Will you be able to complete the full course?

12 Career Development and Career Management Twinsterphoto/iStock/Thinkstock Learning Objectives After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:• Apply the elements of successful car eer de velopment, including the design of quality management tr aining pr ograms.

• Cope with special car eer challenges.

• Manage str ess on and off the job.

2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development and Management Training Programs Section 12.1 12.1 Career Development and Management T raining Programs Career de velopment ma y be view ed fr om the perspecti ve of an indi vidual emplo yee or fr om the or ganization’s point of view . F or an indi vidual, car eer de velopment consists of a series of acti vities desi gned t o help one understand and o vercome challenges as w ell as identify and tak e ad vantage of opportunities. Man y companies consider car eer de velopment t o be a k ey or ganizational pr ocess, because people r epresent a v aluable r esource. Consequentl y, car eer development consists of all eff orts and acti vities conduct ed b y indi vidual emplo yees and the or ganization to help each person choose and follow the best path.

This chapt er f ocuses on the t opics of personal car eer de velopment, manager tr aining, and the v arious w ays t o cope with special car eer challenges such as dual car eers, emplo yee out- pr ocessing, and stress management. OB in Action: GEICO For most people, the name GEIC O pr obably con - jures images of a v ariety of humor ous and mem - orable commer cials. Ov er the past tw o decades, the compan y has established hig h br and r ecogni- tion and r ecall in the insur ance industry . In other w ords, consumers r emember the name and w hat the organization sells.

Far less r ecognized, but per haps equall y or e ven mor e important , is the compan y’s management de velopment pr ogram. As r ecently as 2016, the or ganization w as mentioned as one of the 10 best companies in w hich an emplo yee can find a ment or (Semezuk, 2016). The compan y off ers a thr ee-year r otational pr ogram that helps emplo yees learn on the job and pr ovides them access t o ment orship fr om upper management.

The pr ogram e xtends be yond the f ormal tr aining. The or ganization w orks t o he lp emplo yees build genuine r elationships with those of hig her r ank. T eam Le ad Soum ya P admanabhan not es, “The f am- ily f eel her e is the best . F rom meet-the-CEO and the open-door policy t o dail y int eractions, it’s eas y t o f eel a connection betw een e veryone” (Semezuk, 2016).

GEIC O’s website (2016) describes manager training efforts this way:

In GEICO’s Management Development Program, you will learn all about one of our major insurance operations and be on the fast-track to management. We’ll give you all the tools you will need to succeed: (continued) Mypokcik/iStock/Thinkstock Much of Geico’s brand recognition comes from their mascot, a talking gecko.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development and Management Training Programs Section 12.1 Career Development: Employee Perspective As not ed in Ch apter 1, the en vironment encompassing the w orld of business pr esents numer - ous challenges and opportunities. The primary concepts that appl y t o personal success in that cont ext are • building an ethical foundation; • training and preparation; • finding the right person–organization fit; • engaging in efforts at continuous improvement; and • achieving balance.

From a personal perspecti ve, car eer de velopment includes the enhancement of f our k ey per- sonal assets, displayed in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1: Employee career assets Asset Description Education Degrees held, grades earned, certifications held, activities while in school Experience Amount, types, applicability to managerial roles Personality traits Motivation, team player, leadership potential, organizational skills Contacts References, mentors within the company or industry Each of these assets can be enhanced b y one’s o wn personal eff orts. R eturning t o school, obtaining additional tr aining thr ough conf erences and seminars, earning the best gr ades OB in Action: GEICO (continued) • Industry-leading training and development seminars • Professional insurance licensing • On-the-job experience, mentoring and coaching • Real life business projects and much more At the end of your program, you’ll be ready to manage a team of associates. We’ll help you get started . . . it’s up to you how far you’ll go!

The compan y’s tr ack r ecord of success indicat es the pr ogram has been eff ective in de veloping and keeping quality employees.

Reflection and Application Questions 1. What should be the primary training goal for managers at GEICO? Would it be the same f or entry-level employees?

2. What type of person would be a good candidate for employment at GEICO?

3. How might manager training and career development differ at GEICO as compared to pr ograms in other industries such as manufacturing or health care?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development and Management Training Programs Section 12.1 possible, and sta ying pr ofessionally acti ve w hile achie ving an education ar e v aluable t o man y emplo yers. Ex perience ma y be built w hile in school thr ough leadership r oles on campus, thr ough int ernship pr ograms with actual businesses, and lat er as part of one’s gr owth as an emplo yee. K ey personality char acteristics will also mak e an emplo yee mor e competiti ve w hen it comes t o being hir ed f or a new job or being pr omoted int o a new position. W orking t oward being a bett er t eam pla yer, displa ying eff ort, and learning t o lead can all be accom - plished thr ough pr actice, coaching, and tr aining pr ograms. De veloping contacts w ho will pr o- vide quality r eferences, assist as a car eer unf olds, and off er help and insig ht should be an ongoing acti vity. In sum, a significant part of car eer de velopment is the r esponsibility of the indi vidual.

Career Development: Management Training Programs The second part of car eer de velopment r ests with emplo yers. Or ganizations that emplo y management tr aining pr ograms and, thus, demonstr ate a pr omote-from-within policy r eceive the hig hest pot ential from each w orker, mak e pr eparations f or futur e managerial succession, and build emplo yee mor ale. T able 12.2 pr ovides e xamples of companies with successful man - agement training programs, as identified by monster.com (2016).

Table 12.2: Successful Management Training Programs CompanyType of training Seattle Genetics Job-related skills (on- and off-site) SAS Sales and technical enablement Amazon Tuition reimbursement, work-from-home training Bonobos Performance management; know your customer Randstad Certification in specialties, communication, leadership Paychex Virtual learning, instructional CyberCoders Technology applications to the workplace Schneider Electric Executive development, customer relations Marriott International, Inc.Virtual and in-person, professional and career skills Source: Thottam, I. (2017). 10 companies with awesome training and development programs. Monster . Retrieved from https://www.monster.com/career-advice/article/companies-with-awesome-training-development-programs.

The standar d st eps in volved in manager tr aining include establishing the goals of the pr ogram, selecting indi viduals f or tr aining, identifying tr aining methods, conducting the pr o- gram, and following up.

Establishing Manager Training Goals Individual companies establish manager tr aining goals based on or ganizational needs. Each then adapts tr aining methods t o the indi viduals select ed and the objecti ves that ha ve been outlined.

Management tr aining goals include impr ovements in t echnical skills and manage- rial skills, r esocialization, assistance in ethical r easoning, and str engthening int ernational/ \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development and Management Training Programs Section 12.1 cultural skills. These goals appl y t o first le vel managers mo ving int o middle management as w ell as individuals being groomed to move into upper echelons in the organization.

Individuals w ho will mo ve int o first-line supervisory or middle-management r oles ar e the most lik ely t o r eceive t echnical skill tr aining. Sales managers ar e taug ht methods t o serv e cust omers, close sales, and pr ovide quality service alon g the w ay. These t echniques can then be tr ansferred t o indi vidual emplo yees and salespeople making calls on other or ganizations. Inf ormation t echnology managers learn mor e about the s ystem and ho w t o pr otect it . A ccoun- tants are trained to more fully understand the company’s system and how it operates.

Managerial skills include the basic fundamentals of planning, or ganizing, dir ecting, and con - trolling.

These skills include t echnical, conceptual, and human r elations acti vities. As indi vid- uals mo ve int o t op managem ent r oles, it is logical that the emphasis on conceptual skills will incr ease, as these indi viduals ar e r equired t o see the “b ig pictur e” and manage it eff ectively. Not e that all the subjects described in this t ext can be incorpor ated int o tr aining, with the goal of improving and enhancing managerial skills.

Resocialization in volves the tr ansition fr om entry -level emplo yee t o supervisor or manager . P art of this change ma y in volve managing friends or persons w ho ar e older . Man y manage- ment tr aining pr ograms include r esocialization pr ograms t o t each candidat es ho w t o e valuate compan y acti vities fr om a diff erent perspecti ve (managerial r ather than r ank-and-file). F ur- ther, man y pr ograms seek t o help tr ainees de velop and enhance personal le vels of emotional int elligence and emotional maturity.

Ethical r easoning and tr aining has been added t o man y management tr aining pr ograms. As cir cumstances become incr easingly comple x, and new ethical challenges continue t o arise, managers need the t ools t o assess and r espond t o new dilemmas (Schmitt , 2002; W eaver, T re- vino, & Cochr an, 1999). In lig ht of the massi ve ethical violations that ha ve occurr ed in r ecent y ears, such as those that t ook place at W ells F argo, T uring Pharmaceuticals, and V olkswagen, it is clear that work remains.

Evidence of the v alue of ethical tr aining can be r eadily identified. The or ganization E this- phere ® Institute identifies hig hly successful companies that ar e also consist ently r anked among the most ethical, including Aflac, Fluor Corpor ation, GE, Kao Corpor ation ( Japan), Mil- lik en & Compan y, Star bucks, and UPS. Firms r ecently honor ed b y E thisphere ® include Dell, Int el, Mast erCard, Micr osoft and Cisco. These or ganizations ha ve been able t o a void the perils associat ed with unethical activities (Strauss, 2016).

