Will you be able to complete the full course?

11 Authority, Power, and Politics Hero Images Inc./Hero Images/SuperStock Learning Objectives After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:• Discuss the natur e and use of f ormal authority .

• Employ the sour ces of po wer.

• Utilize po wer eff ectively.

• Respond t o or ganizational politics.

2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Authority Section 11.1 11.1 Authority The use of personal and or ganizational po wer is part of e veryday lif e in or ganizations. Man y times, manage rs e xert po wer in or der t o achie ve legitimat e compan y goals, simpl y as part of “doing the job. ” Althoug h so me construe compan y polit ics t o be “distast eful” or “unpleasant” and try t o a void w hat mig ht be t ermed “political” situations, wishing them a way is not pos - sible.

Not e very use of po wer has a neg ative int ention or out come. Consequentl y, understand - ing the pr ocesses and int entions in volved can help shed lig ht on this important aspect of or ganizational life and help individual employees and managers adapt to them.

This chapt er e xamines authority , po wer, and politics as separ ate t opics e ven thoug h in actual- ity a substanti al o verlap e xists betw een the concepts. P ersons holding positions of authority also possess po wer. Emplo yees eng aged in political acti vities ar e lik ely t o use the sour ces of po wer to move into positions of authority, and so forth. A uthority can be view ed as primaril y a f ormal or ganizational pr ocess link ed t o the or ganiza- tional hier archy, as displa yed in an or ganization chart . In that cont ext, deleg ation is the mo ve- ment of authority fr om a hig her-ranking t o a lo wer-ranking or ganizational member within the chain of command or fr om one peer t o another of the same r ank. E ven then, ho wever, tw o perspecti ves e xist: one suggesting that authority can onl y flo w do wnward and another ar gu- ing that it mo ves up ward thr ough the hier archy. Both perspecti ves will be anal yzed in this chapt er.

Power contains both f ormal and inf ormal elements. The basic elements of po wer, as w ell as the uses of power, are examined in this chapter. The int eraction between topics becomes e vi- dent in the OB in Action box below regarding “right to work” laws. OB in Action: Power, Politics, and Right to Work Laws The national political landscape e xperienced a dr amatic shift in 2016 with the election of Donald T rump t o become U .S. pr esident. Less att ention seems t o ha ve been paid t o the do wn-ballot (local and stat ewide election r ace) implications of the R epublican sweep of the election. R epublicans t end t o f avor rig ht t o w ork la ws, w hich mak e it possible f or an emplo yee t o r efuse t o join the union or pa y dues. In stat es without rig ht t o w ork la ws, emplo yees can join companies as non- union members. F ollowing a pr obationary period, ho wever, the y ar e r equired t o join the union or at least pay union dues. The stat e of Missouri has been led b y a R epublican majority f or se veral y ears. Consequentl y, the Missouri legislatur e passed rig ht t o w ork la ws on mor e than one occasion. Each time, Dem- ocr atic Governor Jay Nixon vetoed the bill, and its supporters did not have sufficient votes to (c ontinued) Mj0007/iStock/Thinkstock Political maneuvers often have direct implications for the workplace. OB in Action: Power, Politics, and Right to Work Laws (continued) override the veto. In 2016, the situation changed with the election of a Republican governor. The right to work law was among the first agenda items suggested as becoming law in the new term.

Right to work laws are widely believed to reduce the power of the union within any organiza- tion because few employees are inclined to join unions and pay dues when they do not have to. They influence the role of individuals within the organization, such as a union steward elected to represent employees in disputes with management. Managers and supervisors in companies located in right to work states ma y believe they have stronger positions, because the union is in a weaker position to represent workers in individual disputes (grievances) as well as at the bargaining table.

The laws also tend to weaken the political strength of unions regarding statewide and even national elections (Jamieson, 2015).

Several states have recently enacted right to work laws, including Michigan in 2012 and Wis- consin in 2016, although the Wisconsin effort was delayed by court action. Proponents argue that states with right to work laws enjoy competitive advantages, because companies are in stronger bargaining positions with unions that tend to have fewer members in right t o work states, and employees can leave the union at any time. Any corporation seeking to expand may be more likely to choose a right to work state due to the impact on the influence of local unions.

With the results of the 2016 national election, whispers have emerged that a national right to work law may soon be considered. Those in favor believe that such a law would level the play - ing field for all states.

Reflection and Application Questions 1. Do you think a right to work law would shift the level of power and/or authority for a CEO and top management of a given company?

2. Do you think right to work laws will influence authority and power levels held by super- visors managing lower-level employees?

3. Do you believe managers of companies in right to work states have greater power levels in their firms than those without such laws? \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Authority Section 11.1 11.1 Authority The use of personal and organizational power is part of everyday life in organizations. Many times, managers exert power in order to achieve legitimate company goals, simply as part of “doing the job.” Although some construe company politics to be “distasteful” or “unpleasant” and try to avoid what might be termed “political” situations, wishing them away is not pos- sible. Not every use of power has a negative intention or outcome. Consequently, understand- ing the processes and intentions involved can help shed light on this important aspect of organizational life and help individual employees and managers adapt to them.

This chapter examines authority, po wer, and politics as separate topics even though in actual - ity a substantial overlap exists between the concepts. Persons holding positions of authority also possess power. Employees engaged in political activities are likely to use the sources of power to move into positions of authority, and so forth. Authority can be viewed as primarily a formal organizational process linked to the organiza- tional hierarchy, as displayed in an organization chart. In that context, delegation is the move- ment of authority from a higher-ranking to a lower-ranking organizational member within the chain of command or from one peer to another of the same rank. E ven then, however, two perspectives exist: one suggesting that authority can only flow downward and another argu- ing that it moves upward through the hierarchy. Both perspectives will be analyzed in this chapter.

Power contains both formal and informal elements. The basic elements of power, as well as the uses of power, are examined in this chapter. The interaction between topics becomes evi- dent in the OB in Action box below regarding “right to work” laws. OB in Action: Power, Politics, and Right to Work Laws The national political landscape experienced a dramatic shift in 2016 with the election of Donald Trump to become U.S. president. Less attention seems to have been paid to the down-ballot (local and statewide election race) implications of the Republican sweep of the election. Republicans tend to favor right to work laws, which make it possible for an employee to refuse to join the union or pay dues. In states without right to work laws, employees can join companies as non- union members. Following a probationary period, however, they are required to join the union or at least pay union dues. The stat e of Missouri has been led by a Republican majority for several years. Consequently, the Missouri legislature passed right to work laws on more than one occasion. Each time, Dem- ocratic Governor Jay Nixon vetoed the bill, and its supporters did not have sufficient votes to (continued) Mj0007/iStock/Thinkstock Political maneuvers often have direct implications for the workplace. OB in Action: Power, Politics, and Right to Work Laws (continued) override the v eto. In 2016, the situation changed with the election of a R epublican go vernor. The rig ht t o w ork la w w as among the first agenda it ems suggest ed as becoming la w in the new term.

Right t o w ork la ws ar e widel y belie ved t o r educe the po wer of the union within an y or ganiza- tion because f ew emplo yees ar e inclined t o join unions and pa y dues w hen the y do not ha ve t o. The y influence the r ole of indi viduals within the or ganization, such as a union st eward elect ed t o r epresent emplo yees in disput es with management . Managers and supervisors in companies locat ed in rig ht t o w ork stat es ma y belie ve the y ha ve str onger positions, because the union is in a w eaker position t o r epresent w orkers in indi vidual disput es ( grievances) as w ell as at the bargaining table.

The la ws also t end t o w eaken the political str ength of unions r egarding stat ewide and e ven national elections (Jamieson, 2015).

Several stat es ha ve r ecently enact ed rig ht t o w ork la ws, inclu ding Michig an in 2012 and Wis - consin in 2016, althoug h the Wisconsin eff ort w as dela yed b y court action. Pr oponents ar gue that stat es with rig ht t o w ork la ws enjo y competiti ve ad vantages, because companies ar e in str onger bar gaining positions with unions that t end t o ha ve f ewer members in rig ht t o w ork stat es, and emplo yees can lea ve the union at an y time. An y corpor ation seeking t o e xpand ma y be mor e lik ely t o choose a rig ht t o w ork stat e due t o the impact on the influence of local unions.

With the r esults of the 2016 national election, w hispers ha ve emer ged that a national rig ht t o w ork la w ma y soon be conside red. Those in f avor belie ve that such a la w w ould le vel the pla y- ing field for all states.

Reflection and Application Questions 1. Do you think a right to work law would shift the level of power and/or authority for a CEO and top management of a given company?

2. Do you think right to work laws will influence authority and power levels held by super- visors managing lower-level employees?

3. Do you believe managers of companies in right to work states have greater power levels in their firms than those without such laws? Organizational politics will be the thir d t opic anal yzed. P olitics occur on se veral le vels and pla y out in man y w ays. The eff ects of political acti vities on indi vidual emplo yees merit att en- tion, due t o the pot ential positi ve and neg ative implications of eng aging in them. F urther, political acti vities oft en influence the entir e or ganizational cont ext, cr eating t ension, str ess, subt erfuge, and conflict . Con sider, f or e xample, the appr oach tak en in 1992 in a questionnair e de veloped b y F erris and Ka cmar r egarding fi ve acti vities the y posed t o subjects as influenc - ing their asses sments or per ceptions of politics. The subjects w ere ask ed t o agr ee or disagr ee with the f ollowing stat ements, w here agr eement signaled the per ception of the pr esence of politics (with the exception of the reverse-scored items).

• Favoritism rather than merit determines who gets ahead.

