Will you be able to complete the full course?

Communication in Organizations 9 Learning Objectives After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:• Apply the elements of int erpersonal communication.

• Address barriers t o int erpersonal communication.

• Navigate a compan y’s f ormal communication s ystem.

• Explain the barriers t o f ormal communication.

• Recognize eff ective communication in int ernational settings. Caia Images/Caia Images/SuperStock 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Interpersonal Communication Section 9.1 9.1 Interpersonal Communication Communication consists of tr ansmitting, r eceiving, and pr ocessing inf ormation. In or ganiza- tions, communications flo w betw een indi viduals, betw een le vels in the or ganizational hier ar- chy, betw een departments, and betw een the compan y and outside publics. Eff ective commu - nication has often been linked to interpersonal and company success. What mak es communication a critical success f actor? First , communication tak es place as part of e very managerial acti vity. P oor communication leads t o conflict , and quality communication helps t o r esolve conflict . F urther, com - munication skills ar e a k ey f actor in car eer success , as described in the OB in Action segment f eaturing Kat Cole. Those w ho can mak e eff ective v erbal pr esentations ar e mor e lik ely t o be per ceived as pot ential leaders. Indi - viduals w ho e xpress themsel ves w ell mak e positi ve impr essions during a job search and as employees.

This chapt er e xamines communication at the indi vidual and int erpersonal le v- els firs t. Then , communication s ystems r eceive att ention. A compan y’s f ormal communica - tions, as w ell as its inf ormal netw orks of communication, such as electr onic media and social netw orks, r equire car eful att ention if the compan y is t o be successful. Finall y, int ercultural communications will be addr essed, as quality managers must understand the nuances pr es- ent in communicating in international circumstances. OB in Action: Kat Cole Climbs the Corporate Ladder How do es one rise fr om a “Jerr y Springer upbringing” (her w ords) t o Gr oup Pr esident of F ocus Br ands? Oft en, one k ey element is a person ’s ability t o communicat e. Kat Cole w as r ecently r ated as number one in a list titled “T op 10 Best Communicat ors” r anked b y the Deck er Com- munications organization (Decker & Decker, 2015). Cole beg an her car eer as a “Hoot ers Gir l,” earning near ly $45,000 per y ear in that r ole. Soon, she accept ed a position in the corpor ation, taking an enormous pa y cut in or der t o achie ve new goals.

The decision paid off quickl y: B y age 26 she had become an e xecutive vice pr esident in the firm.

At age 35, Cole became Pr esident of Cinnabon ®. Soon aft er, she w as pr omoted t o her curr ent position with the par ent compan y that carries se veral br ands, including Cinnabon ®, Schlotz- k ey’s, Auntie Anne’s pretzel company, and Moe’s Southwest Grill, among others.

(continued) DGLimages/iStock/Thinkstock Organizational communication spans everything from inter action s that take place between indivi duals to a company’s correspondence with the public.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Interpersonal Communication Section 9.1 OB in Action: Kat Cole Climbs the Corporate Ladder (continued) What mak es her an eff ective communicat or? Among the attribut es her admir ers not e is empa - thy. A ccording t o Entr epreneur mag azine, she tak es the time t o see the good in people and situations (Cliff ord, 2013). Her personal list of k ey ingr edients t o success includes being a quality listener.

When it is her turn t o speak, Cole is r eported t o impr ess audiences with authority and con - viction.

She k eeps messages lig ht-hearted but inspir ational at the same time. The combina - tion of personal w armth in her manner of pr esentation, w hen combined with cr edibility that r esults fr om such a successful car eer, allo ws her t o encour age others t o w ork har d t o be their v ery best.

Her methods of communication also tr anslate int o int ernational cir cumstances. Not long ago, w hen tr aveling t o Egypt on behalf of Cinnabon ®, her meeting with a fr anchise holder w as int errupted b y the standar d call t o pr ayer that goes out o ver loudspeak ers in the country . List ening t o w hat tr anspired, she r esponded, “That is so beautiful, ” noting that it w as both melodic and eng aging.

Her Egyptian client comment ed, “I ha ve ne ver, e ver hear d an American sa y that in m y 40 y ears of doing business with Americans. ” Cole had built a str ong and lasting bond with a simple gesture of respect.

Reflection and Application Questions 1. What communication skills would be most valuable to helping a person achieve a pr omotion?

2. Do you think a pleasant approach can always be associated with effective communica- tion, or do other styles work better in certain circumstances?

3. How might listening skills add value in international interactions? Interpersonal Communication Models In the w orkplace, emplo yees and supervisors oft en eng age in one-on-one con versations. The y also int eract with and communicat e with others in gr oup settings. Se veral models of these types of int erpersonal communications ha ve been cr eated. These models of int erpersonal communication ha ve e volved o ver the y ears. The common elements in the models ar e that the y include a sender , a r eceiver, and some method f or demonstr ating that communication is, in some sense, a tw o-way str eet, with inf ormation and messages flo wing in both dir ections. The original model of communication is kno wn as the linear appr oach. Lat er, mor e int eractive models were posed as more accurate depictions of interpersonal communication. Linear Model of Interpersonal Communication The original and one of the most str aightforward models of int erpersonal communication is pr ovided in Figur e 9.1. It illustr ates a linear model of int erpersonal communication. The linear model depicts basic one-on-one int eractions, such as a supervisor speaking t o an emplo yee, (e.g., gi ving task instructions; perf ormance f eedback, pr aise, et c.) or tw o co-w orkers talking about ho w t o successfull y ta ckle a challenging assignment (e.g., ho w best t o conduct a mar ket r esearch pr ogram; the best method t o conduct a scientific e xperiment on a new drug f ormula, \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Interpersonal Communication Section 9.1 the ideal w ay t o r efinance compan y debt w hen int erest r ates dr op). It also depicts the r eturn message sent by the receiver to the sender in the form of feedback (Guffrey & Loewy, 2011).

Figure 9.1: A basic interpersonal communications model This model illustrates a linear model of interpersonal communication. The ideation originates with the sender; finally, feedback is sent to the original sender.

Source: Adapted from: Shannon, C. E. (1949). Communication in the presence of noise, Proceedings of the IRE, (0096-8390), 37 (1), p. 10.

In the linear model, the sender tr ansmits a message or an idea. This message is f ormed thr ough enc oding, w hich uses language or v erbal cues accompanied b y non verbal cues. V er- bal cues can be spok en or writt en. W ritten messages at w ork can tak e the f orm of memos, e-mails, instant messages, lett ers, and r eports. The messages ma y r ange fr om short t exts or tw eets t o longer , mor e f ormal lett ers and r eports t o committ ees or management t eams. As is the case with spok en messa ges, the sender and r eceiver should be a ware of pot ential barriers t o communication. The ad vantage of writing lies in the ability t o car efully consider each w ord and sentence prior to transmitting the message (Bell, 2004).

Nonverbal cues include all other f orms of message sending. Electr onic tr ansmissions go be yond t ext messages and e-mails. T echnologies such as Skype and other v oice of int ernet pr otocols (VOIP) allow for interpersonal meetings via visual images.

A tr ansmission device carries a message via sound w aves, lig ht w aves, pieces of paper , mobile phone signals and scr eens, the Int ernet, comput er monit ors, billboar ds, r adio or t ele- vision signals, or thr ough an endless number of additio nal carriers. Dec oding occurs as the r eceiver encount ers the message and compr ehends or int erprets it . E very sense can be part of decoding, including hear ing, seeing, f eeling, smelling , and tasting v arious cues. In a stan - dard int erpersonal int eraction, sig ht and hearing ar e oft en used. When decoding, the r eceiver int erprets verbal and nonverbal cues, normally at the same time.

The r eceiver is the sender ’s int ended audience, w hich is either a si ngle person or a gr oup. F eedback r eturns t o the sender in the f orm of e valuation of the message. The r eceiver tr ans- mits v erbal and non verbal cues that suggest , “I don ’t understand, ” “I disagr ee,” “Y ou’re abso - lutely rig ht,” “This is frustr ating,” or other r eactions t o the sender , possibl y including, “I’m not r eally list ening.” Then, most of the time, the con versation continues. A v ariety of f orces and f actors can pr event mes sages fr om being sent corr ectly or accur ately r eceived. Figur e 9.1 \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Interpersonal Communication Section 9.1 shows the disruptions as noise , or barriers t o communication. Section 9.2 describes noise in detail.

Interaction Model of Oral Communication In the 1960s, basic models w ere e xpanded t o indicat e the int eraction of tw o people eng aged in a dialogue, w hich r esulted in the int eraction model. Figur e 9.2 depicts this model of the mutual tr ansmission and r eception of messages and f eedback. The model suggests a mor e int eractive natur e of communication (W ood, 2009). The int eraction model r emains “linear” in the sense that a message first goes one w ay (P erson A t o P erson B), then the other (P erson B back t o P erson A). Clear ly, most con versations ar e not that or ganized and sequential, lea ving r oom for additional ideas about how interpersonal communication transpires.

Figure 9.2: An interaction model In the interaction model, both parties transmit and receive messages, and both are involved in encoding, decoding, and interpreting.

Transaction Model of Oral Communication Recent conceptualizations of the natur e of communication suggest an intricat e and sophis- ticat ed patt ern. Inst ead of oper ating somew hat lik e a t ennis mat ch, w here one person sends and the other r eceives and then the pr ocess r everses, actual discussions tak e place near ly simultaneousl y (Duncan & Moriarty, 1998).

In the tr ansaction model, a person speaking studies the int ended audience as the message is being sent . The speak er ma y see the r eceiver grin, fr own, or nod in agr eement bef ore e very w ord has been spok en. Con versations r esemble a dance in w hich both parties f orm the tr ans- action.

Such a model accounts f or int erruptions, persons finishing each other’s sent ences, and incomplet e tr ansmissions, finishing with phr ases such as, “Y ou kno w w hat I’m talking about ,” as the other person nods, or “I kno w y ou think I’m wr ong” as the person shak es his or her head. \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Interpersonal Communication Section 9.1 In a managem ent setting, the tr ansaction model can be used t o e xplore the mo vement fr om misunderstanding t o understanding and fr om disagr eement t o agr eement, as w ell as the escalation of a con versation int o a conflict . E very dance will be diff erent. A t times the partners mo ve in perfect sync; at others, they stumble or step on each other’s toes.

Each of the thr ee models— the linear model, the int eraction model, and the tr ansaction model—contains k ey elements of encoding, tr ansmission, decoding, and f eedback. The mod- els also sho w that some con versations go poor ly and that misunderstandings do occur . Noise, or the barriers to communication, can cause such disruptions.

Nonverbal Interpersonal Communication Nonverbal communication pla ys a significant r ole in one-on-one int eractions. Along with spok en w ords, t one and other non verbal cues accompan y e very message tr ansmission. The f orms of non verbal communication include kinesic cues, appear ance and dr ess, artif acts, t ouch, space, and paralanguage.