Managers e xpecting assignments t o f oreign countries need tr aining in int ernational and cul- tur al adaptatio n, along with other issues as described in Chapt ers 1 and 2. National and or ga- nizational cultur e influence indi vidual per ceptions of v alues and ethics and aff ect attitudes, assumptions, and e xpectations associat ed with an int ernational r ole.

F urther, local cust oms and the local language ma y become part of this type of tr aining eff ort ( Javidan & House, 2001; Mendenhall, 1988–1989; Sumner, 1906). Selecting Individuals for Training Choosing int ernal candidat es f or manager tr aining r equires the cooper ation of se veral indi- viduals and de partments. The human r esource department can pr ovide inf ormation r egarding \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development and Management Training Programs Section 12.1 each emplo yee’s tr ack r ecord of perf ormance, as w ell as incident r eports r egarding accidents, grie vances, and other incide nts. The emplo yee’s dir ect supervisor can off er insig hts r egard- ing the indi vidual’s t emperament and demeanor on—and sometimes off—the job. Co workers ma y r ender opinions as t o the ad visability of selecting a person f or tr aining. Companies also r ely on v arious t ests and instruments designed t o assess the indi vidual’s r eadiness f or a man - agerial position, including assessments of the Big Fi ve personality char acteristics described in Chapt er 8, as w ell as speciall y designed personality pr ofile t ests de veloped b y indi vidual companies.

Those mo ving fr om first line supervisory positions int o hig her le vel management r oles r eceive a diff erent kind of scrutin y. T rack r ecords fr om their curr ent r oles, combined with assessments of their ability to take on more substantial challenges, are considered as well.

Identifying Training Methods After tr aining goals ha ve been established and indi viduals ha ve been select ed, the compan y can pr oceed with identifyin g the tr aining methods t o be used. Usuall y, a combination of the appr oaches outlined in T able 12.3 will be pr escribed. Each off ers unique contributions t o w hat the individual will learn about managing in a specific organization.

Table 12.3: Manager training methods On the jobOff the job Incremental assignment of new tasksOutside reading (technical and managerial) Job rotation Additional education (in house; on campus) Lateral promotions Attending conferences and seminars Leadership of teams and committees Specially designed programs Volunteering programs Both Mentoring programs Coaching programs On-the-job tr ainees can be assigned new task s o ver time t o help them gr adually learn mor e about the compan y. F or e xample, a supervisor can learn ho w t o fill out r eport f orms one w eek and ho w t o eng age in the se lection pr ocess f or entry -level positions the ne xt. Ov er time the indi vidual learns various tasks associated with the role of supervisor in a specific company.

A job r otation pr ogram can also be used t o tr ain w orkers, as it mo ves tr ainees t o diff erent departments and assignments within the compan y, so the y can learn mor e about ho w the or ganization oper ates and ho w v arious gr oups int eract. Job r otation pr ograms typicall y appl y t o those moving into supervisory positions for the first time.

A lat eral pr omotion means gi ving the indi vidual a new title or a pa y r aise without mo ving the person t o a hig her r ank in the or ganization; this type of pr omotion off ers the illusion of \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development and Management Training Programs Section 12.1 upward mo vement. Lat eral pr omotions oft en include changing a person ’s title fr om “tr ainee” t o “assistant” or “associat e” manager . Leading committ ees, task f orces, and other gr oups also gr ants the tr ainee the opportunity t o pr actice managing in a r eal w ork situation. Such pr o- grams oft en assist in de veloping a supervisor t o be r eady f or a hig her le vel assignment in middle management.

Off-the-job tr aining methods include assigning outside r eading and asking the tr ainee t o par - ticipate in other types of educational acti vities, such as conf erences or seminars. These acti vi- ties help the trainee build technical skills, managerial knowledge, and socialization skills. Some companies off er tuition assistance t o tr ainees so the y ma y att end a local uni versity and complet e additional education. Man y lar ge companies ha ve actuall y built compan y uni versi- ties complet e with classr ooms, dorm r ooms, and other amenities f ound at tr aditional uni ver- sities.

One of the mor e f amous e xamples being McDonald’s Hambur ger Uni versity. Speciall y designed pr ograms ar e tailor ed t o a compan y’s specif ic needs, such as the w ell-respected manager tr aining s ystems at IBM and Sherwin- Williams. V olunteering pr ograms pr ovide incenti ves (pa y, r elease time) f or indi viduals t o w ork with local or ganizations in leadership and management r oles. V olunteer pr ograms allo w emplo yees t o pr actice actual management skills while creating positive publicity in the community at the same time.

Mentoring programs in volve f ormal and inf ormal support pr ovided b y an e xperienced and hig her-ranking emplo yee t o a tr ainee or new manager . Ment oring includes the de velopment of a tr ainee or pr otégé with the objecti ve of incr easing the emplo yee’s compet encies, achie ve- ments, and understanding of the or ganization. The r esponsibility f or setting up meetings, deciding w hat t o talk about , and deciding w hen t o end the r elationship is in the hands of the tr ainee and the mentor. In the past , inf ormal ment oring appear ed t o be the mor e pr edominant f ormat in w hich senior emplo yees assist ed new er w orkers and pr otégés. R esearch then beg an t o indicat e that men - tors w ere fr equently mor e inclined t o select pr otégés fr om back grounds similar t o their o wn, such as b y r ace, gender , ethnicity , r eligion, and e ven coming fr om the same uni versity or fr a- ternity/sorority.

Consequen tly, the need f or ment ors of w omen and minorities became appar - ent.

With that situation in mind, man y companies turned t o mor e f ormal pr ograms (R agins, 1989; Thomas, 1990).

Successful ment ors help tr ainees a void political pr oblems and conflicts as w ell. Some of the companies that ha ve been not ed f or cr eating successfu l ment oring s ystems, both f ormal and inf ormal, inclu de Unile ver, P andora, and Asana (Semezuk, 2016). Others, such as Int el, begin b y car efully sear ching f or the rig ht person t o serv e as a ment or. Time W arner Cable has the goal of buildin g emplo yee skill sets in or der t o incr ease their kno wledge of the industry . Com- pan y leaders belie ve these pr ograms benefit both the ment or and the pr otégé. The ment or str engthens his or her leadership skills w hile building the skill set of the pr otégé (Bry ant, 2015).

F or man y y ears the positi ve eff ects of quality ment oring on an emplo yee’s le vel of suc - cess ha ve been w ell established (Doug herty & Dr eher, 1991). Kr am (1985) defines ment oring in terms of coaching, counseling, and sponsorship. C oaching programs place an e xpert with a tr ainee on his or her job o ver a period of w eeks or months t o pr ovide continuous f eedback and guidance on ho w t o impr ove. Most coaches also encour age their tr ainees t o discuss difficult situat ions as the y arise and w ork thr ough \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development and Management Training Programs Section 12.1 alternative sce narios f or dealing with the situations. Coaching is a r elatively new t echnique and is gr owing in popularity .

Few guideline s ar e a vailable t o e valu- ate w hether a coaching pr ogram has been successful. P art of the difficulty in e valuating coaching s ystems comes fr om the ambiguity associat ed with the t erm itself. F or e xample, thr ee conceptualizations of the acti vity include coaching as tr aining of lead - ers t o inspir e change and inno vation, coaching as dir ecting and moti vating those at lo wer r anks, and coaching as f acilitating the w ork of t eams and gr oups (e.g. K ets de V ries, 20 05; John- son, 20 15; Elsbach, Ka yes & Ka yes, 2016). F urther, coaching sty les v ary widel y (int ense and critical v ersus quiet , laid-back, and complementary). In each case, the r ole of the or ganization w ould be to instruct coaches regarding the activities and methods deemed most desirable.

Counseling in volves eff orts t o boost a pr otégé’s self-con fidence thr ough v arious f orms of sup - port.

This w ould include pr aise, public ackno wledgement of the pr otégé’s successes, and vis- ibility , in terms of being seen with the mentor.

Sponsorship includes acti vities in w hich the ment or int ervenes on behalf of the pr otégé. These eff orts mig ht in volve lobb ying f or the pr otégé t o r eceive k ey assignments or pr omotions as w ell as seeking t o mak e sur e an y r ater in a perf ormance appr aisal s ystem is a ware of the pr o- tégé’s efforts and accomplishments. Conducting the Program and Following Up Manager tr aining pr ograms demand patience. It tak es time f or tr ainees t o go thr ough the pr ogram and e ven mor e time t o assess r esults. Oft en, se veral y ears ma y pass bef ore true out - comes ar e kno wn. In the int erim, v arious assessment t ests can be designed t o see if tr ainees ha ve acquir ed the kno wledge pr esented t o them in the pr ogram. The true t est arri ves w hen the kno wledge is applied t o actual situations. Modifications ar e made w hen the pr ogram does not achieve its goals. Successful promotions may also involve adjustments over time.