• There is no place for yes-men around here: good ideas are desired even when it means disagreeing with supervisors (reverse scored).

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Authority Section 11.1 • You can get along around here by being a good guy, regardless of the quality of your work.

• Employees are encouraged to speak out frankly even when they are critical of well- established ideas (reverse scored).

• There are cliques and in-groups that hinder the effectiveness around here.

The F erris and Kacmar app roach seems t o suggest that the pr esence of politics onl y leads t o neg ative e vents and out comes. A t the same time, authority , po wer, and politics ar e part of e veryday w orking lif e. B y understanding the natur e of each, an emplo yee can r espond in w ays that pr otect his or her best int erests. Managers can use the same understanding t o help curtail the neg ative aspects of political acti vities. This chapt er concludes with an e xamination of the ethical ramifications of power and politics. The Nature of Authority As was noted in Chapter 10, an organization’s structure establishes a chain of command. The mechanism used t o oper ate the chain of command begins with authority , or the rig ht t o dir ect and the permission t o act o ver lo wer le vel emplo yees (Barnar d, 1968). The “rig ht t o dir ect” gr ants the manager the ability t o conduct compan y oper ations b y t elling people w hat t o do. “P ermission t o act” r eflects the decision-making aspect of authority , or the rig ht t o decide w hat to do.

The thr ee types of authority ar e line authority , staff authority , and functional authority . L ine authority is dir ect, f ormal authority , as indicat ed b y the v ertical lines of an or ganization chart . S taff authority consists of the rig ht t o ad vise, or gi ve ad vice. F unctional authority is the rig ht t o dir ect but not t o disciplin e. It emer ges w hen an indi vidual has been assigned a leadership r ole on a task force, project team, or committee.

Employee r esponsibility, or ac countability, is the oblig ation t o carry out task s as assigned b y the supervisor . Each indi vidual in a compan y is r esponsible t o the manager at the ne xt le vel up in the or ganization’s hier archy. The concept of parit y of authority and responsibility states that equal le vels of authority and r esponsibility should e xist in each position (F ayol, 1916). An yone w ho has authority should be held accountable f or ho w that authority is used. An yone being held r esponsible shou ld ha ve sufficient authority t o get the job done. E ven those at the lo west le vels of the or ganization, w ho ma y not hold an y authority at all, should ha ve access t o the requisite means needed to complete their tasks.

Views of Authority Two ba sic perspecti ves ha ve been de veloped r egarding the origins of authority . The first considers authority fr om a t op-down v antage point . The second suggests that the sour ces of authority emerge from the bottom of the organization and move upward.

Top-Down Authority Max W eber (1 922) view ed authority as a f orce that originat es at the t op of the or ganiza- tion and flo ws do wnward. F rom that perspecti ve, auth ority is deri ved fr om thr ee sour ces: \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Authority Section 11.1 tradition, charisma, and law. Traditional authority results from the rule of kings, tribal chief s, and the authority of the chur ch. A uthority mo ves fr om the stat e or a r eligious institution int o v arious or ganizations. One submits t o authority in the same w ay that one obe ys r eligious or go vernmental law.

Charismatic authority arise s fr om a “gift of gr ace,” such as w hen a d ynamic military leader inspir es and guides tr oops. Colin P owell, f ormer Secr etary of Stat e and Chairman of the Joint Chief s of Staff, has been not ed as ha ving this type of charisma. Ov er time, such leaders obtain the rig ht t o influence those of lo wer r ank thr ough their personality char acteristics and per- sonal will.

Of gr eatest int erest t o the business community is the leg al/rational basis of authority that r esults fr om an emplo yment contr act (the law). An emplo yee agr ees t o the compan y’s author - ity as part of the arr angement b y w hich a job is attained and k ept. The w orker r eceives com - pensation through pay and benefits.

Bottom-Up Authority The t op-down appr oach t o authority and or ga- nizational de sign enjo yed widespr ead accep - tance f or man y y ears. E ventually, C. I. Barnar d (1938/1968) cr eated the bott om-up view of the natur e of authority . The acceptance theory of authority ar gues that authority cannot e xist until subor dinates ha ve accept ed it , w hich means it is a bott om-up pr ocess. F our main ideas e xplain this appr oach, w hich stat es that authority is accept ed w hen individuals • understand the nature of the authority. • belie ve the use of authority is consistent with the purposes of the organization.

• believe authority is being used in ways that are compatible with their personal int erests.

• are able to comply.

In r eality, elements of truth e xist in both the t op-down and bott om-up perspecti ves. Man y or ganizations contain elements of tr aditional, charismatic, and leg al sour ces of authority , with v arying degr ees of influence. A t the same time, acceptance of authority is t empered b y indi vidual judgment and assessment of ho w authority is being used. Man y ethical dilemmas arise fr om consider ations of w hat is mor al, w hat is leg al, and w hat the indi vidual considers t o be the “right” thing to do.

Consider, f or e xample, the pr essure placed on superviso ry emplo yees in the 2016 W ells F argo situation.

A uthority w as being used t o “encour age” them t o instruct emplo yees t o cr eate an unr easonable set of new accounts fr om ongoing cust omers. Those supervisors w ere put int o Cteconsulting/iStock/Thinkstock Organizational authority can move from the top down or from the bottom up.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Authority Section 11.1 the position of trying t o dec ide ho w t o r espond t o this mor al dilemma, kno wing that fictional accounts w ere being cr eated so that those of lo wer r ank could k eep their jobs. Those supervi- sors who balked at the directives to create new accounts risked losing their own positions.

In another w ell-publicized situation, Ho ward Dorfman, an e xecutive vice pr esident f or T uring Pharmaceuticals, w as fir ed f or objecting t o massi ve price incr eases on a lif e-saving medi- cine, Dar apim, a drug a vailable since 1953 and consider ed the standar d medication f or tr eat- ing t oxoplasmosis. Dorfman had t estified that the 5,000% price incr ease w as not justified, ther eby standing in opposi tion t o CEO Martin Shk erli (not e that Shk erli w as lat er char ged with the crime of securities fraud; Matthews & Gandel, 2015).

Delegation of Authority Delegation pr ocesses ar e an important component of authority . When a manager gr ants authority t o a sing le subor dinate, deleg ation tak es plac es on an indi vidual le vel. Ex amples of indi vidual delegation include • an employee “taking over” for a manager who is on break, out sick, or on vacation.

• a manager asking an employee to conduct an operation because the employee has gr eater expertise.

• a manager systematically increasing a subordinate’s control over operations as part of training or a mentoring process.

• a manager having a subordinate lead smaller assignments, so the manager can tend t o more significant matters.

In each instance, the hig her-ranking manager r emains accountable f or the use of authority and its outcomes.

A second f orm of deleg ation includes a mor e s ystematic appr oach: decentr alization, or or ga- nization-wide deleg ation of authority , as w as described in detail in Chapt er 10. Decentr aliza- tion constitut es one element of emplo yee empo werment pr ocesses, w hich ar e described lat er in this chapter. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which type of authority is found in an employment contract?

a. functional b. traditional c. charismatic d. legal/rational 2. Which individual argued that authority is a bottom-up process?

a. F.

W. Taylor b. Max Weber c. C.

I. Barnard d. Adam Smith Answers: 1) d 2) c \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Nature of Power Section 11.2 11.2 The Nature of Power “Power” is a mor e encompassing t erm than “authority .” Po wer is the ability t o influence the beha viors of others using f ormal and inf ormal means (Bass, 1990). Wher eas authority ma y be concei ved of as the rig ht t o influence due t o f ormal or ganizational r ank or position, po wer r epresents the capacity or ability t o influence others thr ough additional means. Consequentl y, an y dis cussion of po wer sho uld consider elements be yond the or ganizational chart t o achie ve a more complete view (Bierstedt, 1950; Tedeschi, 1972; Votaw, 1966).

Views of Power Several conce ptual issues f actor int o studies of po wer. First , influence o ver others should be seen as pot ential as w ell as actual. In other w ords, a po werful emplo yee ma y not necessaril y need t o act f or the indi vidual’s po wer t o be f elt b y others. A trul y po werful indi vidual ma y not be compelled t o e xert po wer and act , because the diff erential is so gr eat betw een that person and others in the or ganization that the y w ould not challenge him or her . An y time an emplo yee goes out of his or her w ay t o a void contact with a po werful supervisor , the emplo yee’s beha vior has been influenced without an y action b y the po werful pers on. This means that w hen po wer is consider ed as not just actual influence but also the pot ential to influence, identifying its pr esence—for purposes of r esearch, f or e xam- ple—becomes more problematic.

