constructively improve conditions to make them more satisfactory • Loyalty—remaining passive and hoping things will get better and become more satisfactory • Neglect—becoming passive, showing up late, reducing efforts, or making more errors Explain the cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of these reactions.

5. Explain how to use the four consequences of behavior in operant conditioning to influence the following situations: • Lo w sales • Too many defects in products • Lack of cooperation among supervisors • Time theft, such as surfing the web instead of working; taking extended br eaks; tardiness 6. Using the four components involved in the learning process from social learning theory , explain how they apply to the following circumstances: • Learning to play the guitar • Preparing for college tests • Working safely • Harassing fellow employees Key Terms affective component The emotions that one has about a given situation.

attitude  A predisposition toward a person, object , concept, or event that is favorable or unf avorable.

attributions  Perceptions of cause and eff ect designed to help individuals under- stand the environment. behavioral component How one intends t o act in a given situation.

cognitive component The thoughtful rea- soning part of an attitude.

constancy The tendency for the perception of a stimulus to stay the same, even if the stimulus has changed.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources continuous reinforcement A reinforce- ment schedule in which the reinforcer is deli vered every time the behavior occurs.

emotional intelligence A person’s ability t o detect and manage emotional cues and inf ormation.

extinction  Occurs when a behavior has been emitted with no consequence, posi- tive or negative, and over time the behavior disappears; or when consequences that appear ed previously are removed by stop- ping the use of either positive reinforce- ment or punishment.

figure–ground An element of organizing inf ormation where figure is what stands out and ground is what remains in the back ground.

fundamental attribution error The t endency to underestimate the importance of external factors as influences on the beha viors of others and to overestimate the influence of internal factors on one’s own beha vior.

intermittent reinforcement A reinforce- ment schedule in which the reinforcer is deli vered for some, but not every, instance of a desired or target behavior.

Law of Effect Behavior is a function of its consequences.

learning  The process of acquiring new kno wledge or a new skill.

negative reinforcement  Occurs when an a versive or negative event is taking place and a behavior must occur to terminate the a versive or negative event.

organizational citizenship behaviors  The willingness to make constructive stat ements to others, make suggestions for impr ovement, train new employees, and sho w respect for company property.perception The selection, organization, and interpretation of stimuli or sensory impr essions to understand or give meaning t o the environment.

positive reinforcement A pleasant or pleasing consequence that becomes associ- ated with a behavior.

principle of immediate reinforcement  Principle that the closer in time a reinforcer appears following a behavior, the more po werful the reinforcer becomes.

punishment An unpleasant consequence link ed to a behavior.

self-concept The view a person has of him- self or herself as a physical, social, spiritual, or moral being.

self-efficacy A person’s belief about his or her ability to successfully complete a task.

self-esteem A belief about how a person e valuates his or her self-worth as part of an o verall self-evaluation.

self-monitoring  The ability to adjust personal behaviors to external, situational f actors based on observations of personal self-e xpressive behaviors.

self-reinforcement When a person admin- isters his or her own consequences.

self-serving bias When one attributes suc- cess to internal personal factors but attri- butes failures to external sources.

stimulus selection When something cap- tures a person’s attention. v alues Strongly held convictions regarding objects and ideas.

vicarious reinforcement Reinforcement that results from observing the impact of consequences on others.

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