In summary , car eer de velopment includes all eff orts and acti vities conduct ed b y indi vidual emplo yees and the or ganization t o help each person choose and f ollow the best path. The primary conce pts that appl y t o personal success ar e building an ethical f oundation, becoming in volved in tr aining and pr eparation, finding the rig ht person–or ganization fit , eng aging in continuous impr ovement, and achie ving balance. Or ganizational needs also must be met t o full y achieve a quality career development system. Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock There are diverse types of mentorship that can be provided to employees, including coaching, counseling, and sponsorship. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which would not typically be a goal of manager training? a. preparing for domestic job transfer b. improving technical skills c. improving managerial skills d. socialization 2. Which program involves shifting a supervisor from one department to another, grant- ing the individual a new title, and giving a pay raise without moving the individual to a higher organizational rank?

a. mentoring b. coaching c. lateral promotion d. indoctrination Answer: 1) a 2) c \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development: Special Challenges Section 12.2 12.2 Career Development: Special Challenges In addition t o the eff orts that indi viduals can mak e t o ad vance their careers and the manage- ment tr aining pr ograms or ganizations emplo y, ther e is a thir d element of car eer de velop- ment:

helping emplo yees cope with special car eer challenges. In this section, the challenges of dual car eers, w ork-life balance, and emplo yee out-p rocessing ar e described. In the ne xt section, the topic of stress and stress management receives consideration.

Dual Careers In the 1950s, the t erm “dua l-earning couple” w as used t o not e that an incr easing number of f amilies had both husband and wif e as w age earners. T oday, o ver 80% of households that contain a husband and wif e can be consider ed dual-earning ho useholds, and mor e than 50% of the U .S. w ork- force comprises emplo yees fr om dual-earning couples with childr en (Bruning, 2004).

A distin ction should be made betw een a “dual-earning couple” and a “dual- car eer couple. ” The diff erence arises fr om car eer goals. In a dual-earning c ouple, one or both partners simpl y seek t o gener ate income t o support the f amily; in a dual-car eer couple, both partners try t o build and sus - tain car eers. Both types of arr ange- ments gener ate similar pr oblems f or couples.

F our of the mor e common Christopher Robbins/Photodisc/Thinkstock Social progress has given rise to the “dual-earning couple,” an arrangement that presents as many advantages as it does challenges. alternative scenarios for dealing with the situations. Coaching is a relatively new technique and is growing in popularity.

Few guidelines are available to evalu- ate whether a coaching program has been successful. Part of the difficulty in evaluating coaching systems comes from the ambiguity associated with the term itself. For example, three conceptualizations of the activity include coaching as training of lead- ers to inspire change and innovation, coaching as directing and motivating those at lower ranks, and coaching as facilitating the work of teams and groups (e.g. Kets de Vries, 2005; John- son, 2015; Elsbach, Kayes & Kayes, 2016). Further, coaching styles vary widel y (intense and critical versus quiet, laid-back, and complementary). In each case, the role of the organization would be to instruct coaches regarding the activities and methods deemed most desirable.

Counseling involves efforts to boost a protégé’s self-confidence through various forms of sup- port. This would include praise, public acknowledgement of the protégé’s successes, and vis- ibility, in terms of being seen with the mentor.

Sponsorship includes activities in which the mentor intervenes on behalf of the protégé. These efforts might involve lobbying for the protégé to receive key assignments or promotions as well as seeking to make sure any rater in a performance appr aisal system is aware of the pro- tégé’s efforts and accomplishments. Conducting the Program and Following Up Manager training programs demand patience. It takes time for trainees to go through the program and even more time to assess results. Often, several years may pass before true out- comes are known. In the interim, various assessment tests can be designed to see if trainees have acquired the knowledge presented to them in the program. The true test arrives when the knowledge is applied to actual situations. Modifications are made when the program does not achieve its goals. Successful promotions may also involve adjustments over time.

In summary, career development includes all eff orts and activities conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path. The primary concepts that apply to personal success are building an ethical foundation, becoming involved in training and preparation, finding the right person–organization fit, engaging in continuous improvement, and achieving balance. Organizational needs also must be met to fully achieve a quality career development system. Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock There are diverse types of mentorship that can be provided to employees, including coaching, counseling, and sponsorship. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which would not typically be a goal of manager training? a. pr eparing for domestic job transfer b. impr oving technical skills c. impr oving managerial skills d. socialization 2. Which program involves shifting a supervisor from one department to another, grant- ing the individual a new title, and giving a pay raise without moving the individual to a hig her organizational rank?

a. mentoring b. coaching c. lat eral promotion d. indoctrination Answer: 1) a 2) c \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development: Special Challenges Section 12.2 include priori ties, childr en, r ole conflicts, and ener gy le vels/work–life balance (Sek aran, 1986).

These issues were first described in Chapters 1 and 2.

The ess ence of priority issu es r evolves ar ound the simple question, “Whose job comes first?” When one spouse or partner is off ered a pr omotion that in volves r elocation, the priority ques - tion comes t o the f ore (P ave, 1985). In addition, one job ma y r equire additional time, includ - ing nig hts and w eekends, w hich ma y f orce the other spouse t o adapt t o a new situation. That spouse, f or e xample, ma y be r equired t o tak e on mor e household r esponsibilities. T rying t o achie ve an equitable balance of labor in t erms of household chor es can r esult in conflict and disagr eement (Moen & Y u, 2000). Thr ee additional ar eas of concern include ha ving and r ais- ing childr en; dealing with pot ential r ole conflicts, and maintaining a quality w ork-life balance.

The dec ision t o bear and tak e car e of c hildren oft en pr esents dual-car eer couples with major challenges.

As mor e w omen postpone the birth of their first child in or der t o build a car eer, the e ventual adjustment t o a new person in the household r equires spouses or partners t o mak e changes (T oufexis, 1987). Man y seek the assistance of a child-car e pr ofessional or nann y, and this number is increasing (Bruning, 2004).

Dual-income and dual-car eer f amilies ma y encount er v arious f orms of r ole conflict. One v er- sion r evolves ar ound the tr adeoff betw een f amily lif e and w ork lif e. In essence, the conflict arises due t o countervailing demands to be an eff ective emplo yee and a good parent/spouse. The wif e/mother r ole str ains man y w omen (Stanfield, 1985), just as the f ather/husband r ole cr eates conflict for men (Jayson, 2009).

As the other issues impl y, the continuing challenges f or dual-car eer f amilies r evolve ar ound balancing home and w ork responsibilities w hile pa ying sufficient att ention t o one’s spouse, one’s childr en, and oneself. P art of the f ormula in volves making sur e t o get adequat e r est. F atigue can create both stress and conflict in the household (Levine & Pitinski, 1997).

Organizations must r espond t o the legislati ve demands r egarding dual car eers. The F amily and Medical Lea ve A ct (FMLA) allo ws 12 w eeks of unpaid lea ve f or w orkers with car egiving r esponsibilities during each of 20 or mor e calendar w orkweeks in the curr ent or pr eceding calendar y ear. Emplo yees must be emplo yed in w orkplaces with at least 50 emplo yees t o ben - efit from this (Polatnick, 2000).

Dual car eers also impact the assignment of emplo yees t o other countries. Man y e xpatriate f ailures ar e attribut ed t o non-w ork-related f amily issu es (Harv ey, 1995). The f ailures r esult fr om the f amily str ess that compounds the adjustment associat ed with the e xpatriate’s new position and or ganizational e xpectations. F amily matt ers impact the e xpatriate’s adjust - ment dir ectly and indir ectly. Dir ect impact includes the pot ential loss of the tr ailing spouse’s income and pot ential futur e earnings, because the spouse oft en encount ers car eer disruption (Harv ey, 1995). It has been suggest ed that the spouse and childr en can indir ectly influence the le vel of t en- sion, str ess, and dissatisf action r elated t o mo ving t o a f oreign country b y cr eating a difficult f amily en vironment, and that these issues ma y then tr ansfer t o the w ork en vironment (Sol - omon, 2000). R ecent r esearch contr adicts this point of view , ar guing that f ailures ma y be \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development: Special Challenges Section 12.2 more accur ately attribut ed t o methods of selecting persons f or int ernational assignments and “luck” (Anderson, 2005). Work–Life Balance Organizations ha ve v ested int erests in the w ell-being of emplo yees in dual-car eer marriages and those in other situations. Man y emplo yers try t o assist emplo yees in o vercoming the pr oblems asso ciated with balancing w ork and lif e. Th e pot ential pr oblems cr eated b y an une ven balance include neg ative eff ects on pr oductivity, job satisf action, and commitment t o the organization (Fernandez, 1986).

Company assistance t o dual-car eer couples and other emplo yees seeking a quality balance betw een w ork and lif e tak es man y f orms. F our of the mor e common ar e on-sit e child car e, fle xtime positions, job shar ing, and t elecommuting (K opelman, R osenweig, & Lall y, 1982). These pr ograms off er the pot ential of achie ving a bett er w ork–life balance f or w orkers of all types.