Second, due t o the neg ative association of po wer with the unpleasant side of or ganizational acti v- ity, such as po wer that is aggr essively used t o injur e, dominat e, or intimidat e others, some writ ers ha ve made a distinction betw een personalized po wer and social po wer (Hollander & Off erman, 1990). P ersonalized power occur s w hen an indi vidual seek s t o dominat e and e xert po wer f or pur - poses of self-int erest, such as using o vert se xual har assment tactics or subtle or ganizational cues (e.g., lo wer perf ormance appr aisals, or passing w omen o ver f or pr omotion using “legiti- mat e” or def ensible r easoning) t o dominat e f emale emplo yees. A gr eat deal of se xual har ass- ment can be attribut ed t o po wer diff erentials betw een those of hig her r ank (and the other gender) and subordinates. P ersonalized power takes the f orm of dominating others to pursue self-int erests such as get - ting one’s w ay in a decision- making pr ocess thr ough intimidation; making another emplo yee f eel uncomf ortable enoug h t o cause the indi vidual t o wish t o lea ve the or ganization; or stri v- ing t o r eceive an undeserv ed pr omotion b y casting dispersions on a mor e qualified indi vidual t o gain an advantage. Urfinguss/iStock/Thinkstock Power may be exerted directly through various activities or indirectly through the potential to take action.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Nature of Power Section 11.2 In contr ast, social po wer r epresents the ability t o marshal the human, inf ormational, and mat erial r esources that enable peers, supervisors, and subor dinates t o accomplish v arious or ganizational task s (Hollander & Off erman, 1990). Social po wer pr ovides a positi ve f orce t o help those in an or ganization achie ve. In this cont ext, po wer ma y be e xerted do wnward, up ward, or lat erally. Social po wer becomes e vident w hen a supervisor shar es a piece of inf or- mation with someone of lo wer r ank t o help that indi vidual succeed, such as gi ving a hig h quality “lead” t o the new est salesperson t o incr ease the person ’s confidence (and commission le vel). Social po wer can be associat ed with ment oring pr ocesses, in w hich a mor e seasoned emplo yee instructs a ment ee on ho w t o sta y out of disagr eements and conflicts with those w ho might stand in opposition to the person’s chances for promotion or advancement.

A thir d concern ma y be r aised r egarding the le vel of po wer pr esent in an or ganization. The z ero-sum game concept suggests that a fix ed amount of po wer e xists in an or ganization. As in a g ame of pok er, one sid e can onl y win b y causing the other side t o lose, such as w hen one person gets a pr omotion and the other does not; or w hen one emplo yee maneu vers t o get the bett er task assignment , such as a mor e lucr ative sales t erritory, ther eby r elegating another t o a less f avorable situation. In a zer o-sum g ame, accumulating additional po wer onl y occurs w hen one emplo yee tak es it a way fr om someone else in the or ganization, e.g. one g ains gr eater po wer because the other has less. In essence, one emplo yee “gets his w ay” and the other does not.

In contr ast, the balloon concept of po wer suggests that the t otal amount of po wer in an or ga- nization fluctuat es. V arious or ganizational cir cumstances can e xpand or contr act the t otal amount of po wer a vailable. In that cont ext, a person could build a base of po wer without taking it a way fr om others. Gener ally, such an occurr ence w ould tak e place in a mor e tr anquil en vironment in w hich the or ganization is gr owing and the scope of its oper ations incr ease (mor e sales, mor e cust omers, mor e oper ating locations, et c.). Crises or tur bulent en viron- ments tend to freeze the amount of existing power held by participants.

Sources of Power Numerous e xplanations of the bases of po wer can be f ound in or ganizational beha vior lit- er ature. Figur e 11.1 pr ovides a r eview of the v arious perspecti ves. Each contribut es t o our understanding of ho w indi viduals, gr oups, coalitions, and or ganizations g ain access t o po wer.

French and Raven: The Bases of Social Power The classic and most cit ed anal ysis of the sour ces of po wer, de veloped b y John F rench and Bertr am R aven (1959), suggests that ther e ar e fi ve sour ces. The first , legitimat e power, originat es fr om or ganizational r ank and the f ormal authority that accompanies that r ank. Legitimat e po wer allo ws an indi vidual or gr oup t o contr ol and use or ganizational r esources. Legitimat e po wer ma y be ba sed on W eber’s concepts of the leg al/rational sour ce of authority , as w ell as Barnar d’s accepta nce theory ideas, w hich suggest that po wer accrues t o a supervi- sor w hen subor dinates agr ee t o f ollow the manager’s dir ections as part of the emplo yment agr eement or contract involved in accepting or taking the job \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Nature of Power Section 11.2 Coercive power depends on the ability t o punish and instill f ear in others. As a f ormal sour ce, the capacity t o t erminate, tr ansfer, or demot e someone gener ates po wer. Coer cive po wer ma y be used t o pr event a co worker or subor dinate fr om r eceiving a pa y r aise or being pr omoted t o a hig her r ank. As an inf ormal sour ce, coer cive po wer r esides in the ability t o punish someone sociall y b y making that indi vidual the tar get of jok es, har assment, or other f orms of intimida - tion and exclusion.

Reward power gr ows fr om the ability t o cr eate f avorable out comes f or others. F ormally, r ewards include pa y r aises, pr omotions, f avorable task assignments including w orking hours and da ys off, placement with pleasant co workers, and special ackno wledgements such as “Emplo yee of the Month. ” Inf ormally, r eward po wer emer ges fr om the ability t o include oth - ers in v arious gr oups and acti vities, letting a person in on the best gossip and rumors, and being close t o popular members of the or ganization. Some ar gue that the ability t o r emove r ewards is the same as the ability t o punish or wield coer cive po wer; ho wever, the tw o pr o- cesses are not exactly the same.

Referent power r esults fr om the ability t o gener ate int erpersonal influence. R eferent po wer surf aces w hen someone identifies with another person based on r espect or admir ation. It Figure 11.1: Sources of power Power emerges from a variety of sources.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Nature of Power Section 11.2 also comes fr om persuasi veness, lik eability, and charism a. R eferent po wer lar gely tak es place inf ormally and is not based on rank in an organization’s hierarchy.

Expert power cr eates influence based on a special skill, kno wledge, or degr ee of e xpertise. F or e xample, an indi vidual w ho contr ols specialized t echnology or uniquel y understands ho w t o handle a k ey aspect of an or ganization’s oper ations possesses e xpert po wer. This sour ce ma y arise fr om a f ormal or ganizational designation, such as b y being placed in char ge of the inf ormation t echnology department , or inf ormally, as w hen people simpl y think of a co worker as “the one to ask” about various issues and challenges.

In 1965, R aven added a sixth sour ce of po wer t o the original list . Informational power, as the t erm appears t o impl y, is contr ol of crucial or vital inf ormation. Someone w ho kno ws, f or e xample, that a v aluable emplo yee is looking f or a position with another compan y, w hen others in the or ganization do not , holds inf ormational po wer. F urther, an y person w ho can pr ovide vital inf ormation t o a co worker or supervisor , and that indi vidual is the onl y one w ho has the inf ormation, holds po wer. Such w ould be the case w hen an emplo yee is a ware of an upcoming mer ger or tak eover that will in volve his or her compan y, and further that w hen the pr ocess tak es place man y emplo yees will lose their jobs. Inf ormational po wer w ould incr ease w hen the person also kno ws w hich positions or co workers ar e most lik ely t o be r etained as w ell as those who are at the greatest risk of being laid off or terminated.

The bases of social po wer ha ve been applied t o mor e than or ganizational oper ations. Mar ket- ers use them t o e xplain ho w one compan y g ains po wer o ver another in the mar keting chan - nel.

The same elements ha ve been used t o e xplain negotiation pr ocesses. A dditional view- points regarding the sources of power, however, should not be ignored.

Other Sources of Power As sho wn in Figur e 11.1, other sour ces of po wer ha ve been identified. Thompson (1967) addr essed the concept of boundary spanning, in w hich an or ganizational emplo yee mo ves acr oss an int ernal or e xternal compan y boundary and r ealizes a sour ce of po wer as a r esult. T wo manif estations of boundary spanning e xist. The first , tr anslating uncertainty, occurs w hen a person or department addr esses an issue that thr eatens the or ganization in some w ay, such as a new la w, changing social d ynamics, shifts in economic cir cumstances, or new t echnologies. An att orney w ho int erprets the la w t o a compan y’s ad vantage has po wer based on tr anslating uncertainty , as does an IT pr ofessional w ho helps cr eate a comput er s ystem that cannot be hacked or attacked.

Second, boundary spanning occurs w hen an indi vidual serv es as a g o-between. An y time a conflict is mediat ed b y a thir d party , or w hen tw o departments ar e f orced t o cooper ate on a pr oject or task, the person in the middle has access t o both sides and r eceives po wer fr om the abil ity t o r epresent the int erests of all concerned. Th is f orm of boundary spanning occurs int ernally (e.g., pr oduction w orking with mar keting) and acr oss e xternal boundaries (e.g., one company working with another, or bargaining against another).

Position power, as identifie d b y Fiedler (19 67), arises fr om the ability t o contr ol the destin y of another person or gr oup. The person char ged with assigning some emplo yees t o a t eam that will visit Ha waii on a junk et and others t o a t eam that will t our a plant in South Dak ota \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Nature of Power Section 11.2 will lik ely find he or she has consider able position po wer, at least f or a time. Those w ho mak e permanent personnel assignments hold position po wer. P osition po wer in a social net work pr ovides access t o inf ormation and ability t o contr ol it . An indi vidual g ains position po wer fr om serving as a confidant to a top management decision-maker, for example.

The Ast on Gr oup, a set of British r esearchers w ho studied or ganizational structur e, defined po wer b y stud ying c loseness to production. In their vie w, cr eating actual or ganizational out - puts ( goods and services) constitut es the k ey compan y acti vity. An y person or gr oup that can change or st op the pr oduction pr ocess, such as a union, has access t o a consider able sour ce of po wer. The mor e distantl y a person w orks in r elation t o pr oduction, the less po wer that person holds (Hickson et al., 1971).

Beyond these view s, other it ems ma y be associat ed with holding po wer. F or instance, w hen a person has contr ol o ver the polic y-making pr ocess, po wer e xists. A k ey ad visor w orking behind the scenes ma y not hold or ganizational r ank but ma y still possess consider able po wer. Contr ol o ver budgeting r esults in po wer. Net working or c onnection po wer emer ges fr om building str ong int erpersonal netw orks with those inside and outside of the or ganization. And finall y, contr ol o ver stat us s ymbols ma y gener ate po wer. A middle- or t op-level manager w ho makes the decision t o grant or den y access t o corporate perks such as assigned par king, mor e attr active office space, a compan y e xecutive lounge or ar ea, or financial incenti ves such as stock options has a source of power.