Kinesic cues ar e messages communicat ed b y nonlinguistic bod y la nguage or mo vements. These include messages con veyed b y v arious parts of the bod y (Bir dwhistell, 1970). Ex am- ples are provided in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3: Kinesic cues and interpretations Body language and postures are kinesic cues that are interpreted by observers. Sources: Adapted from Pentland, A. (2008). Honest signals: How they shape our world. Boston, MA: M.I.T. Press, 10–40, 105; Malandro, L. A., & Barker, L. (1983). Nonverbal communication. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 226–230.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Interpersonal Communication Section 9.1 Appearance consists of contr ollable and less contr ollable f actors. One less contr ollable ele - ment is attr activeness. P eople w ho ar e ph ysically attr active enjo y a kind of halo eff ect, in w hich others assume the y ar e mor e int elligent, witty , charming, and e ven mor e honest than others (Harper , 1993; Schoe nberger, 1997). The other component of appear ance, dr ess, can be contr olled. Hairsty les, clothing, and the use of mak eup also con vey non verbal images and messages, including seeking to attract attention or trying to look professional.

Artifacts inclu de additional it ems that send messages, such as jew elry and e yeglasses. Some pier cings signal r ebellion. Co workers ar e lik ely t o notice e xpensive rings, necklaces, and other f orms of jew elry. Some ma y e ven judge a person w ho dri ves an old, beat-up car as less suc - cessful and tal ented than an indi vidual in the same pr ofession w ho dri ves an upscale v ehicle.

Physical t ouch has changed in t erms of w hat ma y be consider ed acceptable or unacceptable. Hugging, back slapping, and other f orms of t ouch ha ve lar gely disappear ed in man y w ork- places, unless e xpress permission has been gr anted. Handshak es continue t o con vey mes- sages. A firm handshak e accompanied b y e ye contact e xpresses confidence. A w eak handshak e with eyes averted signals shyness and possibly other less desirable traits (Brown, 2000).

Space, or ph ysical distance, sends additional signals. Substantial e vidence suggests that concepts of personal space v ary widel y b y cultur e. In the Unit ed Stat es, someone w ho f eels his or her personal space has been in vaded quickl y becomes def ensive, because “getting in someone’s f ace” indicat es aggr ession and oft en accompanies an ar gument or mor e violent int eraction.

Paralanguage r efers t o h ow something is said r ather than w hat is said in a message. K ey ele - ments include t one, phr asing, pacing, pit ch, and int ensity (Knapp & Hall, 1992). P aralanguage can change messages fr om surprised t o sar castic, such as the w ords, “Oh, r eally?” P acing indicat es w hen a person wishes t o speak or t o st op speaking. P aralanguage can also con vey ur gency, espec ially thr ough pit ch. A hig h pit ch indicat es the desir e f or a str onger r esponse. These verbal and nonverbal cues combine to send messages. As an example of the importance of non verbal communication, consider an individual who is about t o embar k on an int erview as part of the hiring pr ocess. Ho w mig ht that applicant cr e- ate an unwanted impression?

• Showing up late—the interviewer assumes the person is not reliable • A weak handshake—the interviewer perceives a lack of confidence • Little eye contact—the interviewer concludes the applicant has something to hide • Slouching—the interviewer perceives disinterest • Sloppy apparel—the interviewer thinks the person is not that excited about the job At the same time, the int erviewer has certain r esponsibilities in or der t o perf orm their job eff ectively. Fir st, the int erviewer should disentang le gestur es that indicat e nerv ousness fr om those suggesting the person is hiding something. Second, the int erviewer w ould need t o learn about the person ’s back ground—some clothing choices ma y be due t o the economic cir cumstances of the applicant . Thir d, the int erviewer should tak e st eps t o mak e the appli- cant f eel comf ortable. Then, slouching ma y be view ed as the r esult of poor postur e r ather than di sinterest. F urther, the indi vidual’s age and cultur al back ground ma y pla y a part . As a simple e xample, y ounger persons ar e mor e lik ely t o end stat ements with int onation going up, \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 making it sound mor e lik e a question than a r esponse. F or the most part , this diff erence in par alanguage may be explained by the individual’s generation. The ab ility t o discern subtl e cues fr om a person ’s non verbal messages ma y tak e time and e xperience t o de velop. F urther, understanding of cir cumstances, such as being separ ated b y a desk to indicate a power difference and distance, may require additional training.

In summary , v arious models ha ve been used t o e xplain the natur e of the communication pr o- cess, both in v erbal con versations and writt en messages. Each has the pot ential t o tr ansmit an idea eff ectively or cause communication pr oblems. Ov ercoming pot ential barriers t o com - munication constitut es a k ey w orkplace acti vity that can mak e y ou a mor e v aluable emplo yee. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which model compares interpersonal communication to something resembling a dance?

a. basic interpersonal model b. interactive model c. transitional model d. transaction model 2. Messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements are a. kinesic cues.

b. artifacts.

c. spatial factors.

d. paralanguage. Answers: 1) d 2) a 9.2  Noise and the Barriers t o Interpersonal Communication Noise dist orts or disrupts communication. Barriers t o communication can cause misunder- standings, conflicts, and f ailure t o f ollow dir ectives or or ders; the y can also cr eate additional or ganizational pr oblems. One method of studying communication barriers involves the anal- y sis of the parts of the basic communications model. Such an approach appears in Table 9.1.

Sender barrie rs, as not ed in the upcoming section, r esult fr om the indi vidual diff erences betw een the sender and r eceiver, such as a supervisor with a subor dinate or persons fr om tw o different departments (with differing frames of reference) in the same organization.

Encoding barriers r esult fr om pr oblems with the method in w hich a message w as tr ansmit- ted, including shouting inappr opriately, mumbling, or sending mix ed messages due t o dif- f erences in v erbal and non verbal cues, such as sa ying, “I’m behind y ou 100 per cent” w hile looking away and failing to make eye contact.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 Table 9.1: Barriers to the communication process Type of barrierExample Sender barrier No message is sent, due to fear or lack of confidence.

Encoding barrier The message is expressed poorly or in error.

Medium barrier The communication channel is blocked.

Decoding barrier The receiver fails to correctly understand the message.

Receiver barrier The receiver does not pay attention or ignores a message.

Feedback barrier The receiver does not confirm that the message was or was not understood.

Source: Adapted from Kinicki, A., & Williams, B. (2008). Management: A practical introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 493.

Medium barriers occur , f or instance, w hen a compan y’s phone s ystem f ails t o w ork pr op- erly or w hen other channels of communication (e.g., int ernet, intr anet, videoconf erence) br eak down.

Decoding barriers can occur w hen the r eceiver has a learning disability , a ph ysical disability , or the indi vidual simpl y do es not understand the langu age being used (e.g., slang, t echnical t erminology, or some other reference).

Receiving barriers tak e plac e w hen a person is inatt entive during a meeting or an int erper- sonal con versation. This ma y be due t o disint erest (per haps the indi vidual is about t o quit the job) or a distraction from the outside. Someone w ho is angry fr om a confrontation with a fel- low emplo yee or supervisor ma y not be in the best cir cumstance t o r eceive an y new message.

F eedback barriers r esult fr om the r eceiver f ailing t o corr ectly r espond t o the message b y making stat ements such as, “I don ’t understand” or “Can y ou clarify w hat y ou mean?” F or e xample, a manager ma y sa y that a salesperson should pr ovide mor e “personal att ention” t o clients.

Such a message could ha ve a v ariety of meanings, and the indi vidual ma y not be sur e w hat w as int ended b y the stat ement. F ailing t o obtain clarification leads t o a f eedback barrier .

Another method of stud ying communication barriers in volves br eaking them do wn int o thr ee cat egories: indi vidual diff erences, situational f actors, and tr ansmission pr oblems. The thir d cat egory, transmission problems, is similar to the concept of a medium barrier. Individual Differences The fir st set of barriers, indi vidual diff erences, emer ge simpl y because of the tw o people in volved in the con versation. An y number of messages can become lost because of one or mor e noticeable diff erences betw een the sender and r eceiver. These diff erences mig ht in volve age, gender, educational level, status, or personality.

Age Differences in age cr eate v arying fr ames of r eference (Hahn, 2011). Age becomes a barrier t o communication in se veral w ays. Man y y ounger supervisors r eport pr oblems managing older w orkers, belie ving the older emplo yees do not list en or sho w some other type of disr espect. \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 When an older w orker off ers constructi ve criticism t o a y ounger emplo yee, the mor e junior emplo yee ma y r espond ineff ectively or def ensively. Age-based jok es and taunting can build barriers between employees.

Gender Deborah T annen (1990) w as among the first t o pr ovide commentary about gender-based communication issues in he r book Y ou Just Don’t Understand. T annen’s w ork has point ed out near ly 100 key gender differences that can become communication barriers.

In gener al, w omen ar e mor e lik ely t o use e xpressive and effusi ve language. W omen oft en r ely on a v erbal hedge, such as “umm ” w hen thinking something o ver, or “so ” t o accentuat e a mes- sage (“She w as so funn y”), and ar e mor e lik ely t o stat e business r equests as questions. A f emale supervisor mig ht sa y, “W ould y ou mind calling this person t o mak e an appointment f or me?” Women are also less likely to directly criticize an employee, especially in public.

According t o T annen, males t end t o use mor e dir ect language, int errupt con versational part - ners (especiall y w omen), and ar e mor e inclined t o aggr essively disagr ee with someone in public.

The y ar e also mor e pr one t o mak e declar ative stat ements of f act (sometimes w hen the y do not actuall y kno w the f acts). Males ar e mor e lik ely t o ignor e comments that ha ve been off ered b y another person, especiall y w hen that person disagr ees with them. And finall y, men t end t o find w ays t o contr ol con versations, especiall y b y changing the subject w hen the y f eel the y are “losing” an argument.

Recent f ormulations of communication and gender iss ues suggest a mor e comple x concep - tualization of the patt erns. R ather than viewing male/f emale communication patt erns in a binary manner (i.e., men ar e lik ely t o do this; w omen ar e lik ely t o do this), postmodern con - ceptualizations suggest a wider di versity of gender identities and communication patt erns (Camer on, 2005; Maltz & Borker, 2007).

Educational Level Each year of formal education adds to an emplo yee’s vocabulary. Studying in high school and college is lik ely t o impr ove a person ’s ability t o think criticall y and t o anal yze situations using a gr eater set of decision-ma king concepts and models. Pr oblems occur w hen someone w ho possesses these skills con verses with someone w ho does not , and the educat ed person is un willing or unable to engage in a dialogue using less complex communication signals.

As a sim ple e xample, a pers on with a bachelor’s degr ee in business will kno w w hat “SW OT” means—a method of anal yzing a compan y’s cir cumstances b y stud ying firm str engths and w eaknesses in conjunction with the opportunities and thr eats pr esent in the en vironment. Consequentl y, a supervisor ma y sa y, “W e need t o do a SW OT anal ysis of this pr ogram,” and the college gr aduate will under stand w hile someone with a hig h school degr ee ma y not . In this case, the person without the degr ee mig ht f eel embarr assed and afr aid t o ask f or an e xplana- tion of the term.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 Status Any person with hig her status r outinely deals with people w ho ar e made anxious b y his or her pr esence or w ho ar e slig htly intimidat ed. In an or ganizational setting, a chance meeting with the CEO or a hig h-ranking e xecutive can quickl y become a wkward or uncomf ortable. An emplo yee w ho strugg les with public speaking mig ht find it e ven mor e difficult t o gi ve a pr e- sentation with a high-ranking company official in the audience.