On-site child car e pr esents the opportunity t o r educe costs of lost w ork time. Emplo yees w ho must lea ve the w orkplace in or der t o car e f or childr en e xperience r educed pr oductivity and lo wer satisf action. Child car e pr ograms r epresent an in vestment in emplo yee mor ale (LaFleur & Newson, 1988).

Flextime positions allo w emplo yees t o lea ve t o t end t o f amily matt ers (such as caring f or an infirm par ent) w hile w orking cor e hours. The positions serv e the purpose of r educing f amily- related tar diness and absent eeism. The pr ograms ha ve been r elated t o impr ovement in job satisf action as w ell (Ezr a & Deckman, 1996), and the benefits appl y t o all emplo yees (not just those with families), who also appreciate a more flexible schedule. Job sharing di vides one job int o tw o part-time positions. The goal r emains t o r educe absent ee- ism and tar diness. The complication arises fr om coor dination betw een the tw o persons occu - pying the job, and mix ed r esults ha ve been r eported in t erms of pr oductivity and emplo yee satisf action (Bohen & Vi veros-Long, 1981; Shele y, 1986) . Ja vitch (2006) not es that job-sharing off ers a qualit y method t o assist v alued emplo yees in being able t o continue w orking at the job the y lo ve w hile gi ving them mor e time f or personal acti vities. He cautions that eff ective pr ograms must account f or pot ential communication pr oblems betw een the tw o indi viduals w ho sh are the job and maki ng it clear w ho is the primary job-holder , if such a designation is t o be made.

It is becoming incr easingly common f or companies t o allo w their emplo yees t o w ork fr om home, or t elecommute. E ver-improving t echnologies mak e it possible t o maintain an office off-sit e and send the bulk of w ork mat erials t o one’s emplo yer via the Int ernet and other digital method s. Video conf erencing mak es it possible f or managers and emplo yees t o see each other w hile talking. Pr ior t o the 2008 r ecession, t elecommuting jobs w ere among the f astest gr owing positions in the Unit ed Stat es. In 2013, 30 million jobs r eportedly in volved at least some aspects of t elecommuting (R apoza, 2013 ). B y 2016, mor e than half of all jobs in volved at least some element of t elecommuting (GlobalW orklaceAnalytics.com, 2016). Ov er time, r esulting impacts on mor ale and pr oductivity will emer ge as these positions r eceive gr eater study.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Career Development: Special Challenges Section 12.2 Employee Out-Processing Employee out-pr ocessing, w hich occurs w hen a person lea ves due t o t ermination, la yoffs, or r etirement, has r eceived additional att ention in the past decade. The 2008 r ecession, com - bined with the aging of the bab y boomer gener ation, has meant that numer ous emplo yees ha ve left their organizations, many after long periods of service.

Terminations, Downsizing, Outsourcing, and Layoffs When a compan y is able t o pr ovide out-pr ocessing services, the s ystem ma y include tw o ele - ments: an e xit int erview and se verance pack ages w hen ad visable. Exit int erviews ma y be used t o disco ver w hy an emplo yee did not fit with an or ganization. Se verance pack ages and other acts of concern b y an or ganization that t erminates or displaces a w orker ma y be consider ed an investment in maintaining a quality company reputation.

The primary issue associat ed with do wnsizing, outsour cing, and la yoffs is ethical in natur e. What is a compan y’s r esponsibility t o w orkers displaced b y these tactics? Should r etraining and pla cement services be off ered? During the econom ic difficulties of the 2008 r ecession, the ar gument could be made that companies simpl y did not ha ve the r esources t o assist dis- placed workers. At other times, however, such may not have been the case.

Retirement The ba by boomer gener ation consists of 78 million people in the Unit ed Stat es. In 2011, the first w ave of these indi viduals r eached r etirement age. B y 2012, the number of pot ential r etir- ees e xceeded 1,000 per da y (Sl yker, 2011). Man y of these indi viduals do not ha ve sufficient r esources t o st op w orking. The chal - lenges associa ted with an aging w ork- force include assisting those w ho sta y on the job f or financial r esources and helping others assimilat e int o the r etirement lifestyle.

Company pr ograms designed t o help those w ho do int end t o r etire include phased r etirement pr ograms, men - toring s ystems, and counseling pr o- grams.

Phase d retirement allows the emplo yee t o gr adually ease int o a depar ture w hile continuing t o con - tribute t o the or ganization on a part- time ba sis. Ment oring programs per- mit phased r etirement candidat es and those w ho ha ve full y r etired t o off er ad vice and counseling t o mem - bers of the or ganization. The pr ogram gr ants a sense of fulfillment t o those w ho mig ht other- wise lac k a sense of purpose . C ounseling systems help r etirees adjust t o new lif e cir cumstances b y pr oviding assistance wit h financial needs, emotional concerns, and other challenges such as medical needs. Tomwang112/iStock/Thinkstock Baby boomers have more difficulty retiring than previous generations, reflecting what has become a global phenomenon.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 As with t erminations and la yoffs, an ethical question arises. Does the compan y ha ve a mor al r esponsibility t o assist in these cir cumstances? Some social commentat ors suggest that doing so can also be in a compan y’s financial int erests. Those w ho mo ve int o phased r etirement or ment oring pr ograms continue t o contribut e v alue t o the or ganization’s oper ations, at a r educed cost.

In summary , special car eer challenges pr esent themsel ves thr oughout a person ’s lif e. Lif e e vents such as marriage (and di vorce), childr en, the desir e f or a balance betw een w ork and lif e, the sudden need t o car e f or an infirm par ent, and r etirement, along with personal losses such as being t erminated or laid off, all can be managed. Caring or ganizations help emplo yees t end to these and other employment matters.

12.3 Stress and Stress Management The r ole of str ess in a perso n’s car eer oft en changes depending on one’s cir cumstances. Ear ly on in lif e, sim ply finding a job cr eates str ess. Ov er time, f amily issues, including, caring f or childr en, dual careers, caring for aging parents, and prioritizing these r esponsibilities add an additional la yer. Each stage of lif e pr esents new challenges t o emplo yees and the companies w here they work. The stud y of str ess and its consequences has important implications f or management and or ganizational beha vior f or at least thr ee r easons. First , the ar gument can be made that adult- hood has become mor e str essful f or pr actically e veryone, particular ly w hen y ou consider the pac e of life. Emplo yees ar e e xpected t o r eact in near ly r eal time t o man y situations. The y ar e bombar ded with messages fr om a v ariety of sour ces, including v oicemail, e-mail, instant mes- sages, video conf erencing, and those emer ging fr om personal contacts. Companies seeking t o r emain competiti ve ha ve placed additional pr essures t o pr oduce on emplo yees at e very le vel. It ma y also be that the sour ces of str ess in dail y li ving ar e rising, especiall y in tur bulent politi - cal eras and during times of economic turmoil. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which problem is not associated with dual-career couples? a. priorities b. childr en c. r ole conflicts d. block ed career progression 2. Which program divides a job into two part-time positions? a. fle xtime b. job sharing c. t elecommuting d. di vision of labor Answers: 1) d 2) b \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 Second, the stud y of str ess pr ovides a r are opportunity f or a scientist or pr ofessor t o e xert a dir ect, positi ve impact on the qualit y of work life. B y understanding and managing str ess, it becomes poss ible t o impr ove the w orkplace f or others. Thir d, str ess clear ly e xhibits a bott om line.

Those w ho f ail t o deal eff ectively with str essful jobs end up with emotional and ph ysical s ymptoms that can k eep them off the job and r aise compan y insur ance pr emiums as w ell (Segerstr om & Miller , 2004). Limit ed r esearch suggests that pr oductivity ma y also be r elated t o manageable le vels of str ess (Allen, Hitt , & Gr eer, 1982; Iv ancevich & Matt erson, 1981). One compan y that subscribes t o the idea that a quality w ork en vironment includes eff orts in the ar ea of stress management is Whole Foods, as noted in the upcoming OB in Action vignette. OB in Action: Whole Foods Perhaps it is not surprising that a compan y that stat es its initial cor e v alue as “W e appr eciate and celebr ate the diff erence natur al and or ganic f oods can mak e in the quality of one’s lif e,” w ould place a str ong emphasis on emplo yee w ell-being. Whole F oods takes such a stance.

The compan y’s stat ement r egarding emplo yee car eers begins this w ay: “W hole F oods Mar ket attr acts people w ho ar e passionat e—about gr eat f ood, ab out the communities the y li ve in, about ho w w e tr eat our planet and our f ellow humans— and w ho w ant t o bring their passion int o the w ork- place and mak e a diff erence” (w holefoodsmarket.

com, 20 16). Caring about emplo yees begins with an emphasis on a quality cultur e enhanced b y pos - sibilities f or per sonal gr owth. The firm hea vily pr o- motes the t eam d ynamic, r ather than w orking as an indi vidual.