In summary , se veral issues r emain unr esolved r egarding the best w ay t o conceptualize the natur e of po wer in an or ganization. As an indi vidual emplo yee, seeking t o understand the natur e of po wer within the compan y, as being fix ed, ris ing, or declining, will help the person na vigate thr ough att empts b y others t o captur e it , most notabl y personalized po wer. One sub - jected t o intimidation and thr eats mig ht be able t o bett er r espond if the indi vidual under- stands the sour ce of po wer being used. Managers w ho e xert positi ve social po wer ar e lik ely t o g ain positi ve r eputations within or ganizations, leading t o other benefits in the long t erm. Ther efore, r ecognizing the number of w ays in w hich a person mig ht acquir e po wer allo ws f or a wide set of activities designed to strengthen one’s position in the organization. Comprehension Exercise 1. The ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors and subordinates to accomplish various organizational tasks is a. personalized power.

b. social power.

c. the potential to influence.

d. actual influence.

2. The ability to generate interpersonal influence is called a. coercive power.

b. reward power.

c. referent power.

d. expert power. Answers: 1) b 2) c \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Uses of Power Section 11.3 11.3 Uses of Power Power can be thoug ht of in t erms of means and ends. An end is an objecti ve or out come, and means constitut e the method(s) used t o achie ve that out come. P ower becomes an end w hen it tak es the f orm of per sonalized po wer. C apturing and holding po wer becomes the goal. P ower can also be a means b y w hich objecti ves ar e accomplished, such as w hen social po wer is emplo yed. In this section, w e will consider the means and ends pr esent in t erms of thr ee uses of po wer: social influence, creating and/or maintaining dependency, and employee empowerment.

Social Influence One of the primary uses of po wer is t o e xert social influenc e on others. Social influence is an umbr ella t erm that encompasses all eff orts t o achie ve out comes b y causing others t o act in a certain manner or w ork t oward certain goals. The objecti ve becomes t o “get y our w ay” in one sense or another . These eff orts lead t o one of thr ee possible out comes, as displa yed in T able 11.1 (Yukl, Kim, & Falbe, 1996).

Table 11.1: Outcomes of social influence Outcome Description Commitment Others agree with an initiative and try to make it succeed.

Compliance Others are reluctant about or give marginal effort to making an initiative succeed.

R esistance Others stall, argue, or simply reject an initiative.

Employees can e xert influence in e very dir ection in an or ganization: up ward, do wnward, or lat erally. F actors t o consider w hen stud ying the use of influence begin with an e xamination of the natur e of the acti vity or objecti ve. When the objecti ve serv es the needs of the or ganiza- tion, and a clear case can be made that it does so, those being influenced ma y r espond differ- ently than w hen an objecti ve supports someone’s personal agenda. Ne xt, the choice of influ - ence ta ctics, or po wer tacti cs, is det ermined. T able 11 .2 identifies the most viable options. The appr oaches ar e kno wn as “generic” tactics because the y can be applied in an y dir ection within the organization (Kipnis, Schmidt, & Wilkinson, 1980; Yukl, Falbe, & Youn, 1993).

Non-coercive tactics begin with r ational persuasion, w hich in volves pr esenting logical ar gu- ments and f acts t o achie ve an objecti ve. Inspir ational appeals r ely on emotions and tar get the audience’s needs, hopes, aspir ations, or v alues. C onsultation encour ages support thr ough participation and in volvement, such as w hen a manager ask s the ad vice of subor dinates or a co worker ask s f or help fr om a peer . Ingr atiation tak es the f orm of flatt ery, friendl y beha vior, or pr aise t o get one’s w ay. Humor ma y be an element of ingr atiation (Cooper , 2005). P ersonal appeals leverage friendship and loyalty to achieve objectives (Kipnis et al., 1984).

The coer cive tactics include an e xchange, in w hich a tr ade in volving f avors or some other pr om- ise is made t o achie ve objecti ves; a c oalition, w hich in volves inspiring others t o tak e y our side and help con vince k ey indi viduals t o f ollow y our path; pr essure, w hich uses w arnings, thr eats, or r epeated demands; and legitimizing , w hich depends on f ormal author ity or compan y guide - lines such as rules and procedures to achieve desired ends (Yukl, Falbe, & Youn, 1993).

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Uses of Power Section 11.3 Table 11.2: Types of influence tactics Non-coercive tactics • Rational persuasion • Inspirational appeals • Consultation • Ingratiation • Personal appeals Coercive tactics • Exchange • Coalition • Pressure • Legitimizing The dir ection of the influence guides the use of po wer tactics. R ational persuasion ma y be used in all dir ections—upward, do wnward, and lat erally. Up ward influence typicall y can onl y tak e place thr ough r ational persuasion. Do wnward and lat eral influence situations allo w f or a greater number of potential tactics. E vidence also suggests that the non-coer cive, or “soft er,” tactics ar e the bett er place t o begin. Coer cive or “har d” tactics should be sa ved f or times w hen non-coer cive methods do not w ork (F erris et al., 2003). Also, combinations of tactics, especiall y non-coer cive tactics, t end t o achie ve bett er out comes (Y ukl, 2002). T ypically, the out come of commitment cannot be r eal- ized w hen pr essure and coalition tactics ar e used. Inst ead, consultation, r ational appeals, and inspir ation are more likely to succeed (Hysong, 2008).

When seeking t o con vince someone or a gr oup (the tar get of influence), se veral f actors aff ect the odds of success. Table 11.3 notes the most ideal factors.

Table 11.3: Factors in successful influence The target believes . . .

the influence is used in a socially acceptable manner.

the person seeking to influence has sufficient position and personal power.

the request is in some way desirable.

the request meshes with his or her personal values and needs.

the tactic(s) have been used in a skillful manner.

the person seeking to influence is credible and trustworthy.

Source: G. Yukl (2004). Use power effectively. In E. A. Locke (Ed.), Handbook of principles of organizational behavior (pp. 242– 247). Malden, MA: Blac kwell.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Uses of Power Section 11.3 Dependency Part of the use of po wer in volves maintaining it f or the futur e. Dependency helps ensur e one’s po wer base r emains intact . Depen dency occurs w hen a per son needs a r esource, acti vity, or pr ocess that another per son or gr oup has contr ol o ver. F or e xample, an accounting depart - ment cannot complet e pr ofit-and-loss stat ements and other documents until t otal sales and costs ar e kno wn. The accounting department is dependent on the sales and pur chasing depart - ment t o complet e its acti vities. E very department depends on budget t o oper ate. The indi vid- ual w ho finalizes the budget and agr ees t o its allocation holds po wer as a r esult. Thr ee ele - ments make a resource subject to dependency: scarcity, importance, and non-substitutability.

The sc arcer a r esource becomes, the gr eater will be the dependency associat ed with that r esource. In most or ganizations, the most ob vious scar ce r esource will be funding. Scar - city can also r evolve ar ound a k ey skill. F or instance, manuf acturing jobs in the Unit ed Stat es sometimes cannot be filled because the w orkers need specific comput er skills. The situation not onl y dri ves up salaries, but also cr eates po wer f or those able t o fill the posi - tions, as these indi viduals ar e v alued b y other companies in the marketplace.

The mor e import ant a r esource becomes, e ven w hen the importance of the r esource has been o vervalued, the gr eater will be the dependency associat ed with that r esource. F or instance, a r esource such as engineering skill will be e xtremely important t o an aut omo- bile manuf acturer. Indi viduals with those skills hold po wer based on the compan y’s depen- dency on their specific and important knowledge.

When no substitut e f or a r esource e xists, po wer and de pendency gr ow. A simple e xample is education.

When a certain degr ee or license constitut es an emplo yment r equirement, such as a CP A certifica tion, no substitut e e xists and the accountant holds gr eater po wer in r elation- ships as a result.

Employee Empowerment In man y or ganizations, emplo yees hold a w ealth of useful kno wledge, e xperience, and int er- nal moti vation (R andolph & Sashkin, 2002). W orkers ar e a v aluable asset or ganizational lead - ers can deplo y. Emplo yee empowerment occurs w hen managers place their subor dinates in char ge of w hat the y do. Empo werment goes be yond the deleg ation of authority; it gr ants w orkers the fr eedom t o achie ve objecti ves and holds them r esponsible f or the out comes (P earce & Manz, 2005).

As disc ussed ear lier, it ma y be t empting t o think of po wer in t erms of a zer o-sum g ame, w here losing po wer r esults fr om gr anting it t o others. R ecent conceptualizations view empo wer- ment as mor e of a win-win situation in w hich gr anting po wer t o others cr eates personal po wer f or the gr antor (Spr eitzer, 1996). Managers w ho ha ve eng aged in the pr ocess not e that Photovibes/iStock/Thinkstock With ongoing technological advances, those with the ability to write code, for example, are often considered highly valuable to an organization.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Uses of Power Section 11.3 empowerment does not r esemble an either/or situation. Inst ead, it is a matt er of degr ee. As sho wn in Figur e 11.2, at one end of a continuum is an authoritarian situation in w hich no empo werment e xists. As mor e po wer is gr anted t o those of lo wer r ank, the leader’s decision- making style moves from consultative to participative to democratic.