Status also aff ects the ability t o list en eff ectively. When a w orker f eels unsettled in fr ont of an e xecutive, the emplo yee ma y f ocus on trying t o look good and not list en v ery car efully. Another mig ht seek t o ingr atiate r ather than t o eng age in a genuine con versation. The person ma y w ait f or an opening to pass along a compliment instead of hearing what the executive says.

Personality Several person ality types can inhibit communication. A sh y person ma y f eel pr essured, bul- lied, or intimidat ed b y an out going or bombastic person . An indi vidual with an anal ytical and r eserved personality ma y ha ve difficulty communicating with someone w ho is mor e inclined t o react instinctively to problems and circumstances.

Individual diff erences cr eate cir cumstances that can disrupt communication. As companies become mor e di verse, some of these pr oblems ma y become mor e comple x. T omorrow’s man - agers should expect t o deal with these and other pot ential indi vidual, int erpersonal barriers. Situational Factors At times, char acteristics associat ed with senders and r eceivers ar e not the primary barriers t o communication. Inst ead, situational cir cumstances ar e the cause of the pr oblem. T able 9.2 describes four common situational factors that can prevent a message from being received.

Table 9.2: Situational factors that disrupt communication Situational factors Examples Exclusive language • The use of specific language (e.g., sports metaphors by males) • The use of technical terminology only familiar to those in a given profession Emotions • Anger • Depr ession • Envy and jealousy • Personal attitudes and values Settings • Crisis events or bad news • Emotional events (e.g., funeral; announcement of the death of a popular emplo yee) Distractions • Weather events (e.g., storms; thunder) • Outside noise (e.g., construction) • Internal disturbances (e.g., vacuum cleaning in an office near a meeting) \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 Exclusive Language Terminology that can onl y be underst ood b y a select set of indi viduals within an or ganization constitut es e xclusive language. Those w ho ar e unf amiliar with the language ar e s ystemati- cally e xcluded fr om a con versation. Ex clusive language accentuat es the diff erences betw een emplo yees and cr eates a barrier t o communication, because e xcluded emplo yees f eel less accept ed. Ex clusive language can emphasize r acial diff erences, disparity in status, or dissimi- larity betw een compan y departments. In each case, its deliber ate use is designed t o alienat e or separate one group from another (Rubin & Green, 1991).

Exclusive lang uage oft en r eflects gender diff erences. As an e xample, in the w orkplace men ar e mor e apt than w omen t o use sports metaphors as part of e veryday language. Man y male w orkers may be familiar with the following phrases and the sport connected to each:

“That one was a real hail Mary.” “He took one for the team.” “I want a mulligan on that one.” “We’ve been playing man-to-man. We need to go zone.” Female emplo yees (or male emplo yees) w ho ar e not sports enthusiasts ma y be less f amiliar with this type of language, so the y will not immediat ely understand the message and can f eel left out or e xcluded as a r esult. Of course, it is also possible f or w omen t o use e xclusive lan- guage b y sa ying something such as “Y ou kno w w hat Whoopi think s about that ,” t o a male peer w ho do es not kno w about or w atch the t elevision pr ogram The View , w hich tar gets a lar gely f emale audience. Emotions Emotions pla y a k ey r ole in lif e and at w ork. P ositive emotions contribut e t o pleasant w orking r elationships. F eelings of aff ection, lo yalty, and trust help build and maintain quality int erper- sonal int eractions. Other emotions, such as anger , depr ession, or en vy, can disrupt communi - cation and interfere with workplace activities.

For e xample, anger distur bs a person ’s concentr ation and thoug ht pr ocess. An angry person ma y find it mor e difficult t o clear ly e xpress himself or herself. Anger causes some people t o “fl y off the handle, ” leading them t o sa y things in the heat of the moment that the y wish the y could tak e back. The consequences of such out bursts can aff ect short-t erm con versations and long-t erm relationships.

Depression, both mild and se vere, aff ects a person ’s r easoning and con versation. A depr essed person ma y choose his or her w ords less car efully, w hereas another person ma y a void con - versation altogether.

Envy arises in man y w ays. An emplo yee w ho has been passed o ver f or a pr omotion mig ht become en vious. Another ma y be en vious of the job assignment gi ven t o a peer . En vy ma y r esult fr om seeing y our supervisor gi ving e xtra att ention t o a co worker w hile basicall y ignor- ing y ou. These f eelings aff ect futur e con versations. Mor e caustic comments ma y be made, \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 more guar ded language ma y be used, or someone ma y be tr eated with a cold silence and not kno w why.

Several personal attitudes and v alues can int errupt communication. R acism, se xism, and other f orms of discrimination can be e xpressed thr ough derisi ve language designed t o intimidat e or insult others. Quality int erpersonal communication cannot tak e place in those cir cumstances.

At times, an or ganizational setting can cr eate communication pr oblems. When a manager announces that a popular emplo yee has become gr avely ill or has died, it ma y be difficult f or him or her t o tr ansmit messages eff ectively aft er that point . Little quality communication tak es place aft er a compan y leader declar es la yoffs or r elocation t o a f oreign country . E ven some jo yous occasions can hinder communication, such as the r etirement of a manager or office parties celebrating holidays.

Distractions Several distr actions can int erfere with communication. Outside w eather e vents, such as sno wstorms or thunderst orms, t end t o dr aw att ention a way fr om an int erpersonal con versa- tion or pr esentation t o a gr oup. An y w orkplace that is near a construction zone will pr obably encount er difficulties in communication. Int erpersonal int eractions can also be disrupt ed b y mor e subtle cues, such as w hen one person tries t o hold a con versation with someone w ho is dr essed inappr opriately. On an e ven smaller scale, try talking t o someone w ho has something stuck in his or her teeth.

Transmission Problems In an y con versation or message tr ansmission, situational barriers can arise. New t echnolo- gies, such as smartphones, cr eate a gr eater number of communication channels but also ma y pr esent new obstacles. Some of the mor e common tr ansmission pr oblems include language, slang, t echnical t erminology, sender or r eceiver disabilities, and non verbal contr adictions of v erbal messages.

Language Even in cir cumstances in w hich e veryone speak s the same language, barriers t o communica - tion can still arise. Pr oblems with semantics emer ge w hen a w ord or phr ase has mor e than one meaning, and the sender and r eceiver ar e using diff erent v ersions. F or e xample, the w ord “r esponse,” w hen used in a sent ence such as “I’m not sur e w hat t o mak e of y our r esponse,” can be int erpreted as a count ercharge or simpl y as an ans wer. Man y managers claim the y ha ve an “open-door policy .” The meaning of open-door policy of ten v aries among managers. Some ar e suggesting the y willing ly list en t o complaints and suggestions. Others ar e sa ying an emplo yee can come in and ask for help, but nothing more.

Slang Nearly an y language used widel y ar ound the w orld contains slang. As an element of cultur e, slang e volves and r egularly changes. In the 1950s, the w ord “bit chin” as a t erm of appr oval w as in v ogue. Each gener ation de velops its o wn set of slang e xpressions, and e ven those can change o ver time. The bab y boomer gener ation oft en said “bummer ,” “mello w,” and “cool” in the 1960s. \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 The films Valley Girl (1983) and C lueless (1995) spoof ed t eenaged gir ls w ho included the w ord “lik e” in e very sent ence. B y 2011, such usage w as common, e ven among older adults. C urrently, older emplo yees ma y not kno w w hat being “catfished” means, or kno w ho w t o int erpret the lat est acr onyms in t ext language. In 2016, NB A legend Phil Jack son r eceived consider able criti - cism f or suggesting an African- American pl ayer had a “posse, ” indicating that some lingo and language that was once commonplace is now considered to be insulting.

A new f orm of slang has emer ged fr om the use of social media. Due t o the char acter lim - itations impos ed b y T witter, man y short cuts ha ve e volved. Someone w ho does not under- stand these and the man y other tw eet acr onyms w ould encount er a barrier t o int erpersonal communication. Technical Terminology The e xplosion of modern t echnologies has br ought with it a v ast amount of new t erms. In the y ear 2000 , the t erm “app ” had no special meaning. No w, most people kno w w hat it means. Lik e- wise, the w ord “tw eet” w as not used in r egular conversation until recently.

In a compan y, each department speak s its o wn language. The use of t echnical t erms and acr onyms ma y cr eate con - fusion betw een members of the same or ganization. Inf ormation t echnology (IT) contains hig hly specialized lan- guage. Someone speaking t o an IT pr o- fessional ma y be confused b y the t erminology.

While an accountant kno ws w hat “DDB” means (double-declining balance, w hich is a method of asset depr eciation f or income stat ements), a mar keter ma y not (Hymo witz, 2006). A t the same time, the mar keter is complet ely f amiliar with the conce pt of micr o-targeting (a f orm of mar ket segmentation based on a hig hly specific geogr aphic location) and the accountant ma y not complet ely understand w hat it is or w hy it has value. Sender or Receiver Disabilities Physical disabilities pr esent additional challenges t o int erpersonal communication. The y ma y gi ve rise t o communication pr oblems f or both the sender and the r eceiver. A sender with a speech impairment ma y ha ve gr eater difficulty fr aming messages. Someone w ho stutt ers or has a lisp ma y ha ve tr ouble speaking, especiall y t o gr oups of people. P art of the challenge ma y be the actual f orming of w ords, or it ma y be the embarr assment or sh yness that r esults. R eceivers who have difficulty hearing also experience a key barrier to communication.

Nonverbal Contradictions of Verbal Messages A nonverbal contr adiction occurs w hen a person sa ys something v erbally that does not cor- r espond with his or her bod y language and gestur es. Sa ying something is “int eresting” w hile Ridofranz/iStock/Thinkstock Various digital dialects have emerged in the age of the internet.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 looking distr acted or inatt entive con veys tw o diff erent messages. As not ed, during the hiring pr ocess, some one w ho arri ves lat e, a voids e ye contact , and slumps do wn in a chair pr obably will not r eceive an off er, despit e an y v erbal e xpression of int erest in the job. K eeping one’s arms cr ossed during a disagr eement or ar gument con veys that nothing is “getting thr ough” and the person is not willing to change positions, even when such is not the case.

Overcoming Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Quality communication in an y cont ext r esults fr om car eful pr eparation and situation sensiti v- ity b y a sender and r eceiver. F ollowing a f ew simple st eps can help a void misunderstandings and conflict as w ell as enhance the chance that a message will be corr ectly underst ood. Send - ers and r eceivers both ha ve r esponsibilities that can o vercome an y barriers that ar e pr esent. T able 9.3 summarizes the natures of these duties.