To assist in matt ers r elated t o str ess and per- sonal he alth, emplo yees ar e encour aged t o participat e in per sonal w ellness or health sa vings accounts.

The y r eceive as much as $1,800 per y ear t o help co ver the cost of health insur ance deductions and out-of-pocket expenses.

Whole F oods pr ovides a se ven-day T otal Health Immersion pr ogram, w hich includes lectur es and sess ions fr om nutritionists. T eam members ar e allo wed t o donat e personal paid v acation time t o another member t o help in times of sickness or personal har dship. The y also v ote on the compan y’s benefit pack age each y ear. Mor eover, the compan y gi ves back 5% of its aft er-tax pr ofits to help the communities in which its employees live and work (Thorpe, 2015).

Recent Monst er.com r esearch (Dill, 2014) suggests that 42% of w orkers ha ve left a job due t o a str essful environment (Reina & Reina, 2016). The Whole Foods approach is designed t o make sur e str ess-related out comes do not occur in the compan y. R esults ha ve been hig hly encour ag- ing.

In 2010, the compan y’s turno ver r ate w as 15% in an industry w here man y gr ocers e xpe- rienced a 100% r ate (Martin, 2010). In essence, a health y w orkforce labors in a less str essful en vironment, and the net r esults include positi ve personal out comes as w ell as benefits f or the company. (continued) Nataliia_Pyzhova/iStock/Thinkstock Whole Foods is an example of an organization that’s mission incorporates the well-being of its employees. OB in Action: Whole Foods (continued) Reflection and Application Questions 1. What factors do you think create the greatest amount of stress on the job?

2. What types of programs do you think would be most valuable in reducing workplace stress?

3. How might the Whole Foods manager training and career development programs differ from those at other companies?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 One of the continuing issues in stress management is definitional (American Institute of Str ess, 2011). One approach to understanding stress suggests that it is caused by various f orces. This view, the antecedent model depicted in Figure 12.1, implies that various forces cause this nebulous thing labeled stress. As an example, “She was going through a messy di vorce and experienced a great deal of stress because of it,” or “He was in financial trouble and felt really stressed out as a result.” In both of those examples, stress represents a con- dition in which an individual confronts a situation in which the outcome is uncertain and important (Schuler, 1980).

Figure 12.1: Antecedent model of stress The antecedent approach examines potential forces that are causes of stress-related problems. A second conceptualization of str ess f ocuses on w hat happens w hen it occurs. As sho wn in Figur e 12.2, the out come model of str ess seek s t o dis cover w hat happens w hen a person is r outinely o verwhelmed b y str essful e vents (Sailer , Schlact er, & E dwards, 1982). Someone mig ht sa y, “He w as under so much str ess that he had a heart attack, ” or “She w as so str essed out that she had a nervous breakdown.” Figure 12.2: Outcome model of stress The outcome model of stress focuses on the results of stress, or the events that result from encount ering large amounts of stress.

So, w hich is the case? Is str ess a cause or an eff ect? In 1951, one f amous quot e suggest ed that “st ress in addition t o being itself, w as also the cause of itself, and the r esult of itself ” (American Institut e of Str ess, 2011). F urther, counselors and managers ma y f ocus mor e on helping indi viduals cope with str ess-related pr oblems. Assuming their perspecti ve merits Second, the study of stress provides a rare opportunity for a scientist or professor to exert a direct, positive impact on the quality of work life. By understanding and managing stress, it becomes possible to improve the workplace for others. Third, stress clearly exhibits a bottom line. Those who fail to deal effectively with stressful jobs end up with emotional and physical symptoms that can keep them off the job and raise company insurance premiums as well (Segerstrom & Miller, 2004). Limited research suggests that productivity may also be related to manageable levels of stress (Allen, Hitt, & Greer, 1982; Ivancevich & Matterson, 1981). One company that subscribes to the idea that a quality work environment includes efforts in the area of stress management is Whole Foods, as noted in the upcoming OB in Action vignette. OB in Action: Whole Foods Perhaps it is not surprising that a company that states its initial core value as “We appreciate and celebrate the difference natural and organic foods can make in the quality of one’s life,” would place a strong emphasis on employee well-being. Whole Foods takes such a stance.

The company’s statement regarding employee careers begins this way: “Whole Foods Market attracts people who are passionate—about great food, about the communities they live in, about how we treat our planet and our fellow humans— and who want to bring their passion into the work- place and make a difference” (wholefoodsmarket.

com, 2016). Caring about employees begins with an emphasis on a quality culture enhanced by pos- sibilities for personal growth. The firm heavily pro- motes the team dynamic, rather than working as an individual.

To assist in matters related to stress and per- sonal health, employees are encouraged to participate in personal wellness or health savings accounts. They receive as much as $1,800 per year to help cover the cost of health insurance deductions and out-of-pocket expenses.

Whole Foods provides a seven-day Total Health Immersion program, which includes lectures and sessions from nutritionists. Team members are allowed to donate personal paid vacation time to another member to help in times of sickness or personal hardship. They also vote on the company’s benefit package each year. Moreover, the company gives back 5% of its after-tax profits to help the communities in which its employees live and work (Thorpe, 2015).

Recent Monster.com research (Dill, 2014) suggests that 42% of workers have left a job due to a stressful environment (Reina & Reina, 2016). The Whole Foods approach is designed to make sure stress-related outcomes do not occur in the company. Results have been highly encourag- ing. In 2010, the company’s turnover rate was 15% in an industry where many grocers expe- rienced a 100% rate (Martin, 2010). In essence, a healthy workforce labors in a less stressful environment, and the net results include positive personal outcomes as well as benefits for the company.

(continued) Nataliia_Pyzhova/iStock/Thinkstock Whole Foods is an example of an organization that’s mission incorporates the well-being of its employees. OB in Action: Whole Foods (continued) Reflection and Application Questions 1. What factors do you think create the greatest amount of stress on the job?

2. What types of programs do you think would be most valuable in reducing workplace str ess?

3. How might the Whole Foods manager training and career development programs differ fr om those at other companies?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 equal att ention, a mor e complet e str ess model can be de veloped, as sho wn in Figur e 12.3. The model serv es as a guide f or understanding and describ ing str ess first , and then f or r esolving str ess-related problems.

Figure 12.3: Full model of stress This model suggests that stress is related to both causes and outcomes. Coping mechanisms and compan y programs are included.

Antecedents or Causes of Stress After man y y ears of r esearch, a comple x w eb of pot ential sour ces of str ess has emer ged. These sour ces can be placed into five categories, as shown in Figure 12.4.

Figure 12.4: Antecedents, causes, or sources of stress Stress can originate from many different sources, including environmental sources, work events, indi vidual temperament, organizational factors, and life events.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 Environmental Sources In man y countries, unstable go vernments, the thr eat of r evolt, and t errorism cr eate political uncertainty . When political turmoil thr eatens one’s w ay of lif e, a pot ential sour ce of str ess arises.

E conomic uncertaint y can also w orry a f amily because of the pot ential loss of job or home.

The 2008 r ecession in the Unit ed Stat es cr eated a gr eat deal of str ess f or those “under - water” on mort gages and f or unemplo yed and under employed indi viduals. Man y also find certain social tr ends t o be unsettling, especiall y those that inspir e con versation and contr o- versy.

F urther, elements in the natur al en vironment, such as a t ornado, earthquak e, or hurri- cane, can become a sour ce of str ess, either thr ough the w orry that one mig ht occur , or in those w ho ha ve e xperienced tr agedies such as Hurricanes Katrina and Sand y, or an y of the man y r ecent forest fires, and still cope with their aftereffects.

Life Events Many sour ces of str ess emer ge a way fr om w ork. Certain disruptions or changes can cr eate mental pr essure on indi viduals. These pot ential str essors can be f amily-related or nonf amily- related.

Examples of each are provided in Table 12.4 (Holmes & Holmes, 1970).

Table 12.4: Life events as sources of stress Family-related stressorsNonfamily-related stressors Marriage Jail term Divorce Personal injury or illness Marital separation Outstanding personal achievement Marital reconciliation Death of close friend Death of spouse Financial problems Death of family member Change in residence Sexual problems New mortgage Pregnancy Change in living conditions Gain of new family member Change in social activities Son or daughter leaving home Traffic ticket Problems with in-laws Change in sleeping habits Conflicts during the holidays Family member illness Work Events A gr eat deal of str ess r esults fr om issues on the job. Thr ee major job-r elated cat egories of str ess exist. Each contributes to stress-related problems in different ways.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 Physical stressors include conditions inside the w orkplace such as e xcessive heat , e xcessive cold, pollut ed or smok e-filled air , loud noise, cr amped w ork ar eas, pr oximity t o hig h-traffic ar eas (inside and outside), danger ous w ork, o vertime or long hours, and e xtensive tr avel. Ph ysical str essors ma y not onl y aff ect an indi vidual’s mental stat e but also be r elated t o lo wer pr oductivity. A construction f oreman not ed that w hen the t emperature dr ops belo w 32 degr ees F ahrenheit, a cr ew perf orms at 50% of capacity . In other w ords, a t emperature belo w fr eezing doubles the cost of construction.