Participative management , a pr ocess b y w hich w orkers help dir ect or ganizational acti vities, cr eates empo werment. F our ar eas in w hich emplo yees can r egularly participat e include deci- sion making, goal setting, problem solving, and planning processes.

Decision-making sty les tak e the f orms displa yed in Fi gure 11.2. The mor e democr atic the sty le of the leader or compan y, the gr eater will be the degr ee of empo werment (V room & Y et- ton, 19 73). Goal-setting pr ocesses that in vite participation cr eate a gr eater degr ee of “bu y-in” fr om those w ho help establish objecti ves (Lock e, 1978). P articipative goal setting achie ves empo werment. Pr oblem sol ving and decision-making ar e closel y r elated. Planning pr ocesses and goal setting ar e also similar . Emplo yee empo werment can help the or ganization achie ve at higher levels (Peters & Waterman, 1982).

Figure 11.2: Degrees of empowerment As the degree of employee empowerment increases, a manager’s style of decision making moves from authoritarian to democratic.

In summary , po wer can be a means or an end. P ower becomes an end w hen it tak es the f orm of per sonalized po wer used t o captur e and hold contr ol. P ower can be a means b y w hich objec - tives ar e accomplished, such as w hen social po wer is emplo yed. The positi ve use of social influ - ence, along with emplo yee empo werment pr ograms, can help build a mor e pr oductive and inspiring company atmosphere. Negative use of social influence inhibits the same outcomes. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which does not create dependency?

a. scarcity b. importance c. legitimacy d. nonsubstitutability 2. The greatest degree of empowerment would occur with which leadership style?

a. laissez-fair b. consultative c. directive d. participative Answers: 1) c, 2) d \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Organizational Politics Section 11.4 11.4 Organizational Politics One of the most nebulous t opics in the field of or ganizational beha vior is that of or ganiza- tional politics. Numer ous definitions ha ve been off ered, and consider able debat e e xists as t o w hat e xactly the t erm means. It is t empting t o think of politics as acti vities or beha viors that allo w one t o “seek po wer;” ho wever, such a view w ould ha ve major limitations. Man y political acti vities do not shift a po wer base, nor do the y necessaril y r equire the use of po wer. F urther, some authors att empt t o distinguish betw een legitima te and illegitimat e political beha viors (Dr ory, 1988).

Politics is a f act of or ganizational lif e. It can influence one’s car eer in neg ative or positi ve w ays. E ven those w ho do not wish t o acti vely eng age in politics should at the least be a ware of w hat takes place. Then, individual responses are possible.

A Model of Organizational Politics One method f or understanding the natur e of politics in volves consider ation of or ganizational means and ends. As not ed in the pr evious section, an end is a goal or objecti ve. Means ar e methods of r eaching those goals and objecti ves. Based on those tw o t erms, or ganizational politics ma y be defined as seeking goals that ar e in the int erest of a person or a gr oup, but ar e not sanctioned or set b y the or ganization, and seeking t o achie ve personal or gr oup int er- ests using means that ar e not or ganizationally appr oved (Ma yes & Allen, 1977). Figur e 11.3 e xpresses this definition visually.

Figure 11.3: Organizational politics Organizational politics take place when personal goals or ends are sought using means or methods that are not organizationally approved.

Organizational politics can occur at thr ee separ ate le vels: at the indi vidual le vel, at the coali - tion le vel, and at the le vel of the or ganization as a w hole. T able 11.4 suggests the pot ential political goals at each of these thr ee le vels. Or ganizational goals r elated t o dealing with outside or ganizations do not typicall y r eceive a gr eat deal of att ention in the field of or ganizational \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Organizational Politics Section 11.4 behavior, but ar e studied in other cont exts such as business str ategy. Inst ead, int ernal or ga- nizational en vironments that influence indi vidual and coalition goals ar e ar eas of r esearch in or ganizational behavior.

Table 11.4 Political ends or goals Individual goals Coalition goalsOrganizational goals Embarrass/defeat rival Eliminate unpopular employee Defeat rival company Get pay raise (undeserved) Increase group status/power Avoid legal issue Get promotion (undeserved) Increase budget/resources Cover up unethical activities Get desirable work assignment Influence decisions Occup y desirable office space Put other group at a disad vantage As an e xample of indi vidual politics, one new s r eporter mig ht “suck up ” t o the edit or and get a sh ot at a choice st ory that has a chance of being pick ed up b y the national media, w hich in turn impr oves his chances of mo ving int o the national office of the paper chain. Another compan y emplo yee mig ht mak e up a st ory about clau strophobia t o con vince a supervisor she needs a corner office with a windo w, w hich r elegates a mor e deserving and longer t erm co worker to one with only interior walls.

At the gr oup le vel, r esearch and de velopment mig ht cr eate the f alse impr ession that the y ar e on the v erge of a “major” inno vation or disco very and r eceive additional budget support as a r esult. The sales department mig ht f alsely ar gue that a set of pr ospective cust omers will att end a con vention in Miami Beach in ear ly January , w hen the truth is the y simpl y w ould lik e a trip to a warm climate in the dead of winter.

Politics at the Individual Level Certain indi viduals ma y be mor e lik ely than others t o become eng aged in political acti vities on the job. F our of the most notable per sonal char acteristics r elated t o political eng age- ments are • strong Machiavellian tendencies, • internal locus of control, • high self-monitoring, and • high need for power.

Machiavellianism describes the degr ee t o w hich a pers on is willing t o manipulat e situations and other people t o achie ve personal self-int erest out comes (Wilson, 1996). An indi vidual e xhibiting hig h Machia vellianism w ould be mor e than willing t o seek unsanctioned ends and use unsanctioned means. A person with an int ernal locus of control belie ves that he or she contr ols his or her personal destin y (R otter, 1966). Such an indi vidual w ould be mor e willing t o eng age in politics, belie ving he or she is in contr ol. High self-monitors ar e mor e sensiti ve \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Organizational Politics Section 11.4 to socia l cues and e xhibit hig her le vels of social conf ormity. This talent w ould allo w eff ective eng agement in politics (Biberman, 1985). Needs for power ar e associat ed with Machia vellian- ism and clearly connect with political activities, taking the form of power seeking.

Politics at the Level of Coalitions As not ed in T able 11.4, coalitions of emplo yees or coalitions of gr oups of emplo yees sharing the same goals also eng age in politics. Both types of coalitions also seek non-sanctioned ends. Coalitions can f orm in compan y departments or within other collecti ves of emplo yees. The tactics used by coalitions include the following:

• forming alliances • embrace-or-demolish • divide-and-conquer • empire building • growth Alliances f orm w hen po werful indi viduals within a coalition w ork t ogether t o help the coali - tion achie ve its goals. Alliances can also r esult fr om cooper ation with other coalitions or gr oups. When a sales manager supports the de velopment and mar keting of a pot ential pr od- uct or pr oduct impr ovement cr eated b y the R & D department , an alliance has emer ged that ma y have a strong impact on top management’s decision-making processes.

The embr ace-or-demolish appr oach in volves a coalition inf orming the opposition or other gr oups that those w ho do not join the cause will be dominat ed in some w ay. The idea that “an y gr oup that is not with us is ag ainst us” ma y emer ge in an y unionization eff ort as w ell as in pr essures f or or ganizational change, including seeking the oust er of an unpopular or inef- f ective CEO.

Divide-and-conquer str ategies seek t o cause opposition members t o ar gue among them - selves and lose po wer t o the coalition as a r esult. Consider a coalition opposed t o a compan y’s mer ger with another firm. Those opposed str ongly ar gue it will “hurt” those in their compan y. If a manager or someone in f avor of the mer ger can mak e the ar gument that doing so will impr ove conditions f or all, the oppositional coalition ma y become di vided and less eff ective as a result.

Empire building occurs w hen a coalition contr ols scar ce inf ormation, such as w hen a gr oup in inf ormation t echnology seek s t o maintain tight contr ol o ver the compan y’s comput er s ystem t o retain power.

Growth tactics include adding members t o build the po wer of the coalition. Each of these tac- tics can be deployed to seek the unsanctioned ends noted in Table 11.4.

Politics at the Organizational Level Research suggests that some or ganizational en vironments become mor e conduci ve t o politics at the indi vidual and coalition le vels than others. C ompany cultur es that can be char acterized as e xhibiting lo w le vels of tr ust, hig h le vels of r ole ambiguity , unclear perf ormance e valuation \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Organizational Politics Section 11.4 systems, and hig h pr essures f or perf ormance ar e lik ely t o r esult in gr eater degr ees of politicking (F erris & Kacmar , 1992; R osen, H arris, & Kacmar , 2009). Each of these cir cumstances cr eates uncertainty and a power vacuum in which a politically minded employee can take advantage.

Political Activities How e xactly, do indi viduals eng age in politics? The first distinction t o be made should be betw een someone w ho wishes t o a void politics and so meone w ho acti vely eng ages in or ga- nizational politics, also kno wn as a pla yer. A voiding politics can be accomplished thr ough conf ormity, cooper ation, sta ying a way fr om political situations and persons clear ly eng aged in politics, and def erring att ention t o others. Pla yers, on the other hand, ma y use a v ariety of common tactics, including those displayed in Table 11.5.