Table 9.3: Creating quality interpersonal communication Sender responsibilities Receiver responsibilities Awareness of barriers Active listening Empathy Seeking clarification of the message Careful attention to nonverbal cues Confirmation of the message Joint responsibilities Building trust through interactional transparency Eliminating stereotypes Setting egos aside Supportive communication Sender Responsibilities Senders should begin b y making sur e the y ar e a ware of an y barriers that mig ht be pr esent. One method of making sur e a con versation begins on the rig ht not e is t o ackno wledge the e xistence of the barrier , such as w hen a manager sa ys, “I kno w y ou ar e both pr etty angry rig ht no w” t o tw o people eng aged in a conflict . Also, man y public speak ers use humor t o point out a barrier, to help place the audience at ease.

Effective communicat ors att empt t o understand the back ground and perspecti ve of others. Empath y has al ways been a v aluable communication skill. When a manager speak s with a frustr ated emplo yee, the supervisor can ackno wledge he or she understands the person is upset , saying something along the lines of “I understand how you feel.” Paying att ention t o non verbal cues r equires pr actice. T o communicat e eff ectively, an emplo yee should become a ware of his or her use of gestur es. A close friend can point out t endencies such as slouching or looking down while speaking.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 Confirmation of the message can be summarized b y the phr ase, “I w ant t o mak e sur e y ou understand.

” T rue communication does not tak e place until the sender certifies that the mes- sage w as r eceived as int ended. A manager ma y ask an emplo yee t o r estate w hat he or she said t o make sure an important message was clearly understood.

Receiver Responsibilities Listening car efully and not allo wing distr actions t o int erfere with a con versation or pr esen- tation ar e primary r eceiver r esponsibilities. The mind w orks f ar f aster than a person w ho speak s at a normal pace. Gi ving partial att ention, or seeking t o get the gener al idea of w hat is being said without f ocusing on the int eraction, oft en leads t o confusion and con veys disr e- spect t o the speak er. List ening car efully means clearing a way distr actions and not adding t o them.

Table 9.4 shows five active listening styles listeners can use:

Table 9.4: Active listening styles Active listening stylesCharacteristicsExamples Empathic Focus on verbal and nonverbal cuesList ening to a contradictory opinion with an open mind Appreciative Remaining relaxed and staying calmSmile in acknowledgement of a joke; make eye contact with speak er Discerning Deliberation of message as it is being transmittedListening carefully; making mental or physical notes about k ey points Evaluative Preparing a responseFinding a non-confrontational w ay to disagree with a statement or opinion Comprehensive Using logic and reasoning while list eningOrganizing thoughts to provide a r esponse later, or closely follow- ing a presentation Empathetic list ening f ocuses on bod y language, v erbal cues, and in volves r efraining fr om judgement w hen r eceiving a message. A ppreciative list ening in volves r emaining r elaxed and seeking ent ertainment or inspir ation fr om a message . Disc erning list ening eng ages in the message, trying t o understand it and det ermine k ey points, oft en w hile taking not es. Ev alua- tive list ening fr ames a r esponse aft er anal yzing the message cont ent. C omprehensive list ening in volves int erpreting a message b y or ganizing it and b y looking f or logic within it . An eff ective list ener uses each of these tactics at the appropriate time (Condrill, 2005).

Clarification of a message means sa ying, “I don ’t under stand” w hen necessary . Otherwise, a person ma y o verreact t o w hat w as meant t o be a noncontr oversial comment , such as, “Y eah, m y boss is a r eal piece of w ork.” This ma y be stat ed in a manner meant t o con vey admir ation but could pot entially be int erpreted as a criticism. Clarification is the f eedback pr ovided b y the receiver to the sender, such as “Do you mean that in a good way?” \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Section 9.2 Joint Responsibilities Both se nders and r eceivers can att empt t o build trust , w hich opens the door f or a mor e authentic e xchange of inf ormation. Int eractional transparency is the open and honest shar- ing of inf ormation. When people shar e pertinent inf ormation and do not disguise important details t o cr eate a po wer base, trust incr eases. A f orthcoming appr oach t o sending messages and pr oviding f eedback helps r educe f ears of ult erior moti ves and other pr oblems. A lack of trust can cause defensiveness as participants become more likely to question the accuracy of each other’s stat ements. T rust building tak es time, candor , empath y, and the willingness t o be open with others (McCune, 1998; Wilderdom.com, 2009).

Assuming things about another person based on visible char acteristics (age, gender , or r ace) leads t o poor communication and other or ganizational pr oblems. One method f or o vercoming this pr oblem is t o mak e an honest personal assessment of personal pr ejudices and t endencies t oward st ereotyping, including r eactions t o ph ysical attr activeness in others. Indi viduals can then work towards a more open mind in interpersonal communications and relationships.

Egotism is based on pride, superior ability , arr ogance, and out-of-contr ol self-est eem. Ego - tism thr eatens communication b y cr eating turf w ars, political battles, and petty disput es o ver cr edit, r esources, and r ewards (Lewicki & T omlinson, 2003). Near ly e veryone has e xperi- enced the pr oblem of dealing with an egomaniac w ho is mor e int erested in himself or herself than in an y is sue at hand. Mor e than one successful meeting has r esulted fr om participant willingness to “check your ego at the door.” Supportive communication tak es place w hen affirma tion, caring, and the desir e t o pr ovide honest and useful ad vice and messages ar e pr esent. Such a sty le bodes w ell f or int erpersonal r elationships, such as building bonds with co-w orkers and supervisors as w ell as str engthen- ing an individual’s leadership approach.

In summary , o vercoming the barriers t o int erpersonal communication includes sender , r eceiver, and combined r esponsibilities. Senders should be a ware of pot ential barriers, emplo y empath y, pa y car eful att ention t o non verbal cues, and confirm that a message w as r eceived corr ectly. R eceiver r esponsibilities include act ive list ening and clarifying messages using f eedback. Both sender s and r eceivers can seek t o build trust , eliminat e st ereotypes, and set egos aside during conversations and interactions. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which is not an individual difference barrier to communication?

a. gender b. educational level c. technical terminology d. personality 2. When males use sports metaphors to explain activities at work, it can take the form of a. technical terminology.

b. a setting barrier.

c. a cross-cultural message transmission.

d. exclusive language. Answers: 1) c 2) d \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Formal Communication Channels Section 9.3 9.3 Formal Communication Channels The de velopment of new f ormal communication t echnologies has led t o dr amatic changes in or ganizational lif e. F ormal communication consists of inf ormation that tr avels thr ough or ganizationally designat ed channels. F ormal communication tak es the f orm of v erbal tr ans- missions, such as t elephone calls, and writt en media, such as memos and lett ers. The e volu- tion of these channels t o include new er t echnologies has changed the w ays in w hich emplo y- ees communicat e with managers, with each other , and with the public. The manner in w hich w ork itself is conduct ed has also been aff ected. An anal ysis of f ormal communication chan - nels includes a r eview of tr aditional f ormal channels as w ell as new er comput er-based and digital technologies (see Table 9.5).

Table 9.5: Traditional and newer formal communication channels Traditional verbal Traditional written Newer computer-based/digital Conversation Memo E-mail Meeting Letter Instant message Telephone call Contract Social media Presentation Proposal Videoconference Company magazine/newsletterIntranet Company manual/handbookExtranet Bulletin board Traditional Formal Communication Channels The channels list ed in T able 9.5 r egarding f ormal communication r emain as vital inf ormation link s in or ganizations. V erbal channels ha ve incr eased in importance as indi viduals become mor e r eliant on handheld t echnologies in e veryday w ork and lif e. Business r equires in volve- ments and r elationships. Int erpersonal con versations, meetings, phone calls, and pr esenta- tions are part of everyday business life and serve as formal communication links.

Written f ormal communication channels ha ve been adapt ed t o new er t echnologies. Inst ead of distributing a paper mag azine or new sletter, an emplo yee can send files electr onically. Com- panies can con vert contr acts, pr oposals, memos, and lett ers int o PDF files f or tr ansmission or st orage. Co mpany manua ls and handbook s ar e no w st ored on an intr anet r ather than in a desk dr awer. Man y situations still r equire w ords t o be put on paper t o r etain something as basic as a signatur e or a har d cop y of a contr act or mes sage, but a file can no w be electr oni- cally stored rather than kept as a hard copy.

Digital Channels Some e vidence suggests that e-mail ma y be gi ving w ay t o mor e instantaneous f orms of com - munication in man y or ganizations. Man y y ounger emplo yees r espond t o posts on T witter and t ext messages mor e quickl y than t o other methods of communication, such as a v oice mail. \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Formal Communication Channels Section 9.3 Further, instant messaging has infiltr ated the w ork- place fr om the bott om up, thr ough entry - and lo wer- level emplo yees. T o f acilitate this medium, IBM off ers an instant messaging service f or businesses t o use f or int ernal communications (Harmon, 2003). One ad vantage of instant messaging is the ability t o pr o- vide immediat e inf ormation. An e xample is notifica - tion that a person has become sick and will not be att ending w ork; instant messaging allo ws managers t o find a replacement more quickly (Zorawski, 2010).

Additional netw orking tak es place thr ough social media outlets such as F acebook, Digg, and Link edIn. Some manage rs ha ve disco vered that these outlets pr ovide eff ective channels t o int eract with emplo yees. Man y companies also use T witter accounts t o mak e contacts with cust omers. In t erms of int ernal f ormal communications, setting up a k eyword specificall y f or communicating with staff members can help an y business owner in many situations.

Videoconferencing allo ws emplo yees t o see each other as the y int eract. The medium allo ws f or some observ ation of non verbal cues as w ell as changes in v ocal t one and other f orms of int erpersonal cues. Videoconf erencing also connects companies with cust omers without the need for a sales call.

An intr anet, or int ernal compan y w ebsite, connects people within an or ganization with a sit e that pr ovides inf ormation and cr eates a method t o contact co workers and supervisors. Using an intr anet, a salesperson can captur e inf ormation about a pr ospective cust omer during a sales call or at a tr ade sho w. The t echnology mak es it possible t o personalize a pr esentation and mak e it specific t o the pr ospect or cust omer. Extr anets pr ovide link s betw een a compan y and its cust omers, suppliers, and str ategic partners. F or instance, W almart mak es e xtensive use of e xtranets in connecting its bu yers with suppliers. The suppliers ar e able t o monit or in ventory levels in Walmart stores to provide product as it becomes necessary.

Computer-based and digital communications f acilitate f ormal int eractions in r emote loca - tions acr oss all le vels of an or ganization. New t echnologies incorpor ated int o smartphones and other handheld de vices cr eate instant access t o inf ormation and f acilitate communica - tion, speeding up the pace of business for individuals and companies.