Social stressors can de velop betw een tw o or mor e emplo yees of the same r ank or of diff erent r anks. Many types of social stress may be found in everyday work. These include • conflicts with peers, • conflicts with supervisors, • discrimination, • sexual harassment, • hazing, • group cohesiveness/morale problems, • and conflicts between groups.

Managers can try t o identify social str essors and r educe them w hen possible. A manager can int ervene in a conflict and r esolve the issue. A manager can also challenge those using off ensive language, r elated t o gender , ethnicity , r eligion, se xual orientation, and e ven le vels of senio rity, t o r educe the number of incidents. These pr oblems contribut e not onl y t o str ess le vels in indi vidual emplo yees, but ar e also count erproductive t o the or ganization in other w ays (Quick & Quick, 1984).

Job stressors come fr om the basic demands of the w ork. Some ar e r elated t o the w orker’s r ole (McClean, 1980), other s t o diff erent f orces. Each cr eates challenging cir cumstances f or emplo yees. Role conflict tak es two forms. The first occurs when a task conflicts with the indi- vidual’s sense of rig ht and wr ong. The second tak es place w hen tw o assigned task s conflict with each other . R ole ambiguity means the emplo yee r emains unsur e about w hich task s t o complet e or ho w t o complet e them. A matt er as simple as ha ving a new supervisor can gen - erate r ole ambiguity as the w orker seek s t o satisfy the demands of a new boss. R ole over- load occurs w hen the amount of w ork e xpected of an emplo yee e xceeds w hat the person can handle.

La yoffs and do wnsizing oft en gener ate r ole o verload f or those w ho r emain with the or ganization (Kahn et al., 1964; Sutton & Rafaeli, 1987).

Further, the intrusion of t echnology int o e veryday w ork lif e has cr eated a new f orm of r ole o verload; one in w hich a person f eels continuall y inundat ed with r equirements t o r espond t o v arious messages (e-mails, t exts, videoconf erences) as w ell as being shado wed b y t ech- nology both on and off the job. Man y w orkers compla in that the y cannot complet ely lea ve w ork because the y ar e r equired t o check in via social media, e-mail, or in some other manner , including ha ving their mo vements tr acked b y GPS de vices in the t echnologies the y ar e gi ven t o complete work (McCaffrey, 2015).

Non-role-related job str essors include block ed career progression, otherwise kno wn as a “dead-end job. ” The per ception, w hether r eal or imagined, that getting pr omoted will be impossible cr eates a long-t erm str essor. The glass c eiling, w hich aff ects man y f emale \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 employees, r epresents block ed car eer pr ogression. Monot onous work can be str essful, espe- ciall y t o those seeking mor e meaningful emplo yment. R ates of alcohol and substance abuse ar e oft en hig her in boring w ork settings (Sutt on & R afaeli, 1987). Occupation str ess r esults fr om the type of w ork perf ormed. T able 12.5 pr ovides e xamples of lo w- and hig h-stress occu - pations (Frank, 2011; Zupek, 2011).

Table 12.5: Low- and high-stress occupations High stress Low stress Police officer Civil engineer Firefighter Carpenter, mason Financial aid counselor Industrial machinery mechanic Sales account manager Operations research analyst Restaurant assistant manager Massage therapist Nurse College professor Individual Temperament Two types of indi viduals ma y be pr edisposed t o str ess-related pr oblems, due t o their basic natur es. Ov erachievers and those with the type A per sonality f actor ma y e xperience pr ob- lems due t o the aggr essive natur e of their personality . Ov erachievers ar e hig hly competiti ve with others and themsel ves. Such indi viduals do not achie ve true satisf action fr om accom - plishments and constantl y mo ve on t o the ne xt challen ge, lea ving them vulner able t o str ess- related pr oblems. In f act, one apt description of a true type A is someone w ho tries t o do mor e and mor e in less and less time. These indi viduals t end t o be impatient and caustic with those w ho slow them down.

Type A personalities r eceived a gr eat deal of att ention in the 1980s. The type A tr ait w as origi- nall y identified in heart attack victims that survi ved. R esearch suggest ed that an e xtreme type A will be susc eptible t o a heart attack, partl y due t o heig htened blood pr essure and partl y because constant frustr ation and anno yance pr oduce destructi ve enzymes associat ed with an “angry heart” (F riedman & R osenman, 1974; R agland & Br and, 1988). Mor e r ecent lit era- ture dis connects hostility or continual anger fr om other personality char acteristics (St eptoe & Molloy, 2006).

Organizational Factors Organizational structure r efers t o the le vel of diff erentiation emplo yed b y a compan y, the number of rules and pr ocedures it has established, and the degr ee of deleg ation or decentr al- ization that char acterizes it . Ex cessive use of authority o ver w orkers perf orming simple task s that are regulated by numerous rules and procedures can become stressors.

Organizational life cycle means that companies go thr ough f our periods o ver time: birth and de velopment, gr owth, maturity , and decline. Or ganizations just beginning oper ations cr eate \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 stress, e ven thoug h some of it ma y be due t o e xcitement and challenges. Companies in decline normall y e xperience la yoffs and uncertainty , also cr eating str ess, but of a diff erent (and mor e neg ative) variety.

A Stress Model Hans Sel ye w as among the first t o identify and model str ess and str ess coping mechanisms. The t erm used t o describe his model—“fig ht-or-flight”—has r eceived consider able att ention. The GAS, or general adaptation syndrome, approach is displayed in Figure 12.5.

Figure 12.5: General adaptation syndrome/Fight-or-flight model A stressful stimulus prompts one to choose either a fight-or-flight response, which in turn leads to a r esult. How one feels about the chosen response and subsequent outcome (i.e., individual reaction) det ermines how effectively one has dealt with the stressful stimulus.

Adapted from Selye, H. (2011). The nature of stress. International Center for Nutritional Research. Retrieved from http://www .icnr.com/articles/the-nature-of-stress.html As sho wn in the figur e, an e vent or stimulus demands at tention. The stimulus can be positi ve, neutr al, or neg ative. A positi ve stimulus mig ht be a frien d w aving “hello. ” A neg ative stimulus mig ht r esult fr om being y elled at or the gestur e of an aggr essive dri ver. A neutr al stimulus occurs when the phone rings, because you do not as yet know what the call will be like.

In each cir cumstance, a fig ht r esponse in volves dealing with the stimulus dir ectly. Someone w ho cuts y ou off in tr affic and then gestur es ma y lead y ou t o “get e ven” in some w ay, such as b y passing that person la ter or , at the e xtreme, phoning the police t o w arn them a drunk dri ver is in fr ont of y ou. A flig ht r esponse means finding a w ay t o a void the stimulus, such as slo wing down and moving away from the bad driver.

Neither r eaction—fight or flig ht—is “good” or “bad” in and of itself. R ather, ho w y ou f eel aft er the r esponse will be the k ey. When y ou f eel y ou ha ve successfull y adapt ed t o the stimulus, y ou ha ve dealt with the str essor in an eff ective manner . When lingering emotions or doubts continue t o haunt y ou, the r esponse has cr eated additio nal str ess. Sel ye points out that str ess cannot and sh ould not be a voided, but r ather manage d. Counselors w ho emplo y the fig ht- or-flight mode l try t o help indi viduals de velop positi ve coping mechanisms f or e very type of stimulus.

You can learn to “pick your fights” and “let go” at other times. \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 Selye’s w ork concentr ates on the biological aspects of str ess f ar mor e than the ps ychologi- cal elements (Sel ye, 2011). Sel ye also points out that people need a certain le vel of str ess t o function.

The appr opriate amount establishes the mental ener gy t o cope with the challenges of the da y. Onl y w hen str essors o verwhelm the indi vidual o ver time does distr ess emer ge (Sel ye, 1974).

Symptoms of Distress Distress, or str ain, can be used t o diff erentiate normal, manageable le vels of str ess fr om a cir cumstance in w hich the indi vidual becomes o verwhelmed and s ymptoms of distr ess begin t o occur . The s ymptoms of distr ess include ph ysical, ps ychological, and social out comes, as summarized in Table 12.6.