Table 11.5: Individual political tactics TacticDescription Acclaiming Taking credit for the successes of others Visibility Being seen with “all the right people” Ingratiation Brown-nosing, flattery, sucking up Exchange Trading favors Coalitions Leading and gaining power from informal groups Pressure Using demands, threats, or intimidation Upward appeal Enlisting the support of a supervisor or upper management Empire building Keeping and controlling scarce information Domination Forcing and winning conflict Impression management Developing others’ perceptions regarding oneself Situation engineering Altering the situation to achieve goals or outcomes Of the tactics not ed in T able 11.5, impr ession management and situation engineering oft en r eceive the most att ention. The pr ocess b y w hich indi viduals att empt t o contr ol per ceptions of others r epresents the degr ee of impr ession management the y eng age in (Lear y & K owalski, 1990).

Ex amples include the att empt t o cr eate the impr ession that one holds hig her le vels of per sonal po wer and status than is actuall y the case. T o “pla y the r ole,” a per son can dr ess t o impr ess, dri ve a lux ury aut omobile, and eng age in e xtravagant beha viors such as bu ying lunch f or others at e xpensive r estaurants. A pla yer can decor ate and arr ange an office in such a man - ner as t o cr eate the impr ession he or she holds a hig h-status position and place an yone w ho ent ers in a diminished r ole b y making sur e an indi vidual cannot appr oach t oo closel y (blocking the path b y use of a desk) or b y ha ving the per son sit at a lo wer le vel (r aising one’s chair t o mak e sur e it is hig her than all other chairs in the office). A t times, or ganizational cont ext f ac- tors cr eate a climat e in w hich emplo yees belie ve the y need t o eng age in impr ession manage - ment, e ven w hen it is not a per sonal desir e, such as w hen emplo yees ar e e xpected t o dr ess in a certain way or even to drive a certain type of car to impress clients and other outsiders.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Organizational Politics Section 11.4 Impression management also tak es the f orms of being visible, flatt ering those at hig her r anks, perf orming f avors f or k ey people, and gener ally cr eating the idea that y ou ar e a compet ent indi vidual w ho is on the w ay up (Gar dner & Martink o, 1988; Schlenk er, 1980). Studies of indi viduals emplo ying impr ession management t echniques in job int erviews suggest that the tactics do work (Gilmore & Ferris, 1989).

Closely r elated t o impr ession management , situation engineering in volves the contr ol of elements in a situation t o cr eate an ad vantage. F or e xample, a pla yer w ho wishes t o curry the f avor of a t op manager mig ht find a w ay t o be seat ed ne xt t o that manager at a banquet or luncheon. Others find w ays t o “bump int o” the rig ht person in the hall way or br eak r oom. Situation engineering can tak e the f orm of making sur e the boss sees y ou with the rig ht cr owd or that you are always present when key decisions are made.

Being a pla yer can be view ed as a hig h risk/hig h r eward car eer str ategy. The risk comes fr om alienating others and cr eating ri vals. The r ewards include f aster pr omotions, bigger pa y r aises, and other personal outcomes granted by or within the organization.

Not all emplo yees eng age in political tactics. Some people simpl y w ant t o per form their jobs and then go home f or the da y. Other s try t o a void political tactics b y distancing themsel ves fr om an y change or action and b y a voiding blame f or an y neg ative e vent. These w orkers mig ht be full y or partially aware of the potentially negative personal outcomes associated with politics.

Effects of Politics Politics influence indi viduals and the or ganization as a w hole. R egarding indi viduals, f our ar eas ar e primaril y aff ected b y or ganizational politics: job satisf action, the le vel of anxiety/ str ess, perf ormance, and turno ver int entions. In gener al, a politicall y char ged or ganization r esults in individuals reporting lower levels of job satisfaction.

Politics ar e di stracting and oft en cause conflict (V alle & Witt , 2001). Anxiety and str ess can also r esult fr om a w orkplace w here a hig h le vel of pot ential conflict e xists; w orkers ma y f eel that the y ar e constantl y “on guar d” ag ainst the actions of others. A hig h concentr ation of polit- ical e vents can lead t o r educed job perf ormance (R osen et al., 2009). Ov er time, w orkers ma y start t o look f or new jobs w hen possible, cr eating a hig h degr ee of turno ver in the politicall y char ged workplace (Kiewitz et al., 2002).

At the or ganizational le vel, political acti vities of indi viduals and coalitions influence a number of diff erent ar eas, such as the distribution of r esources, task assignments, personnel deci- sions, policymaking, and the quality of the social en vironment. P olitics aff ects the distribution of r esources in t erms of pa y and pa y r aises f or indi vidual emplo yees and budgets f or coali - tions and departments. T ask assignments ma y be a warded t o indi viduals and coalitions most adept at con vincing management the y ar e best suit ed, e ven w hen the y ar e not . P olitics also aff ects hiring, firing, layoffs, reassignments, transfers, and performance appraisals. A t hig her or ganizational le vels politics can aff ect policy making. Consequentl y, it should come as no surprise that politicall y acti ve or ganizations ma y not off er the most pleasant social en vi- ronment.

In gener al, manag ers should seek t o limit political acti vities t o the gr eatest e xtent possible.

Methods used t o limit the degr ee of political activity include the f ollowing (Marave- las, 2005; Management Style Guide, 2011):

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Organizational Politics Section 11.4 • Do not hire individuals who appear to be political players.

• Encourage transparency in organizational decisions and activities.

• Conduct frequent financial audits.

• Establish an open grievance system.

• Create methods for conflict resolution.

• Maintain a reward system based on merit.

Persons lik ely t o eng age in politics ma y mak e gr eater eff orts at ingr atiation and impr es- sion management during the int erviewing pr ocess, dr opping names and taking cr edit f or accomplishments of or ganizations that cannot be quickl y v erified. T ransparency is enhanced thr ough open meetings with r ecorded comments, r ather than behind-the-scenes actions of po wer brokers. Frequent financial audits discourage dishonest accounting practices.

Most management e xperts agr ee that r educing w orkplace politics cr eates a bett er or ganiza- tional en vironment. R ewarding political activities achie ves the opposit e eff ect. The misuse of po wer and str ong political actions can cr eate substan tial ethical and leg al dilemmas. Such w as the case at T oshiba, as described in the upcoming OB in Action st ory. T aking measur es t o contr ol individual and coalition activities is advised (Kennedy & Magjuka, 2002).

OB in Action: Ethics, Politics, and Accounting Practices at Toshiba The electr onics cong lomerate T oshiba serv es as an e xample of the neg ative influence po wer and poli - tics can pla y in an otherwise w ell-managed or gani- zation.

In 2015, the compan y’s leaders w ere f orced t o admit that the firm had o verstated earnings b y near ly $2 billion over a 7-year period. Independent in vestigators concluded that “T oshiba had a corpor ate cultur e in w hich management deci- sions could not be challenged, ” and that “emplo y- ees w ere pr essured int o inappr opriate accounting b y postponing loss r eports or mo ving certain costs int o later years” (Matthews & Gandel, 2015).

Japanese r egulators, w ho had o versight o ver the case, le vied a $60 million fine ag ainst the compan y in the at tempt t o r estore consumer confidence. The lack of tr ansparency int o compan y oper ations had been a primary sour ce of concern. Ki yotaka Sasaki, secr etary gener al of the Securities and Ex change Surv eillance Co mmission, stat ed at a new s briefing, “Because of the significance of the name T oshiba and int erest fr om the public, w e t ook this case seri- ousl y, looking into fundamental problems deeply.” In r esponse t o the e vents T oshiba f orced thr ee f ormer chie f e xecutives t o st ep do wn fr om their r oles with the compan y and r eorganized the compan y’s management structur e. The firm (c ontinued) View Pictures Ltd/View Pictures Ltd/SuperStock At Toshiba, employees engaged in unethical activities as a result of the political pressures they encountered.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Organizational Politics Section 11.4 Ethical Concerns The ethical is sues associat ed with or ganizational politics can be di vided int o issues that in volve means and those that in volve ends. Using political means, or tactics that ar e not or ganizationally appr oved, ma y lead an emplo yee int o a gr ay ethical or leg al ar ea. Althoug h something ma y be leg al, it ma y still violat e ethical standar ds. F or e xample, an emplo yee ma y impl y that an associat e is v ery ill and not able t o perf orm a task t o impr ove his o wn personal chances of guiding a task f orce or r eceiving a pr omotion. No la w ma y ha ve been violat ed, but w as the tactic ethical?

Agency theory (Eisenhar dt, 1989) posits that pr oblems occur w hen tw o parties in a coop - erative r elationship (boss and emplo yee) ha ve diff erent goals and a diff erence in di vision of labor . An agency pr oblem emer ges w hen one party (the boss) has goals or ends that impose r equirements on the other (emplo yee) w ho w ould find it difficult or e xpensive t o compl y. A second agency pr oblem arises w hen the tw o parties ha ve diff ering view s r egarding the degr ee of acceptable risk that can be tak en on behalf of the or ganization. As an e xample, a compan y ma y be considering e xpansion int o another country b y setting up a sat ellite office in that nation. T op managers ma y belie ve doing so is a gr eat idea w hile those at lo wer r anks ha ve concerns about cultur al and leg al diff erences betw een the tw o countries. T op management think s the mo ve constitut es an acceptable risk w hereas lo wer management think s the mo ve is destined to fail and therefore implies a great deal of unacceptable risk.

In t erms of politics and unethical acti vities, agency theory pr esents a f ormat b y w hich the party with lesser po wer is f orced or compelled t o do something he or she belie ves is wr ong, such as pr oceeding with an ill-ad vised int ernational e xpansion. Due t o the ability of the mor e po werful person in the r elationship t o change out comes (e.g., pa y, benefits, perf ormance appr aisal findings, and opportunities f or pr omotion), the person in the w eaker position oft en f eels f orced t o carry out questionable acts with questionable out comes. While such an OB in Action: Ethics, Politics, and Accounting Practices at Toshiba (continued) initiated la wsuits ag ainst the thr ee f ormer e xecutives as w ell as tw o other officials, seeking $2.4 million in damages. The primary char ge w as based on an outside panel’s finding that o verly aggressive management targets contributed to $1.9 billion in profit overstatements.