Types of Formal Messages Formal communication s ystems mo ve v arious types of inf ormation thr ough an or ganization. Messages f acilitate or ganizational functioning both int ernally and with e xternal gr oups. Some of the most common types of messages that tr avel via f ormal channels t o int ernal audiences ar e job instructions, job r ationales, standar dized inf ormation, t eam and gr oup coor dination eff orts, questions and answers, decisions and plans, and ideological indoctrination. Anikei/iStock/Thinkstock Many companies have begun using modern technology like instant messaging and social media platforms to optimize communication and networking opportunities.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Formal Communication Channels Section 9.3 Job instructions ma y tak e the f orm of a dir ect addr ess b y a supervisor instructing an emplo yee ho w t o carry out a task or set of task s, emplo yee tr aining pr ograms, perf ormance appr aisal s ystems, or ment oring pr ograms. A job r ationale e xplains w hy a job should be complet ed in a certain w ay and the importance of the job. Standar dized inf ormation applies equall y t o e very- one in the compan y, or t o each person in a department . Compan y rules, pr otocols f or e vacu- ation in case of an emer gency, and pr ocedures that appl y t o specific units in the compan y ar e f orms of standardized information.

To coor dinate t eams and gr oups, communications establish meeting times, dat es and dead- lines, and str engthen r elationships betw een members . Pr otocols f or electing a leader and other essential information constitute formal messages in team settings.

Questions and ans wers mo ve up ward, do wnward, and lat erally in business or ganizations. Questions ma y be posed b y emplo yees t o managers, b y managers t o emplo yees, or b y mem - bers at the same r ank, such as supervisors t o one another . Decisions and plans plot the dir ection of the compan y. Managers con vey them v erbally, thr ough electr onic media, and in writing.

Emplo yees g ain a sense of dir ection fr om these announcements. Ideological indoc- trination stat ements r emind emplo yees, “This is a gr eat place t o w ork.” A t times, the mes- sage begins with a compan y’s stat ement of mission. V alue stat ements, such as support f or the en vironment and social equality , ar e also part of indoctr ination stat ements. An e xample of the importance of the types of messages sent thr ough f ormal channels is f ound in the OB in Action scenario about Steve Jobs during his health crisis period at Apple Inc. OB in Action: Steve Jobs at Apple Inc.

There can be little debat e that St eve Jobs and Apple Inc. changed the w ays in w hich people communicat e o ver the past tw o decades. Althoug h Jobs passed a way in 2011, Apple’s numer - ous inno vative pr oducts ha ve dr amatically incr eased access t o inf ormation of all types and made it easier for individuals to contact one another and interact with various businesses.

Creating and sustaining such an impactful compan y r equired quality communication skills. Jobs’s car eer pr ovides an e xample of the eff ective use of inf ormation and communication. His dr amatic launches of new products in front of live audiences were well documented.

Jobs belie ved in se veral k ey principles. One in volved being willing and able t o sa y “no. ” He w as personall y r esponsible f or st opping a pr oject that w ould ha ve cr eated a de vice similar t o a P alm Pilot , concentr ating inst ead on de veloping the iP od and iPhone. Jobs stri ved f or simplic - ity in communication and in al l Apple pr oducts. He also maintained small gr oups t o eff ectively f acilitate various activities (Qualman, 2011).

A major communication challenge occurr ed w hen Jobs became ill and w as f orced t o first tak e a lea ve of absence and then t o st ep do wn as CEO of Apple. Health concerns caused him t o tak e t emporary lea ve se veral times o ver the y ears, starting in 2004, and f or the most part his absence w as sh rouded in a le vel of secr ecy t o maintain his personal pri vacy w hile pr eserving the appear ance that the compan y r emained str ong and vibr ant. Such secr ecy undoubt edly cr e- ated some concern within the compan y as w ell as per haps un wanted att ention in the industry .

(continued) \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Formal Communication Channels Section 9.3 OB in Action: Steve Jobs at Apple Inc. (continued) After Jo bs’s firs t absence due t o illness w as announced, the compan y’s st ock immediat ely dr opped in v alue. Issues with his pancr eas and lat er a li ver tr ansplant cr eated these complica - tions (Wingfield, 2011). When he r eturned, se veral observ ers not ed that his once-d ynamic speeches had become listless and lack ed ener gy. The change ma y ha ve subtl y con veyed mes- sage that he w as concerned with the w ell-being of the country r ather than it being simpl y a matt er of personal poor health.

Jobs per manently st epped do wn as Apple’s CEO in A ugust 2011. The announcement led t o audible gr oans fr om his audience. When Jobs died lat er that y ear, industry anal ysts w ondered ho w the loss of such a d ynamic inno vator and communicat or w ould impact Apple f or the f ore- seeable future.

While man y hailed and pr aised Jobs’s appr oach t o communication, critics also emer ged. One co worker not ed that “The hig hs w ere unbelie vable . . . but the lo ws w ere unimaginable” (Dumaine & Ber lin, 1983). Jef R askin, a f ormer colleague, once said that Jobs “w ould ha ve made an e xcellent King of F rance” due t o his compelling and aggr essive persona (Apple yard, 2009). Ov er time, complaints b y emplo yees and f ormer emplo yees emer ged, man y sa ying that the sar casm, aut ocratic leadership sty le, and int ense pr essure t o perf orm that Jobs oft en e xhibited simpl y became unbear able, causing some t o lea ve and others t o withdr aw in v arious w ays. Depictions of Jobs as more of a tyrant were dramatized in biopics released after his death.

Reflection and Application Questions 1. What communication skills would be necessary to manage an innovative company such as Apple?

2. Do you think a bombastic personality can be associated with effective communication, or does it risk alienating the audience?

3. Instead of secrecy, what level of communication should have taken place, from a compan y-wide perspective, during Jobs’s leaves of absence? Information Richness Information richness r epresents the inf ormation-carrying capacity of a communication channel.

A t one e xtreme on the continuum of richness, a lean channel off ers no v enue f or f eedback, is impersonal, and tr ansmits onl y a limit ed amount of inf ormation (Lengel & Daft , 1988).

On the other hand, a rich channel pr ovides opportunities f or f eedback, a full r ange of visual and audio communication, and the opportunity t o personalize a message. Figur e 9.4 summarizes the continuum from the leanest channel to the richest channel.

Complex messages and cir cumstances in w hich discussi on and int eraction ar e needed r equire the gr eatest degr ee of inf ormation richness in the channel. This leads t o in-person, f ace-to- face int eractions w here v erbal and non verbal tr ansmissions can both be off ered. The per- son ’s w ords ar e accompanied b y int onation and other cues. In business settings, additional cues can be added using vis ual aids, such as P owerPoint slides or print ed handout mat erials. In t erms of ri chness, con versations, meetings, and in-person pr esentations ar e the richest channels.

Vide oconferencing and conf erence calls r etain the ability t o mo ve be yond w ords t o \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Formal Communication Channels Section 9.3 inflection and other cues; ho wever, the same le vel of immediat e f eedback f ound in an actual f ace-to-face meeting or an interactive channel is not present.

Figure 9.4: Channel richness Different communication channels offer varying levels of information richness. Source: Adapted from Lengel, R. H., & Daft, R. L. (1988, August). The selection of communication media as an executive skill.

Academy of Management Executive, (2), 225–232.

Personal stati c channels, w hich ar e the leaner of the tw o moder ately rich channels, include t elephone call s and instant messages. The y ar e leaner because visual elements and non verbal cues ar e absent; ho wever, quick -response s ystems such as instant messaging cr eate w hat ar e near ly “con versations” in w hich questions and ans wers can be posed along with pr oposals and count erproposals. The leanest channels ar e those in w hich v erbal int onation and non ver- bal cues cannot be tr ansmitted. Most print ed documents, such as lett ers, r eports, and pr opos- als, ar e sent in lean f ormats. Standar dized inf ormation with less comple xity can also be sent thr ough leaner channels. In-depth e xplanations of complicat ed issues ar e possible using lean f ormats; however, they are transmitted without the benefits of other channels.

Channel richn ess pr ovides a t ool that assists managers in selecting the best w ay t o send a message.

Eff ective communicat ors mat ch channel richness with the message. Ineff ective communicat ors fail to match the message with the appropriate medium.

Communication in Groups In cir cumstances in w hich gr oups of indi viduals int eract r outinely, v arious f orms of netw orks ar e designed or simpl y emer ge. Among them, the chain, w heel, cir cle, and all-channel f orms of communication and int eraction e xplain ho w messages tr avel in departments, t eams, com - mittees, task forces, and similar settings (Robbins, 2005).

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Formal Communication Channels Section 9.3 Chain The t erms “chain of command” or “hier archy of authority ” best e xplain a communication chain in a small gr oup. Messages flo w primaril y in tw o dir ections—upward and do wnward (see Figur e 9.5). The gr oup leader or department manager r elays decisions and gi ves or ders. The chain concept also applies t o lar ger or ganizations, w here t op-level managers communi - cate with midd le managers who then transfer the information t o first-line supervisors. First- line supervisors inf orm entry -level w orkers. Questions, inquiries, and r equests f or clarifica - tion follow the process in reverse.

Figure 9.5: Example of a communication chain In a communication chain, messages travel upward or downward through the hierarchy. Source: G. Moorehead & R. W. Griffin (2001). Organizational behavior (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

The chain des ign off ers benefits t o certain types of gr oups and or ganizations. The model fits with si tuations in w hich pr ecision in carrying out task s or assignments holds hig h priority . The chain appr oach best applies t o companies that pr oduce standar dized pr oducts, with little need for innovation or change.

Wheel In a w heel arr angement, a manager or gr oup leader becomes the cent er of the w heel, with indi vidual spok es, or communication channels, connecting the manager t o subor dinates. The centr al figur e collects inf ormation and dispenses it t o emplo yees. Indi vidual t eam members communicat e only with the control center and not with one another (see Figure 9.6).

The w heel appr oach ma y be used in task f orces or pr oject t eams, especiall y w hen members ar e geogr aphically disperse d. Normall y a w heel appr oach w ould not fit an ongoing mana- gerial oper ation, because t eam members and emplo yees ar e not usuall y isolat ed fr om each other on a continuing basis.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Formal Communication Channels Section 9.3 Figure 9.6: Example of a wheel design In a wheel arrangement, the central figure, or manager, collects information and dispenses it to the emplo yees.

Source: F. C. Lunenburg (2011). Network patterns and analysis: Underused sources to improve communication effectiveness, National Forum of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 28 (4) 1-7; B. B. Haslett (2012). Communicating and or ganizing, New York, NY: Routledge.

Circle A cir cle r esembles the w heel appr oach, onl y without the centr al hub (see Figur e 9.7). In a cir cle s ystem, t eam or department members communicat e fr eely with other members, e ven thoug h one member of the cir cle is the f ormally designat ed leader . The communication flo w mo ves ar ound the cir cle either clockwise or count erclockwise. This design is appr opriate f or task s that ar e complet ed sequentiall y. One member’s end pr oduct becomes the beginning point for the next member.

The cir cle appr oach ma y be f ound in task f orce oper ations as w ell as in labor atory settings in w hich e xperiments tak e plac e in a car efully construct ed f ormat. It ma y also fit certain cr eative endea vors, such as preparing advertisements or market research projects.

Figure 9.7: Example of a communication circle In a communication circle, the members communicate freely, and messages flow in either direction ar ound the circle.