Table 12.6: Symptoms of distress Physical PsychologicalSocial Heart and circulatory • High blood pressure • Heart attack Insomnia Rage Stomach • Ulcer • Gastritis • “Nervous” stomach • Diarrhea Tension headache Inappropriate behaviors Lungs • Hyperventilation • Nervous coughing Depression Creation of new and unnecessary conflicts Skin • Hi ves • Acne • Dermatitis • Galvanic skin response (s weating) Nervous breakdown Family violence Sexual problemsOther marital problems Substance abuse Alcohol Legal drugs Illegal drugs Physical out comes normall y begin with less se vere s ymptoms, w hich ma y incr ease o ver time. Occasional indigestion mig ht e volve int o mor e dr amatic and chr onic st omach pr oblems. Hig h blood pr essure o ver time r esults in heart attack s and str okes. The same pr ogression oft en tak es place with ps ychological out comes (McClelland & Jemmott , 1980). What mig ht begin as an occasion al sleepless nig ht mig ht e volve int o chr onic insomnia. Social manif estations of distr ess ma y be less e vident t o a supervisor , as man y tak e place off the job. A t the same time, \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 a manager can det ect persons appearing t o e xhibit str ess-related s ymptoms using the f ollow- ing checklist:

• New, never-before-seen conflicts with peers • Hig her levels of absenteeism or tardiness • Lo wer productivity • Ar gumentativeness • Da ydreaming • Lea ving early for breaks or at the end of the day • Ext ended lunch hour • Hango vers, obvious aftereffects of drug abuse • Stat ements like: “I can’t take much more of this,” “I’m thinking about quitting,” or “This isn’t worth it” • Unwillingness to follow directions (when it had never previously been a problem) • Throwing/breaking objects The point can be r eached in w hich an indi vidual r equires help. F ortunately, the s ymptoms of distr ess can be addr essed bef ore the y become t oo se vere. T able 12.7 identifies methods f or coping with the stress of life as well as distress (Charlesworth & Nathan, 2004).

Table 12.7: Coping with stress and distress Physical coping mechanismsPsychological coping mechanismsSocial coping mechanismsCombination approach Proper diet Meditation/prayer/ quiet time Time away from t echnologySupport group (work) Biofeedback (combines physical and psychological) Mild exercise Prioritization/time managementSupport group (home) Regular rest/sleep Frontal attack on str essors Massage Healthy escapes (hobbies and v acations) Proper diet includes a voidance of f oods that mig ht mak e str ess s ymptoms w orse, such as caf - feine, ener gy drink s, and other elements of an upper-do wner cy cle. Mild e xercise dischar ges t ension and creates positive energy. Regular rest can help reduce fatigue.

Quiet moments at an y time appear t o addr ess str ess s ymptoms (W allace & Benson, 1972). This mig ht include taking v ery int entional br eaks fr om t echnology t o help alle viate str ess, such as turning off w ork e-mail on w eekends, f or e xample. Prioritization and time manage- ment ar e w ays t o r egain a sense of contr ol o ver the da y. A fr ontal attack in volves r emoving str essors pr oactively. Health y escapes include r elaxing hobbies and v acations. Biof eedback, a combination appr oach, in volves mental contr ol o ver ph ysical s ymptoms thr ough r elaxation \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Stress and Stress Management Section 12.3 and f ocus t echniques (Lazarus, 1981; Sch wartz & Andr asik, 2005). Support can come fr om friends at work or from family and others off the job (Cohen & Wills, 1985).

Complicating Factors It appears that int eractive r elationships e xist betw een both the sour ces of str ess and the cop - ing mechanisms. An additiv e situation occurs w hen str essors “pile up ” on a person. In other w ords, ph ysical, mental, and social pr essures add t ogether t o cr eate an e ven mor e str ess- ful situation. In a c ompensating cir cumstance, one cat egory of ant ecedents or out comes can r educe str ess in another . W alking t o r educe str ess is ph ysical compensation f or mental str essors. Biof eedback is a counseling and tr aining pr ogram in w hich subjects learn ho w t o mentall y compensat e f or and contr ol ph ysical str ess s ymptoms, such as b y learning ho w t o contr ol one’s o wn pulse and br eathing patt erns thr ough v arious r elaxation t echniques during str essful episodes. Social support compensat es f or both ph ysical and mental str ess. F urther, cat egories within the same cat egory can compensat e, such as w hen a person tr avels home t o r elieve the str ess of a pr essure-filled job or goes t o w ork t o get a way fr om a tr oubling mar - riage or personal life.

Segmented circumstances suggest an ebb and flo w t o both the sour ces and s ymptoms of str ess. A t times a job ma y f eel o verwhelming; at others it becomes manageable. The same holds true f or physical, mental, and social systems (Seers et al., 1983).

Finally, it is important t o not e that str ess does not al ways r epresent a neg ative f orce. T ension and pr essure can, in certain cir cumstances, “br ing out the best” in a per son. Some people per- f orm w ell w hen time-pr essure e xists; others turn the ener gy cr eated b y a neg ative e vent int o a positi ve r eaction, such as w hen a supervisor r esponds t o a crisis with positi ve ideas about ho w t o r esolve the pr oblem. C onsider, f or e xample, that some pl ayers in sports ar e consider ed t o be “good in the clut ch.” When the g ame is “on the line, ” their per formance le vels rise. The same holds true f or w orkers, such as accountants w ho complet e tax f orms under the pr essure of a deadline, or a mar keting t eam that comes up with a brilliant r esponse t o neg ative publicity .

Company Responses Company leaders can tak e f our st eps t o r educe the impact of str ess in the w orkplace. First , the y can w ork t o r educe str essors that arise in the w orkplace b y pa ying att ention t o all of the pot ential sour ces. Second, human r esources and other managers can identify and off er help t o indi viduals appearing t o suff er fr om str ess-related pr oblems. Thir d, emplo yees should be placed pr operly. Some indi viduals enjo y being bus y and challenged; str ess does not seem t o be an issue. Others can f eel quickl y o verwhelmed. As part of the r ecruiting and selection pr ocess, the indi vidual can be inf ormed about the le vel of t ension and acti vity t o e xpect in an y position. Finall y, companies can t each and off er str ess management pr ograms and t echniques. Man y or ganizations no w pr ovide e xercise f acilities, in-house g ame ar eas, and e ven neck massages t o those w ho ar e bound t o desk s thr oughout the da y. Companies can schedule appear ances b y str ess management e xperts t o further assist emplo yees in coping with t oday’s challenging and fast-paced business environment.

In gener al, one secr et t o r educing str ess-related issues in the w orkplace is t o be pr oactive. The management t eam can in vestigate the or ganization and disco ver ar eas that r equire att ention. Pr oblem situations should be quickly addressed and remedied.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Summary and Resources Chapter Summary Career development consists of all efforts and activities conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path. Issues include personal career development, manager training, and the various ways to cope with special car eer challenges such as dual careers, employee out-processing, and stress management.

Personal career development involves an individual enhancing his or her educational level, e xperiences, personal characteristics, and list of contacts. Emplo yers offer management training programs, which include the steps of establishing the goals of the program, selecting individuals for training, identifying training methods, con- ducting the program, and following up. Management training can take place on the job in the f orm of incrementally assigning new tasks, having the trainee perform job rotations, award- ing lateral promotions, and assigning trainees to lead teams and committees. Off-the-job manager training involves technical and managerial outside reading, additional education, att endance at conferences and seminars, and specially designed company programs. Men- toring and coaching programs take place both on and off the job.

Three career challenges are dual-career marriages, employee out-processing, and stress management . Each creates an impact on organizational behavior variables, including pro- ductivity, workplace satisfaction, organizational commitment, conflict, absenteeism, tar- diness, and turnover. Practical responses to these issues can help a company achieve the status of being family- or employee-friendly, building a positive reputation for the future.

Dual-earning and dual-career couples face issues that include priorities, children, role conflicts, and energy levels/balance. Couples can respond to dual-career challenges through communication, coordination, commitment, flexibility, rest, and time away. Companies can assist dual-career situations through on-site care programs, flextime systems, job sharing, and telecommuting programs. Comprehension Exercise 1. Fight and flight responses are found in Hans Selye’s a. ant ecedent model of stress. b. out come model of stress. c. gener al adaptation syndrome stress model. d. additi ve model of stress.

2. Life events, work events, and personal temperament are considered as which part of the str ess process? a. ant ecedents b. out comes c. adaptation processes d. compan y responses Answer: 1) c 2) a \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Employee out-processing involves the decision to assist those who have been terminated or laid off. Many believe the issue raises ethical and moral questions. Companies can offer assistance in the form of helping those who must continue to work due to financial concerns as well as helping retirees through phased retirement, mentoring, and career counseling pr ograms.

The study of stress and its consequences has implications for management and organiza- tional behavior, due to issues associated with the pace of life, the quality of life, and the company’s bottom line. The sources, or antecedents, of stress begin with environmental sour ces such as political turmoil, economic uncertainty, and social trends. Life events that contribut e to stress include problems associated with one’s family as well as nonfamily- oriented problems. Work events consist of physical, social, and job-related stressors, includ- ing role conflict, ambiguity, and overload. Organizational factors associated with stress include a company’s structure and its stage in the life cycle. An individual’s particular tem- perament—overachieving or type A—can contribute to stress-related problems.

The terms “distress” and “strain” refer to circumstances in which normal, manageable levels of stress become a situation in which the individual becomes overwhelmed and symptoms begin to occur. The symptoms of distress include physical, psychological, and social out- comes.

Coping mechanisms can be produced in the same three areas. The individual must kno w if he or she operates in an additive, compensating, or segmented mode to achieve the gr eatest relief from distress.