Newly appoint ed Pr esident Masashi Mur omachi said the compan y w ould acceler ate all r estructuring ef forts. “I am det ermined t o carry out r eform without r estrictions,” Mr . Mur oma- chi concluded (The Wall Street Journal, 2016).

R eflection and Application Questions1. What do you think were the primary political tactics used by top management to entice the unethical activities in this situation?

2. What possible effects would “pressure from the top” have on individual accounting emplo yees?

3. Can these sorts of unethical political activities be prevented in some way? If so, how?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Organizational Politics Section 11.4 approach ma y e xplain w hy something happens, it ma y be of less v alue in finding w ays t o a void such negative outcomes regarding personal political activities.

Ethical issues also occur w hen indi viduals seek ends or goals that ar e not or ganizationally sanctioned, such as an undeserv ed pr omotion or pa y r aise. The person ma y act in a less- than-ethical f ashion t o achie ve such an out come. F red Luthans (1988) not ed that man y times emplo yees ar e gr anted pr omotions b y eng aging in politics, such as impr ession management and then seek t o obtain additional po wer or per ks once the y mo ve t o a hig her r ank. In con - trast, “r eal managers, ” w ho ha ve been pr omoted f or v arious r easons, place the w ellbeing of subor dinates above their own personal gains.

In a compr ehensive r eview of the politics lit erature, Ba ack (2016) not ed that gr eater clarity about the r elationship of or ganizational politics t o ethical concerns mig ht tak e place if f our basic issues ar e addr essed in an y conceptualization, definition, or oper ationalization of the concept of politics:

1. Any identification of the term “organizational politics” should specify whether the concept should be viewed as totally negative and unethical (non-sanctioned) in t erms of both means and ends, or whether politics can be perceived as having posi- tive elements associated with social influence toward sanctioned ends.

2. Presuming politics are to be described in negative terms only as totally unethical acts, the actual means or activities involved should be clearly spelled out. This would include any gray areas, such as doing favors for others, seeking personal rewards such as a pay raise or promotion that could be based as much on merit as on politi- cal acts, and attempting to become irreplaceable through enhanced expertise, strong personal relationships, or possession of key confidential information.

3. The level of analysis should be made clear. One study might be dedicated to within- department or unit political behaviors (acclaiming, visibility, impression manage- ment), whereby an individual seeks rewards or promotion to a higher level in the or ganization. A second study might investigate between-group or unit politics, such as the quest f or additional budget or choice task assignments. Supervisory tactics would become a key ingredient in such a study. As an opening thought, the tactics used within-unit, such as taking credit for the work of others, being seen with right people, and so f orth may be effective political acts at an interpersonal in-unit level, yet would not be the same as those used by managers to defend the interests of their departments. The first set of actions would be more directly self-serving whereas an effective manager might be looking out for personal as well as unit and organizational inter- ests using totally different tactics or means. A third research effort could be dedicated to understanding how supervisor- subordinate relationships affect both political acts and desired outcomes, as well as how subordinate perceptions of the supervisor influence views of the overall or ganization.

4. When perceptions of unethical politics are under investigation, questions are often posed regarding general political behaviors. These behaviors have been termed “going along to get ahead,” and pay and promotion. To clarify which perceptions the r espondent is reporting, he or she could be asked to note the level at which such beha viors took place: within his or her unit or as an organization-wide phenomenon.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Organizational Politics Section 11.4 Further, the possibility exists that those who perceive unethical political behavior simpl y are expressing “sour grapes,” because they lost out on some organizational benefit such as a pay raise, choice job assignment, or promotion. Low performers and those who have not risen through the organizational ranks may believe it is the br own-nosers and impression-managers who get ahead. In fact, they are overlooking the possibility that they are not viewed as exhibiting managerial potential for very legitimat e reasons. In essence, these individuals perceive unethical behaviors when such may or may not be the case.

Most or ganizational observ ers belie ve that politics ar e ine vitable. What r emains ar e numer - ous issues, such as ho w political pla yers ar e disco vered b y observ ers. F urther, w hat of the tactics emplo yed b y those w ho a void politics and becoming pla yers? Ho w do pla yers and non-pla yers interact? While the r elationship betw een or ganizational ethics or ganizational politics r emains an important ar ea of in vestigation, ther e ar e as man y questions r emaining as ther e ar e ans wers pr ovided thus far (Baack, 2016).

Employee empo werment ma y also contain elements of ethical questions. Empo wered emplo y- ees ma y be able t o contribut e gr eater v alue t o the or ganization. The y ma y also f eel mor e pos - itively t oward management . Is encour aging or ganization-wide participation b y lo wer le vel emplo yees in t op le vel decisions and actions an ethical choice? Some w ould ar gue that it is, because it seek s t o utilize the full pot ential of each emplo yee and tr eats the w orkforce with a gr eater sense of dignity.

These and other questions will continue t o be r aised about or ganizational po wer and politics. As an emplo yee, each person will decide on a comf ort le vel with all of the issues and acti vities associat ed with this dimension of one’s career. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which individual characteristic has not been matched with the likelihood of becoming eng aged in political activities on the job?

a. high Machiavellian personality b. internal locus of control c. high self-monitoring d. high need for achievement 2. The process by which individuals attempt to control perceptions by others is a. ingratiation.

b. upward appeal.

c. impression management.

d. situation engineering. Answers: 1) d 2) c \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Summary and Resources Chapter Summary Authority is the right to direct with permission to act over lower-level employees. The right t o direct includes telling people what to do. Permission to act reflects the decision-making aspect of authority, or the right to decide what to do. The three forms of authority are line, staff, and functional authority. Employee responsibility, or accountability, is the obligation to carry out tasks as assigned by the supervisor.

Weber believed authority originates at the top of the organization and flows downward and is derived from three sources: tradition, charisma, and law. Barnard’s acceptance theory of authority argues that authority cannot exist until subordinates have accepted it. Acceptance theory posits that authority flows from the bottom of the organization upward. The del- egation of authority can take place at the individual level or at the organization-wide level thr ough decentralization.

Power is the ability to influence the behaviors of others using formal and informal means. P ower can be considered as both actual influence and the potential to influence. Personal- ized power occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for the purposes of self-interest. Social power represents the ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accomplish vari- ous organizational tasks. A zero-sum game conceptualization suggests that the amount of po wer present in an organization is fixed. In contrast, the balloon concept of power suggests that the total amount of power fluctuates.

Several sources of power have been identified, including legitimate, coercive, reward, refer- ent, expert power, and informational power. Boundary spanning happens when an organiza- tional employee goes across an internal or external company boundary and realizes a source of power as a result of translating uncertainty or acting as a go-between. Position power arises from the ability to control the destiny of another person or group, and from control o ver policy making, information, and status symbols.

Three uses of power are social influence, creating and/or maintaining dependency, and emplo yee empowerment. Social influence refers to all efforts to achieve outcomes by causing others to act in a certain manner or work toward certain goals. These tactics lead to one of thr ee possible outcomes: commitment, compliance, or resistance. Influence can be exerted in e very direction in an organization: upward, downward, or laterally. Noncoercive social influ- ence tactics include rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, and per sonal appeals. Coercive social influence tactics include exchange, coalition, pressure, and legitimizing.

Generally speaking, the non-coercive, or softer, tactics achieve better results.

Dependency occurs when a person or group has control over a key resource or process that another requires. Three elements make a resource subject to dependency: scarcity, impor- tance, and non-substitutability. An increase in any one raises levels of dependency.

Empowering employees occurs when managers place them in charge of what they do. Empo werment goes beyond the delegation of authority; it grants employees freedom to achie ve objectives and holds them responsible for the outcome. Participative management cr eates empowerment. Four areas in which employees can regularly participate include decision making, goal setting, problem solving, and planning processes.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Organizational politics consists of seeking goals that are in a person’s or group’s interest but are not sanctioned or set by the organization, and using means to achieve personal or gr oup interests that are not organizationally approved. The types of individuals that may be mor e likely to become engaged in political activities on the job are those who exhibit strong Machia vellian tendencies, an internal locus of control, high self-monitoring, and a high need for power. Coalitions can form in company departments or within other collectives of emplo yees. The tactics used by coalitions include alliances, embrace or demolish, divide and conquer , empire building, and growth.

A player is a person who is actively engaged in organizational politics. Players use the tactics of acclaiming, visibility, ingratiation, exchange, coalitions, pressure, upward appeals, empire building, domination, impression management, and situation engineering.

Four outcomes are affected by organizational politics: job satisfaction, anxiety/stress, per- formance, and turnover intentions. At the organizational level, political activities by individ- uals and coalitions influence numerous outcomes and activities, including the distribution of r esources, task assignments, personnel decisions, policy making, and the company’s social en vironment. Most management experts agree that reducing workplace politics creates a bett er organizational environment.

Ethical concerns related to power and politics include judgments about personal and coali- tional ends or goals and means or tactics. Employee empowerment may be considered an ethical choice due to the potentially positive impact on the workplace environment. CASE STUDY: Morales Funeral Homes Benji Mor ales noticed that near ly e very mortuary in his city w as run b y middle-class Cauca - sian f amilies. H e det ected a true opportunity: t o cr eate the first Hispanic-o wned mortuary compan y in the ar ea. He att ended mortician school and obtai ned all necessary licenses. Then, with in vestments of se veral close friends and members of his local diocese, Benji pur chased a set of thr ee locations fr om a r etiring f amily, and Mor ales F uneral Homes w as born, off ering tr aditional funerals, funeral support services, and a crematorium.