Source: F. C. Lunenburg (2011). Network patterns and analysis: Underused sources to improve communication effectiveness, National Forum of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 28 (4) 1-7, and B. B. Haslett (2012). Communicating and organizing, New York, NY: Routledge.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Formal Communication Channels Section 9.3 All-Channel In an all-chan nel communication arr angement, messages mo ve fr eely acr oss or ganizational r anks and among members of a t eam, gr oup, or department . Members contact each other without regard to title or status (see Figure 9.8).

The all-channel appr oach t o communication design mat ches an incr easing number of depart - ments and companies. Man y Int ernet firms, such as Goog le, maintain open w ork spaces with - out doors or w alls. Emplo yees mo ve about fr eely and ar e encour aged t o communicat e openl y r egarding new and inno vative ideas. Managers w ork side b y side with other or ganizational members, w hich empo wers emplo yees and encour ages inno vation. Consequentl y, the all- channel desig n fits with units that emphasize cr eativity, such as mar keting and ad vertising departments or research and development departments.

Figure 9.8: Example of an all-channel arrangement In an all-channel communication model, messages pass freely between members, regardless of rank. Source: F. C. Lunenburg (2011). Network patterns and analysis: Underused sources to improve communication effectiveness, National Forum of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 28 (4) 1-7; B. B. Haslett (2012). Communicating and or ganizing, New York, NY: Routledge.

In summary , f ormal communication consists of inf ormation that tr avels thr ough or ganiza- tionally designat ed channels. The channels include tr aditional v erbal and writt en media as w ell as new er comput er-based or digital tr ansmissions. Managers can tak e ad vantage of the man y f orms t o eff ectively tr ansmit and r eceive messages with those inside and outside of the compan y. Comprehension Exercise 1. Social media and instant messages are forms of a. traditional verbal formal communication channels.

b. traditional written formal communication channels.

c. computer/digital formal communication channels.

d. all-channel formal communication.

2. A sequential flow of information and communication is found in which design?

a. chain b. wheel c. circle d. all-channel Answers: 1) c 2) c \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Overcoming Barriers to Formal Communication Section 9.4 9.4 Overcoming Barriers to Formal Communication Verbal and non verbal f ormal communication s ystems ar e the lif eblood of an or ganization’s oper ations. The s ystems de mand car eful construction and constant maint enance. As is the case with int erpersonal communication, barriers can int errupt f ormal communication. These include int erpersonal difficulties, s ystem o verload, ph ysical barriers, selecti ve filt ering, mis- mat ch of message and medium, and informal contradiction of the formal message. E very int erpersonal barrier , including indi vidual diff erences, situational f ac- tors, and mechanical pr oblems, that int errupt communication betw een indi viduals pr esents pot ential f or- mal barriers. Also, an y tr ansmission pr oblem that int errupts con versations betw een tw o or mor e indi viduals can become barriers t o f ormal s ystems (A thanassiades, 1973). S ystem o verload means that t oo much inf ormation r eaches a person at a gi ven time and messages become lost as a r esult. Missing, misint erpreted, or lat e-arriving messages ar e s ymptoms of s ystem o verload. S ystem o verload has become an incr easing challenge in man y companies due t o the gr owth of accept ed com - munication channels. A message can easil y be lost in an abundance of e-mails (especiall y w hen the emplo yee has been a way f or a v acation or illness) or w hen one manager sends com - ments b y t ext but another pr efers v oice mail or e-mail. The emplo yee ma y not kno w w hich channel to check first, or they may neglect to look at all channels.

Physical barriers include time zone diff erences, t elephone line and mobile phone static, and comput ers that cr ash due t o viruses or other pr oblems. Office w alls can also pr ovide ph ysical barriers to effective communication. Selecti ve filt ering occurs w hen a message changes as it passes fr om one indi vidual t o another . Selecti ve filt ering includes “condensation, ” or taking out parts of the message, and “e xpan- sion,” or adding t o a message. An y message, such as a decision or dir ective that mo ves fr om the t op of the or ganization t o lo wer r anks, can easil y be modified as it tr avels thr ough v arious managers.

A supervisor can edit a f orwarded e-mail message or v erbally change a dir ective t o suit his or her needs when passing it along to others.

A mismat ch of message and medium occurs w hen a message has been tr ansmitted using a channel that will not r each the audience. When a y oung emplo yee sends an instant message t o a manager w ho does not use that t echnology, the message is lost due t o the use of the wr ong medium. The use of social media cr eates new opportunities f or misunderstanding ho w t o contact and communicat e with emplo yees. The use of a v erbal channel w hen something should be put into writing also constitutes a mismatch. Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock With so many forms of communication, information may occasionally get lost in translation.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Overcoming Barriers to Formal Communication Section 9.4 Informal communication, or gossip, is fun. Consequent ly, rumors oft en continue t o cir culate, e ven those disput ed b y management thr ough the f ormal communication s ystem. Difficulties arise w hen the f ormal message is contr adicted b y gossip or rumors. F urther, persist ent neg a- tive rumors can affect morale, even when there is no substance to them.

Five important concepts assist in o vercoming the barriers t o f ormal communication (Mehdi, 1984; Samar as, 1980). T wo pertain t o the actual messages being con veyed: tr ansmit- ting important messages thr ough mor e than one channel and mat ching the message t o the medium and audience.

The other thr ee r efer t o the o verall communication s ystem. An eff ective management inf or- mation s ystem helps ensur e the smooth flo w of inf ormation t o places w here it is needed. A communications audit iden tifies an y pr oblems within the s ystem. Finall y, pr oactive manage- ment of inf ormal messages, or gossip, within the or ganization will help o vercome barriers to f ormal communication.

Effective Message Transmission Managers can use multiple channels t o r elay important it ems. This helps ensur e that a mes- sage arri ves on time and wil l be r eceived. F or e xample, if a manager w ants t o con vey the mes- sage that an important meeting has been scheduled f or ear ly the ne xt morning, the manager ma y not onl y send e-mails t o the members of his or her team, but also ask an assistant t o call each member personall y t o mak e sur e he or she r eceived the message. In management com - munication, r edundancy has become mor e important than e ver in t oday’s w orld w hen seek- ing to ensure a message arrives.

To mat ch the message and the medium, the sender considers the audience, the cont ent of the message, the degr ee of inf ormation richness r equired, and the need f or a permanent r ecord of the message (Lengel & Daft , 1988). As additional new tr ansmission de vices become a vail- able, managers ma y need t o spend mor e time e xplaining the pr oper channel f or a suggestion, complaint , or request for clarification of a directive to employees.

Management Information Systems To mak e sur e messages and inf ormation tr avel efficientl y and eff ectively thr ough an or ganiza- tion, the compan y should establish and maintain a quality management inf ormation s ystem. A w ell-designed management information system (MIS) consists of the people and t ech- nologies used to collect and process organizational information.

An eff ective MIS begins wit h eff ective people w ho kno w ho w t o collect important or ganiza- tional inf ormation. The s ystem utilizes the best t echnologies. F urthermore, an eff ective MIS carries quality inf ormation. K ey compan y inf ormation is timel y, accur ate, important , and summarized.

A manager should be able t o quickl y access important statistics and inf orma- tion.

Indi vidual emplo yees should be able t o find the types of data that help them perf orm their jobs most effectively.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Overcoming Barriers to Formal Communication Section 9.4 Communication Audits To ensur e that a compan y’s f ormal communication s ystem serv es the needs of the or ganiza- tion, a communication audit ma y be undertak en. A c ommunication audit is a s ystematic assessment of an or ganization’s capacity f or, or perf ormance of, essential communications pr actices. Com munication audits can be conduct ed b y middle or t op managers or b y an out - side consulting gr oup. The audits should det ermine w hat w orks, w hat does not , and w hat mig ht work better if adjustments were made (Coffman, 2004).

An eff ective audit pr ovides an assessment of curr ent pr actice (diagnosis) and then det er- mines w hat st eps ar e needed t o mak e impr ovements (pr escription). The audit is not com - plete until both acti vities ha ve tak en place and been implement ed. An audit onl y succeeds w hen managers clearly define the communication needs.

Management of Informal Communication A substantial number of messages tr ansmitted in a compan y do not flo w thr ough an autho - rized channel or ar e dedicat ed t o a t opic that does not se rve the or ganization’s int erests. These kinds of messages ar e r eferred t o as informal communication, and they ar e a part of e very- day lif e in most or ganizations. Other names f or inf ormal communication include “gossip, ” “rumors, ” and “the gr apevine.” The military t erm f or inf ormal communication is “scuttlebutt .” Managers should not ignor e gossip. The y can handle it most eff ectively b y understanding ho w gossip w orks, tapping in t o w hat is being said inf ormally, tr ansmitting some types of mes- sages, and actively dealing with false rumors.

To understand gossip, f our elements should be consid ered. First , rumors tr avel quickl y. In this electr onic age, an indiscr etion can be post ed on a so cial media sit e in a matt er of seconds and r emain ther e indefinit ely. Man y people do not r ealize that once a rumor has been start ed, or a comment post ed online, that message ma y be impossible t o st op. R umors ha ve al ways “spr ead like wildfire” (Davis, 1969). Second, mana gers should understand that both true inf ormation and misinf ormation tr avel thr ough inf ormal channels. Estimat es ar e that near ly one-thir d of all rumors contain f aulty inf ormation or mistruths (Da vis, 1975). An y rumor deserv es a consider able amount of sk epticism. Thir d, rumors ar e tuned t o emplo yee needs and ma y r eflect commonl y held per ceptions about the compan y. In essence, people gossip about the things the y think ar e int eresting. Common gossip t opics include pa y, human r esource decisions, compan y plans, office r omances, se xual identity , and office conflicts. F ourth, gossip cr eates social po wer. Inf ormal communication includes elements of socializa - tion in w hich those w ho ha ve access t o rumors f eel socia lly included (K urland & P elled, 2000).

T apping in t o the compan y rumor mill means finding w ays t o hear w hat is being said inf or- mally.

The phr ase used t o describe this acti vity is “ha ving a pipeline. ” With the emer gence of instant messaging and social media, disco vering w hat emplo yees ar e talking about has become easier.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Overcoming Barriers to Formal Communication Section 9.4 Informal communication can also be used t o send messages. Some manag- ers tr ansmit “trial balloons, ” w hereby ideas ar e t ested out inf ormally. A man - ager in a br eak r oom ask s ho w sales - people w ould f eel if the compan y mo ved fr om a commission-onl y pa y s ystem t o a salary -plus-commission pr ogram, t o r educe pa y v olatility and le vels of str ess. Clear ly the sales t eam will talk about the idea, and the man - ager will r eceive f eedback. Other man - agers use inf ormal channels t o pr aise the eff orts and accomplishments of w orkers. The pr esence of f alse rumors means managers sho uld be continuall y a ware of w hat happens in the channel. When a neg ative rumor continues t o damage the standing of an emplo yee or of the compan y, the manager should act. Two primary strategies exist for dealing with false rumors. First , managers can f ormally r efute the rumor b y sendin g messages in either v erbal or writt en f orm that contr adict the der ogatory inf ormation. Thes e messages must be car efully cr afted or the y run the risk of making a rumor mor e cr edible. The best appr oach includes pr esenting tangible evidence that a rumor has been invented. The second str ategy r elies on dealing with the rumor on an indi vidual basis. A manager can pull aside k ey emplo yees and talk about w hy the st ory is not true and point out the damage the rumor has caused. The manager can also suggest that if the gossiper is disco vered, conse- quences will follow (Davis, 1975). Comprehension Exercise 1. A situation in which too much information reaches a person at a given time and mes- sages become lost as a result is known as a. system overload.

b. a physical barrier.

c. selective filtering.

d. a mismatch of message and medium.