Company leaders have four methods to assist in the areas of stress and distress. These include reducing the sources of stress, identifying people with stress-related problems and off ering help, placing people into jobs they can manage, and offering stress management pr ograms and facilities. CASE STUDY: The Crossroads Rachel and Jeff sat t ogether w aiting f or an appointment with the dir ector of human r esources, althoug h the purposes of their visits w ere quit e diff erent. Jeff w as about t o inf orm the com - pany of his int ention t o quit in tw o w eeks. R achel had applied t o become part of the manage- ment training program.

Rachel and Jeff w ere emplo yed b y the Lucky Se ven Casino and R esort, w hich w as locat ed on the ri ver in Gulfport , Mississippi. F ollowing the hurricane that de vastated the ar ea a decade ago, the ar ea had begun t o gr ow and r ebound, especiall y f or destination g amblers w ho w anted g aming r ooms but also other amenities, including t ourist att ractions, golf courses, and shop- ping in the area.

Jeff w orked in the main car d pl aying ar ea. He w as a no vice de aler, w hich meant his shifts t ook place at nig ht. He w as married and had tw o childr en in gr ade school. The job k ept him a way fr om his f amily e xcept on w eekends, w hen mor e e xperienced dealers t ook the shifts w here gr atuities w ere hig her. Jeff oft en came home t o a harried wif e, Sue, w ho w as frustr ated with taking car e of the childr en and f eeling “stuck at home” all w eek. Jeff made sur e Sue w as fr ee on w eekends t o get a way and do other things, but this meant the y spent less time t ogether. Ther e had been tension between Jeff and Sue for several months.(continued) \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Review Questions What four career assets can an employee offer to a company?

The four assets are education, experience, personality traits, and contacts.

What goals are associated with manager training programs?

Management training goals include improvements in technical skills and managerial skills, r esocialization, assistance in ethical reasoning, and strengthening international/cultural skills. CASE STUDY: The Crossroads (continued) The actu al job also bother ed Jeff at times. He w as open-minded about lif estyles, but w as some- times distur bed b y w atching people g amble a way mone y the y could not aff ord t o lose. He had hoped t o mo ve a way fr om the g aming floor int o some other aspect of the business, but f ew openings had materialized, and he never became a serious candidate for those positions.

The casino ’s management t eam had strict policies about ho w t o conduct oper ations. Jeff w as t old t o tr eat g amblers as adults, w hich meant that no matt er ho w much the y lost , it w as their concern.

The de aler’s job w as t o r emain pleasant , positi ve, and pr ofessional. Jeff knew at times he w as w atching an “adult” g amble a way mone y that should ha ve been spent on f ood and medicine, some times f or childr en. He became r eluctant t o t ell people w here he w orked, and w as som ewhat embarr assed ar ound those w ho knew . Jeff had begun battling insomnia and f elt lik e he w as in a bad mood f ar t oo oft en, w hich aff ected his fr ee time with his childr en. As he w aited to give notice, Jeff felt as though a weight was being lifted from his shoulders.

Rachel w as a fr ee-spirited y oung adult w ho lo ved the idea of being part of the “action. ” She enjo yed w orking nig hts and meeting new people. Her frien ds called her “t erminally sing le.” She lo ved w orking in the r oulette w heel ar ea, flirting with men, and charming the w omen, w ho seemed to like her enthusiastic, carefree approach.

Rachel shar ed a house with tw o other co workers. The lo w r ent and ine xpensive lif estyle allo wed her t o sa ve the majority of her earnings. She t ook half and called it “fun mone y,” f or tr aveling and e xpensive nig hts on the t own. The other half w as sa ved f or either a college fund or t o bu y a home. She took pride in her fiscal responsibility, part of which was based on never gambling.

Another of R achel’s car eer assets w as, in her o wn w ords, “n o att ention span. ” Althoug h the eig ht-hour shift s could become long and boring w hen business w as slo w, R achel w as able t o constantl y meet new people. She was often invited to parties and other gatherings.

As part of her int erview f or floor manager , R achel w as ask ed w hat kind of person fit best with the Lucky Se ven. She r esponded, “Someone lik e me. Someone w ho tak es car e of the job and the cust omers, but kno ws ho w t o enjo y the e xperience at the same time. ” She t old the int erviewer she knew Jeff was about to quit. “He takes himself so seriously, ” she noted.

Case Questions 1. What should be the goals of the manager training program for the Lucky Seven?

2. What kinds of management training should the Lucky Seven offer?

3. What were the stressors that were affecting Jeff ?

4. Why was Rachel not affected by stress in her job?

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources What types of manager training programs can companies employ?

On-the-job programs include incrementally assigning new tasks, job rotation, lateral pro- motions, and leadership of teams and committees. Off-the-job programs include outside r eading (technical and managerial), in-house or on-campus additional education, external conf erences, and specially designed programs.

What four problems affect dual-career and dual-earning couples?

Four of the more common include priorities (whose job comes first?), children (having and r aising them), role conflicts associated with gender and work division, and energy levels/ work-life balance related to having to work as well as tend to the home.

What programs can companies offer to assist dual-career couples?

Standard advice to dual-career couples includes the three Cs—communication, cooperation, and commitment— combined with flexibility, rest, and time away alone and as a couple. F our of the more common company-based programs include on-site child care, flextime positions, job sharing, and telecommuting.

What programs can companies offer to retiring employees?

Phased retirement allows the employee to gradually ease into a departure while continu- ing to contribute to the organization on a part-time basis. Mentoring programs permit phased retirement candidates and those who have fully retired to offer advice and counsel- ing to members of the organization. Counseling systems, including assistance with financial needs, emotional concerns, and other new circumstances, help retirees adjust to new life cir cumstances.

Explain the difference between an antecedent model of stress and an outcome model of stress.

The antecedent model implies that various forces cause stress. The outcome model of str ess seeks to discover what happens when a person is routinely overwhelmed by stressful e vents.

What categories of antecedents of stress affect employees on and off the job?

The five categories are life events, work-related events, personality characteristics or indi- vidual temperament, organizational characteristics, and environmental sources.

What are the categories of symptoms of distress?

The three categories are physical, psychological, and social. Physical includes issues related t o the heart and circulatory system, stomach and digestive system, lungs, and skin. Psycho- logical symptoms include insomnia, headache, depression, nervous breakdown, sexual prob- lems, and legal and illegal substance abuse. Social symptoms are rage, inappropriate behav- iors, creating new and unnecessary conflicts, family violence, and other domestic problems.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources What coping mechanisms can individuals use to deal with stress and distress?

Physical coping involves diet, exercise, proper rest, and massage. Psychological coping includes meditation/prayer/quiet time, prioritization/time management, frontal attacks on stressors, and health escapes through hobbies and vacations. Social coping comes from at-w ork and away-from-work social support. Biofeedback is a combination of physical and ps ychological coping.

Analytical Exercises 1. Think of a career as having a life cy cle (birth and development, growth, maturity, and decline). Consider the four career assets listed in Table 12.1. Evaluate the impor- tance of each asset at each stage in the life cycle.

2. The five goals associated with manager training include technical skills, managerial skills, socialization, ethical reasoning, and international/cultural skills. Evaluate the pot ential effectiveness of on-the-job training, off-the-job training, and a combination of both with regard to each of the goals.

3. Four challenges associated with dual-career marriages or partnerships are priori- ties, children, role conflicts, and energy levels/work–life balance. Evaluate how these w ould manifest in the following circumstances: • Husband works high-powered professional job; wife works low-powered para-professional job.

• Wife works high-powered professional job; husband works low-powered para-professional job.

• Both partners work high-powered, professional jobs.

• Both partners work low-powered paraprofessional jobs.

• One partner has high schedule flexibility; the other does not.

4. Consider the five categories of antecedents, causes, or sources of stress in Figure 12.4. What kinds of connections are there, in terms of additive, compensating, and segment ed situations, between the following: • w ork events and individual temperament • life events and environmental sources • organizational factors and work events 5. Four company responses to stress-related issues include reducing stressors in the w orkplace, identifying individuals who might require help, teaching stress manage- ment, and placing people properly into jobs they can handle. Explain how these could be combined with the individual coping responses listed in Table 12.7 in all f our categories. Key Terms blocked career progression Also known as a dead-end j ob; a position that creates the real or imagined perception that getting pr omoted will be impossible. career development All efforts and activi- ties conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources coaching programs The process of placing an expert with a trainee on his or her job o ver a period of w eeks or months t o pr ovide continuous feedback and guidance on how t o improve.

distress Also called str ain; a situation in w hich an individual becomes overwhelmed b y stress and problems or symptoms begin t o occur.

dual-career couple Both partners in a r elationship try t o build and sustain car eers.dual-earning couple One or both partners in a relationship seek to generate income to support the family unit.

mentoring programs The formal and inf ormal support provided by an experi- enced and higher-ranking employee to a tr ainee or new manager.

phased retirement A program in which an employee gradually eases into departure w hile continuing to contribute to the orga- nization on a part-time basis.

\251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. \251 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.