As an opening managerial mo ve, Benji met indi vidually with e very person that had w orked f or the pr evious o wner. Each one w as t old, in a kind but firm v oice, that she or he w as being t ermi- nated.

Then, Benji handed the indi vidual an application f orm and in vited the person t o appl y f or a “fr esh start .” Of the 42 emplo yees, 31 filled out the application and each one w as r ehired.

Benji knew that se veral manag ement challenges w ere on the horizon. Be yond establishing his name in the community , he w ould need t o balance r eaching out t o the Hispanic community with serving an y f amily wishing f or pr ofessional service. He w anted t o maintain as much of the cust omer base fr om the pr evious o wner as possible. He joined the local chamber of commer ce and became actively involved in as many groups as his schedule would allow.

He suspect ed, corr ectly as it turned out , that man y of the 31 emplo yees making a fr esh start w ould be somew hat set in their w ays. He e xpected t o hear , and hear d, “That’s ho w w e’ve al ways done things” fr om this gr oup. A t first , he list ened patientl y and consider ately, seeking t o kno w if positi ve ad vice w as being off ered. Unf ortunately, he disco vered that some of the pr ocedures (c ontinued) \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Review Questions What are the three types of authority in organizations?

The three types of authority are line authority, staff authority, and functional authority. Line authority is direct, formal authority, as indicated by the horizontal lines of an organization chart . Staff authority consists of the right to advise, or give advice. Functional authority is the right to direct but not to discipline.

What are the three sources of authority from the top-down perspective?

Authority is derived from three sources: tradition, charisma, and law. Traditional author- ity results from the rule of kings, tribal chiefs, and the authority of the church. Charismatic authority arises from a “gift of grace,” such as when a dynamic military leader inspires and guides troops. The legal/rational basis of authority results from an employment contract. CASE STUDY: Morales Funeral Homes (continued) were out dated and that corner s w ere being cut in t erms of pr oviding the best possible support t o grie ving f amilies. F or e xample, f amilies w ere being t old that w akes and visitations must end b y 8:00 p.m., and that r ooms needed t o be clear ed b y 8:30 p.m. He w anted t o off er gr eater fle x- ibility t o f amilies, especiall y w hen persons had tr aveled long distances t o att end. Benji knew that the hours benefited employees wanting to get home earlier rather than his clients.

It w as not long until Benji f elt his authority w as being challe nged b y some of the members of the staff. Some w ere simpl y ignoring his dir ectives. Others beg an t o ar gue with him in fr ont of co workers, althoug h ne ver in fr ont of grie ving f amilies. Benji ther efore decided t o hold an emplo yee-only meeting t o clear the air . Emplo yee complaints r anged fr om objections t o the new , lat er hour s t o concerns that the compan y w as losing its “cultur e.” Some complained that t oo much att ention w as placed on attr acting Hispanic f amilies, w hen onl y a limit ed number of emplo yees (fi ve) spok e fluent Spanish. Benji t old the gr oup that he w ould car efully consider their concerns and report back.

A turning point soon t ook place. One of Benji’s new emplo yees—one of the fi ve w ho spok e Spanish—came int o Benji’s office. The emplo yee complained that he had become incr easingly uncomf ortable with the other w orkers. The y e xcluded him fr om an y types of g atherings or con versations and constantl y r eferred t o him as “the new gu y,” e ven thoug h the emplo yee had 11 y ears of e xperience at another funer al home. Benji ask ed if the other new emplo yees f elt the same w ay. The emplo yee said, “Y es,” and that some had alr eady thoug ht about looking f or other jobs. Benji knew it was time to act. The future of his new venture was at stake.

Case Questions 1. Do you agree with Benji’s decision to retain employees from the previous owner? Why or why not?

2. Which model of authority best represents Benji’s situation, top-down or bottom-up?

3. What sources of power are available to Benji with his staff ? With the local community?

4. What types of politics were being played at Morales Funeral Homes?

5. How should Benji handle this situation? What are the short- and long-term implications of the course that you would prescribe?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Explain the acceptance theory of authority.

The acceptance theory of authority argues that authority cannot exist until it has been accept ed by subordinates, which means that authority is accepted when individuals under- stand the nature of the authority, believe the use of authority is consist ent with the purposes of the organization, believe authority is being used in ways that are compatible with their personal interests, and are able to comply.

What are personalized power and social power?

Personalized power occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for purposes of self-interest. Social power represents the ability to marshal the human, infor- mational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accom- plish various organizational tasks.

What sources of power exist in organizations?

Legitimate power originates from organizational rank and the formal authority that accom- panies that rank. Coercive power depends on the ability to punish and instill fear in others. R eward power grows from the ability to create favorable outcomes for others. Referent po wer results from the ability to generate interpersonal influence. Expert power creates influence based on a special skill, knowledge, or degree of expertise. Informational power comes from access to and control over information. Boundary spanning occurs when an or ganizational employee moves across an internal or external company boundary and r ealizes a source of power as a result. Position power arises from the ability to control the destin y of another person or group. Power can be related to closeness to production. When a person has control over the policy-making process, power exists. A key advisor working behind the scenes may not hold organizational rank but still possesses considerable power. Contr ol over budgeting results in power. Networking or connection power results from sets of relationships with others inside and outside of the organization. Control over status sym- bols may generate power.

Define organizational politics and name the three levels on which it occurs.

Organizational politics consists of seeking goals that are in a person’s or group’s self- interests but are not sanctioned or set by the organization and using means to achieve a person ’s or group’s self-interests that are not organizationally approved. It occurs at the indi vidual, coalition, and organization-wide levels.

What types of individual characteristics have been associated with political activities?

The most notable personal characteristics related to political engagements are high Machia- vellian personality, internal locus of control, high self-monitoring, and high need for power.

What are the primary individual political tactics used in organizations?

The individual tactics include acclaiming, visibility, ingratiation, exchange, coalitions, pres- sure, upward appeal, empire building, domination, impression management, and situation engineering.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources What does organizational politics affect at the individual and company-wide levels?

At the individual level, four areas are primarily affected by organizational politics: job satis- faction, the level of anxiety/stress, performance, and turnover intentions. At the organiza- tional level, political activities by individuals and coalitions influence several different areas, such as the distribution of resources, task assignments, personnel decisions, policymaking, and the quality of the social environment.

What ethical concerns are associated with organizational politics?

The ethical issues associated with organizational politics can be divided into issues that in volve means and those that involve ends. Using political means, or tactics that are not or ganizationally approved, can lead you into a gray ethical and legal area. Ethical issues also occur when individuals seek ends or goals that are not organizationally sanctioned, such as an undeserved promotion or pay raise.

Analytical Exercises 1. Explain the differences between the top-down and bottom-up views of authority in the following circumstances: • military chain of command • church authority over parishioners • authority over workers in a volunteer organization • authority of the night manager at a McDonald’s over employees 2. Using the sources of power identified in Figure 11.1, explain how each applies to the f ollowing conditions: • actual influence versus the potential to influence • personalized power versus social power • power as a zero-sum game versus the balloon concept 3. Describe how the non-coercive and coercive power tactics identified in Table 11.2 w ould apply to the following circumstances: • a manager trying to convince employees to take a pay reduction to keep the company from outsourcing or offshoring • union-management negotiations • an employee with a job offer from another company seeking a pay raise t o stay • a coalition trying to rid the organization of a “bad apple” coworker who is destr oying morale 4. Explain the relationships among social influence, dependency, and employee empo werment as they relate to the definition of organizational politics.

5. Explain how an individual employee would use the political tactics identified in T able 11.5 in the following circumstances. (Explain why a tactic might not apply.) • a salesperson seeking promotion to sales manager • an information technology employee trying to increase the department’s bud- get to improve the company’s security system • a human resource manager seeking promotion to a top management position • a purchasing department employee trying to get a manager to change vendors f or raw materials to one where the employee’s friend works \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Key Terms boundary spanning A situation in which an organizational employee goes across an int ernal or external company boundary and r ealizes a source of power.

coercive power Power that depends on the ability to punish and instill fear.

delegation  When a manager grants authority to a single subordinate.

dependency  What occurs when a person or group has control over a key resource or pr ocess that another requires.

employee empowerment Putting workers in charge of what they do.

expert power Power that creates influence based on a special skill, knowledge, or degree of expertise.

impression management The process by w hich individuals attempt to control per- ceptions of others.

informational power Control of crucial or vital information. legitimat e power Power that originates fr om organizational rank and the formal authority that accompanies that rank.

organizational politics  Seeking goals that ar e in the interest of a person or a group, but are not sanctioned or set by the orga- nization, and seeking to achieve personal or group interests using means that are not or ganizationally approved. personalized po wer What occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert po wer for self-interested reasons.

player A person who is actively engaged in or ganizational politics.

position power The ability to control the destin y of another person or group.

power The ability to influence behaviors of others using formal and informal means.

referent power Power that results from the ability to generate interpersonal influence.

r eward power Power that grows from the ability to create favorable outcomes f or others.

situation engineering  The control of ele- ments in a situation to create a personal ad vantage.

social influence All efforts to achieve out- comes by causing others to act in a certain manner or work toward certain goals.

social power The ability to marshal the human, informational, and material r esources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accomplish various or ganizational tasks.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.