2. The strategy that is most likely to be ineffective in dealing with a false rumor would be a. contradicting it with written evidence.

b. making a carefully crafted speech refuting the gossip.

c. confronting the person who started the rumor.

d. ignoring it. Answer: 1) a 2) d Shironosov/iStock/Thinkstock Having access to the rumor mill can give managers the opportunity to dispel any harmful or false claims.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication Section 9.5 9.5  Int ernational and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication The barriers t o int erpersonal communication that w ere discussed ear lier ma y become mag - nified in int eractions with citizens of other countries. Gender equality and inequality str ongly aff ect patt erns of communication betw een males and f emales in other countries. Also, older persons ma y be hig hly r espected in one cultur e and disr espected in another . Asking ques - tions ab out a person ’s age can mak e the r eceiver uncomf ortable in W estern cultur es. P ercent- ages of a population that ar e educat ed v ary widel y acr oss countries, ther eby aff ecting status le vels and the ability t o communicat e. The most commonl y cit ed barriers t o communication in int ernational settings include language and slang, gr eetings, dir ectness, speaking v ersus silence, e ye contact , ethnocentrism, diff erences in the meaning of non ver- bal cues, pers onal space iss ues, use of s ymbols and cultur al icons , and time and tardiness. Language Language cr eates barriers t o int erna- tional communication. An indi vidual w ho onl y speak s Eng lish will e xperi- ence di fficulties w hen a business part - ner onl y speak s Italian, e ven with a tr anslator pr esent. Some languages, such as Mandarin, use char acters r ather than lett ers in writing. In Japan, a person nodding “y es” and sa ying hai is communicating, “I am list ening,” r ather than “I agr ee.” Slang within a langu age can further complicat e communication. Managers and emplo yees should choose their words carefully.

Communication is aff ected b y cultur al cont ext.

In a hig h-context culture such as China, Japan, K orea, V ietnam, and t o a lesser e xtent Egypt , Saudi Ar abia, and Lebanon, the use of non verbal, situational cues gr eatly influences int eractions.

P ersonal status, settings, and rituals become important parts of negotiat ions and business r elationships. T rust building is important and or al agreements imply strong commitments.

A lo w-context culture such as the one pr esent in the Unit ed Stat es, Canada or in most of E urope (Hall, 1976) places a gr eater emphasis on the use of w ords t o con vey meaning. In such cultur es, contr acts and other car efully w orded, leg al documents ar e r outine. Settings, titles, and status play a much lesser role in communications and business relationships. Greetings In Asia, people bo w t o gr eet business partners. In W estern cultur es, the tr aditional gr eeting in volves shaking hands. Gr eeting a business contact with a kiss on the cheek is a common Digital Vision./Photodisc/Thinkstock Intercultural communications present a host of unique challenges and learning opportunities.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication Section 9.5 gesture in cer tain E uropean countries. In R ussia, tw o close business associat es mig ht hug w hen the y meet . Germans, on the other hand, pr efer mor e f ormal r elationships with business partners, so first names wil l not be used. Also, asking a personal question about someone’s f amily or children may be inappropriate in more reserved cultures.

Other nuances e xist. In K orea, a person t ouches his or her elbo w w hile shaking hands t o indi- cat e r espect. A man shaking a w oman’s hand is f orbidden in man y Muslim r egions, and in P akistan, women do not even shake hands with one another.

Following an intr oduction, the cust om in man y countries, especiall y in Asia, is t o first build trust . Business should not be discussed until a mor e cor dial r elationship has f ormed, w hich ma y tak e time and mor e than one meeting. In other countries, the partners will immediat ely mo ve on t o the purpose of the meeting. In Finland, the e xpression suor aan liiketoimintaa means “straight to business.” Conversational Directness Conversational dir ectness is cultur ally based. F or e xample, in Holland, str ong, dir ect language is used in con versation. In f act, if a business partner does not speak in a dir ect w ay, the person ma y be viewed as weak or unreliable. In man y Asian countries, language and con versation ar e hig hly def erent. Disagr eement is e xpressed in the most modest t erms possible. Def erent language a voids dir ectly challenging a person or app earing disr espectful in an y w ay. Inst ead of sa ying, “W e can ’t meet that deli very dat e,” a v endor will use phr asing such as “I am afr aid that trying t o achie ve that timetable will be very difficult for our company.” Speaking Versus Silence In the Unit ed Stat es, most view silence as uncomf ortable. In the f ormer So viet Union stat es and in Isr ael, e xecutives will tak e time t o consider a pr oposal, belie ving it signals sincerity (www .sherisentsi.com, 2011 ); silence does not bother them. A W esterner w ho becomes impa - tient during these silent moments of deliber ation can pot entially displa y a lack of r espect or impolit eness. V arious cultur es hold diff erent perspecti ves about the meaning of silence dur- ing a con versation or negotiation. In one, silence signals disappr oval or t ension. In another , it simpl y reflects courtesy, contemplation, and consideration. Eye Contact Eye contact ma y be closel y r elated t o con versational dir ectness. In the Unit ed Stat es and Canada, a voiding e ye contact mak es a person seem suspicious and untrustw orthy. In other countries such as Japan and Hong K ong, looking a way displa ys def erence and r espect. Gender pla ys a signific ant r ole in e ye contact as w ell. In S yria, a male w ould not mak e e ye contact with a w oman, unless she w as a f amily member . While a man w ould mak e dir ect e ye-to-eye contact with another man, the same would not be true when conversing with a woman.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication Section 9.5 Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s cultur e is inher ently superior , ma y cause either the sender or r eceiver t o con vey a sense of superiority t o others. Misunderstandings and pot en- tial conflicts ma y be the r esult. F or e xample, if a U .S. salesman w ere t o sa y t o E uropean tr ading partners, “I kno w y ou f olks lik e t o eat dinner w ay t oo lat e at nig ht, but w e kno w that’s bad f or y our he alth,” the E uropeans ar e lik ely t o be insult ed. E thnocentrism also aff ects the choice of language used in a business negotiation.

Nonverbal Cues Nonverbal cues v ary widel y b y cultur e. Nodding ma y be int erpreted as “y es” in one country and “no ” in another . In man y Middle East ern nations, the act of cr ossing one’s legs is a sign of disr espect, and males holding hands as part of a business relationship indicates trust.

Not kno wing the cultur al meaning of a particular gestur e can ha ve delet erious consequences. What ma y seem benign in one country ma y be obscene in another . F or e xample, the “OK” hand sign in w hich one mak es a cir cle with his or her thumb and first finger in the Unit ed Stat es means something entir ely diff erent (and not good) in A ustralia and Islamic countries. In Indo - nesia, pounding the fist int o the palm of the hand is impolit e. In India and Mala ysia, beck oning someone to come with one finger will symbolize calling the person like an animal.

Personal Space Personal space, or the distance betw een tw o persons in a con versation, v aries b y cultur e. Standing tw o t o thr ee f eet a way fr om another person indicat es shiftiness or distrust in Centr al Africa and the Middle East . The same distance w ould be consider ed comf ortable in F rance, Spain, and the Unit ed Stat es, w here gr eater personal space e xists. As an e xtension of personal distance, in the cultur e of Japan a business partner w ould find a pat on the back t o be discon- certing, as the Japanese t end not t o mak e ph ysical contact in business r elationships, other than shaking hands with a Western trading partner.

Symbols and Cultural Icons Cultural s ymbols include r eligious it ems, superstitions , colors, objects, and animals. A w hite horse s ymbolizes death in some cultur es; a black horse s ymbolizes death in others. The color gr een has special but diff erent meanings in Ir eland and in Islamic countries. V arious flo wers tr ansmit diff erent meanings, depending on the cultur e in volved. Gi ving r oses, f or e xample, could lead t o an angry r esponse in man y cultur es. Kno wledge of the belief s and associations of a cultur e can help an indi vidual a void doing something that w ould mak e someone uncom - fortable or have a different meaning to the other person.

Time and Tardiness In the Unit ed Stat es or Eng land, tar diness is fr owned upon. A salesperson mig ht lose a sale f or being lat e f or a meeting. Con versely, in India or China, being a f ew minut es lat e w ould not cr eate a pr oblem. Being una ware of time pr esents an ob vious pr oblem f or someone w ho is not well accustomed to these differences.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Overcoming Intercultural Barriers In int ernational settings, tw o types of pr ofessionals, cultur al assimilat ors and tr anslators, pla y important roles in helping employees overcome intercultural communication barriers.

Cultural assimilat ors ar e indi viduals w ho e xamine messages and pr epare other indi viduals f or int eractions with members of other cultur es. The y can help a person a void an y uncom - fortable lapses in manners as w ell as e xplain ho w t o sho w friendliness and r espect in a host country . Cond ucting business thr ough a tr anslator, w ho is someone w ho speak s the language of both parties in an int ernational tr ansaction, r equires patience, as messages tr avel much mor e slowly when each side must wait to hear what was said in his or her own language.

It ta kes time f or e xpatriate employees , those sent t o w ork in other countries, t o assimilat e t o new cir cumstances. C ultural tr aining should be part of an y int ernational assignment . Com- pan y leaders should pr epare w orkers f or the pot ential of cultur e shock w hen ent ering a new nation.

Indi viduals w ho ar e open t o new e xperiences and e xcited b y cultur al diff erences mak e the best candidates for expatriate assignments. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which cultures emphasize the use of symbols and nonverbal cues in interpersonal communications?

a. low-context cultures b. moderate-context cultures c. high-context cultures d. high-resonance cultures 2. The belief that one’s culture is inherently superior is a. dynamism.

b. ethnocentrism.

c. stereotyping.

d. culture shock. Answers: 1) c 2) b Summary and Resources Chapter Summary Communication in volves the tr ansmission, r eception, and pr ocessing of inf ormation. Thr ee models of communication ar e linear , int eractive, and tr ansactional. These models of com - munication include a sender , a method of tr ansmission, a r eceiver, and pot ential barriers t o communication.

Int erpersonal communication includes or al, non verbal, and writt en elements. Non verbal com - ponents include kinesic cues, appear ance and dr ess, artif acts, t ouch, space, and par alanguage. W ritten communications include memos, e-mails, instant messages, letters, and reports.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Numerous barriers t o communication e xist. Barriers can be associat ed with e very element of a ba sic communication model, or as sender , encoding, tr ansmission medium, decoding, r eceiver, and f eedback barriers. A second appr oach anal yzes communication barriers in t erms of indi vidual diff erences, situational f actors, and tr ansmission pr oblems. Ov ercoming these barriers includes duties carried out by the sender, the receiver, and both parties.

Formal communication consists of inf ormation that tr avels thr ough or ganizationally desig- nat ed channels. Man y tr aditional writt en channels ha ve been adapt ed t o mor e sophisticat ed t echnologies. Comput er-based digital channels include e-mail, instant messaging, social media, videoconferencing, intranets, and extranets.

The types of messages that tr avel o ver f ormal channels include job instructions, job r atio- nales, standar dized inf ormation, t eam and gr oup coor dination eff orts, questions, ans wers, decisions, pla ns, and ideolo gical indoctrination. In f ormal channels, inf ormation richness r epresents the inf ormation carrying capacity of a medium. Channels r ange fr om lean t o mod- er ately rich t o rich. Communication in t eams, gr oups, departments, and sometimes lar ger or ganizations include chain, wheel, circle, and all-channel networks.

International settings cr eate e xtensions of indi vidual int erpersonal barriers t o communica - tion as w ell as complet ely new challenges. The most commonl y cit ed barriers t o communica - tion in int ernational business include language, slang, methods of gr eeting, con versational dir ectness, the use of silence, e ye contact , ethnocentrism , diff erences in meanings of non ver- bal cues, personal space issues, and the use of symbols and cultural icons.

Overcoming int ernational communication barriers begins with the deplo yment of a cultur al assimilat or t o pr epare messages and indi viduals f or int eractions with members of other coun - tries.

T ranslators assist w hen multiple languages ar e pr esent. Expatriat e emplo yees benefit fr om cultur al tr aining. Those chosen f or assignments should e xhibit a willingness t o adapt t o new cultures. CASE STUDY: The Luddite Marvin Whit e ne ver imagined the trucking business could become so t echnology dri ven. He w as finding the new w orld of logistics difficult t o under stand, much less manage. And it seemed like every month the problem became a little worse.

Marvin beg an dri ving f or T ransporters, a Memphis-based trucking oper ation, near ly tw o decades ago. He att ended a tr aditional truck dri ver tr aining school f or nine months and earned his o ver-the-road license at that time. Being out on long trips w as an enjo yable time, as it w as possible to combine sightseeing with work.

Trucking had not changed much f or man y decades. Dri vers r eceived deli very or ders on print ed pages.

T ruck w eights w ere car efully r egulated in or der t o pass thr ough go vernmental truck st ops without dela y. Marvin knew about “s windle sheets, ” or f alsified certification papers r egarding truck weight, but never personally used them.(continued) \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources CASE STUDY: The Luddite (continued) Three primary methods of communication w ere used during those ear ly y ears. On the r oad, a citizen band (CB) r adio pr ovided constant contact with other truck ers and dri vers r egarding pr oblem ar eas such as construction zones, accidents, or bad w eather. CB contacts also serv ed as a f orm of amusement , and truck ers had a language of their o wn w hen con versing with one another . Th e t elephone w as used f or calling home. When Marvin beg an dri ving he w ould k eep in contact with his gir lfriend b y calling her fr om pa y phones or mot el phones. The same method w orked once the y w ere married. F ace-to-face con versations r ounded out the commu - nication s ystem. T ruckers enjo yed each other’s compan y at truck st op r estaurants and filling stations.

Marvin also maintain ed a positi ve r elationship with his supervisor thr ough int erper- sonal contacts at the truck yard.

After 10 y ears of hauling fr eight, Marvin w as pr omoted t o supervisor of a lar ge part of the T ransporters fleet . He made a point of int eracting personall y with e very dri ver during his first y ear on the job. He also took time to master the paperwork associated with the job.

Then, the w orld beg an t o change. Soon GPS ( global positioning s ystem) t echnology w as used t o r oute dri vers, e ven thoug h GPS could not spot tr ouble ar eas in the same w ay CB netw orks did.

Mobile phones beg an t o r eplace CB tr ansmitters, espe cially with new er, y ounger dri v- ers.

Social media changed the landscape e ven mor e, as dri vers r elied on tw eets and main - tained contact thr ough F acebook pages. Marvin w orried a gr eat deal about the saf ety aspects of these new de vices, as dri vers w ould spend mor e time looking at scr eens than concentr ating on the road.

Supervisory task s also beg an t o e volve. Inst ead of paper deli very or ders, man y companies pr eferred wir eless and paper less f ormats. Man y y oung dri vers quickl y adapt ed t o the new appr oach. Marvin w as tr oubled b y the lack of w hat he called a “permanent” r ecord. He w as spending mor e time in fr ont of a comput er scr een and dealing with mobile t echnologies and f ar less time building and maintaining relationships with drivers.

Marvin also noticed w hat he consider ed t o be a br eakdown in the social netw ork that had al ways accompanied the job. Inst ead of visiting with each other in r estaurants and filling stations, man y dri vers int eracted thr ough handheld t echnologies with people in other loca - tions.

T o Marvin it seemed som e of his emplo yees w ere missi ng golden opportunities t o mak e friends with real people, in person. He wondered if all of this change was for the better.

Case Questions 1. What forms of formal communication and informal communication were present when Marvin first began driving?

2. How had the new technologies changed formal communications at Transporters?

3. How had the new technologies changed informal communication processes in the truck- ing industry?

4. Do new technologies create new barriers to interpersonal and formal communication? If so, how? How might these new barriers be addressed?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Review Questions Describe the elements of the linear communication model.

In the model, the sender tr ansmits a message or an idea. This message is encoded in the user’s language, or v erbal cues accompanied b y non verbal cues. A tr ansmission de vice carries a message via sound w aves, lig ht w aves, pieces of paper , mobile phone signals and scr eens, the Int ernet, comput er monit ors, billboar ds, r adio and t elevision signals, and thr ough an end - less number of additional carriers. Decoding occurs as the r eceiver encount ers the message and compr ehends or int erprets it . The r eceiver is the sender’s int ended audience, w hich is either a sing le person or a gr oup. F eedback r eturns t o the sender in the f orm of e valuation of the message.

How do interaction and transaction models of communication explain conversations?

The int eraction model depicts the mutual tr ansmission and r eception of messages and f eed- back, w hich suggests a mor e int eractive natur e of communication. The tr ansaction model of communication suggests an intricat e and sophisticat ed patt ern in w hich one person sends and the other r eceives and then the pr ocess r everses. A ctual discussions tak e place near ly simultaneousl y.

What forms of nonverbal communication are used in interpersonal interactions?

The f orms of non verbal communication include kinesic cues, appear ance and dr ess, artif acts, t ouch, space, and paralanguage.

What individual differences create barriers to interpersonal communication?

The differences include age, gender, educational level, status, and personality.

What situational factors create barriers to interpersonal communication?

These f actors include e xclusive language; emotions (anger , en vy, personal attitudes and v al- ues); settings; and distractions.

What transmission problems create barriers to interpersonal communication?

Some of the mor e common tr ansmission pr oblems include language, slang, t echnical t ermi- nology, sender or receiver disabilities, and nonverbal contradictions of verbal messages.

Name the responsibilities of the sender, receiver, and both in overcoming the barriers to inter - personal communication.

Sender r esponsibilities include a wareness of barriers, empath y, car eful att ention t o non ver- bal cues, and confirmation of the message. R eceive duties include acti ve list ening and seeking clarification of the message . Joint duties include building trust , eliminating st ereotypes, and setting egos aside.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources What computer/digital formal communication channels are used in organizations?

These include e-mail, instant message, social media, videoconf erencing, intr anet, and e xtranet.

What are the barriers to formal communication?

The barriers that can int errupt f ormal communication include int erpersonal difficulties, sys- tem o verload, ph ysical barriers, selecti ve filt ering, mis match of message and medium, and inf ormal contradiction of the formal message.

Name the five things a manager can do to overcome the barriers to formal communication.

Transmit important messages thr ough mor e than one channel. Mat ch the message t o the medium and audience. Ha ve an eff ective management inf ormation s ystem that helps ensur e the smo oth flo w of inf ormation t o places w here it is needed. Conduct a communications audit t o id entify an y pr oblems wit hin the s ystem. Pr oactively manage inf ormal messages, or gossip, within the organization. These will help overcome barriers to formal communication.

What are the primary barriers to communication in international settings?

The most commonl y cit ed barriers t o communication in int ernational settings ar e language and slang; gr eetings; dir ectness; speaking v ersus silence; e ye contact; ethnocentrism; diff er- ences in the meaning of non verbal cues; personal space issues; use of s ymbols and cultur al icons; and time and tardiness.

Analytical Exercises 1. Apply the basic linear model, interactive model, and transaction model of communi- cation to the following circumstances: • a salesperson making a presentation to a company’s buying team • an argument between a supervisor and an employee • a job interview • an employee asking for a pay raise 2. Provide examples of how all the forms of nonverbal communication would be used in the following situations: • a supervisor trying to provide constructive criticism to a new employee • an employee trying to “cover” for a coworker who has left work early • an employee seeking to make a case for being promoted • an employee making a proposal to top management 3. Three forms of communication patterns are (1) an assertive style that is expressive and self-enhancing but does not take advantage of others, (2) an aggressive style that is expressive and self-enhancing but tries to take unfair advantage of others, and (3) a nonassertive style that is timid and self-denying (Waters, 1982). Explain how these w ould become barriers to individual interpersonal communication and how some- one dealing with each style could attempt to overcome those barriers.

4. Explain how computer/digital formal communications channels have altered the dir ections communication takes, the types of formal messages transmitted, and the barriers to formal communication.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources 5. Compare the concepts of information richness to communication processes in low- context and high-context cultures. Explain how the concepts of information richness and cultural context influence the barriers to international communication. Key Terms communication Transmitting, receiving, and processing information. c ommunication audit  A systematic assessment of an organization’s capacity for, or performance of, essential communica- tions practices. dec oding This occurs when a receiver encount ers a message and interprets it. enc oding The formation of verbal and non verbal cues. e xclusive language Terminology that can onl y be understood by a select set of indi- viduals within an organization. e xpatriate employees Employees sent to w ork in other countries. formal c ommunication  Information that tr avels through organizationally designated channels.

hig h-context culture A culture in which the use of nonverbal, situational cues gr eatly influences interactions. informal c ommunication  Messages that emer ge in everyday life in organizations; otherwise known as “gossip.” information richness The information- carrying capacity of a communication channel.

int eraction model  Model of communi- cation showing a dialogue between two people, including the mutual transmission and r eception of messages and feedback. int eractional transparency The open and honest sharing of information.

kinesic cues Messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements. lo w-context culture A culture in which w ords primarily convey meaning. management information s ystem (MIS)  The people and technologies used to collect and process organizational information. noise  Barriers or disruptions to communication. par alanguage How something is said r ather than what is said when presenting a message. r eceiver The sender’s intended audience. semantics  Communication problems that emer ge when a word or phrase has more than one meaning. sender  The person sending a message or idea. supporti ve communication The pres- ence of affirmation, caring, and the desire t o provide honest and useful advice and messages.

tr ansaction model Model of communica- tion wherein a person speaking studies the intended audience as the message is being sent.

transmission device Any type of medium that carries a message.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.