Ideology & Public Policy
Introduction to American Politics
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Politics arises from conflict and is carried out through discussion, oratory, voting, campaigning, lobbying, parading, rioting, and even waging war. Politics can be defined as deciding "who gets what, when, and how." Political science can be defined as the study of politics. It revolves around three questions: (1) Who governs? (2) For what ends? (3) By what means?
Purposes of Government
The purposes of American government are found in the preamble to the Constitution, which reflects a form of social contract in which people obey laws in exchange for certain rights:
1. "To establish Justice and Insure Domestic Tranquility," as through control of crime.
2. "To provide for the Common Defense," as through maintenance of the armed forces.
3. "To promote the General Welfare," as through provision of public goods (things the market cannot provide for all) like roads and schools, or through income transfers like payments to the ill and elderly.
4. "To Secure the Blessings of Liberty," as through the protection of civil rights and liberties.
The Meaning of Democracy
Democracy derives from a Greek word meaning "rule by the many." There are four democratic ideals at its core:
1. Individual dignity, which implies personal freedom.
2. Equality in the form of equal protection under the law.
3. Participating in decision-making, as through voting.
4. Majority rule, on the principle of one person-one vote, regardless of status.
The "paradox of democracy" involves the trade-off between majority rule and the protection of minorities and individual freedoms. The Constitution strikes a balance in several ways:
1. Representative democracy requires debate and compromise.
2. The separation of powers means each governing body (Congress, Presidency, Supreme Court) is selected in a different way and serves for different terms.
3. Checks and balances are built into the constitutional system such that each governing body has powers which can check the others. The Supreme Court, for example, can void laws. The president can veto legislation. Congress can refuse to fund presidential budget items.
4. Federalism means the national government must share power with the states.
5. Judicial review means unconstitutional legislation and presidential actions can be reversed by the Supreme Court.
6. Limited government is an overarching principle which is reflected in the Constitution and embedded in America's political culture, limiting the power of majorities.
Totalitarianism, in contrast to constitutional democracy, is a governing philosophy which respects no limits on governmental power, not only in public policy, but also in matters of economic enterprise, popular culture, and even family life. Nazism and communism were examples of political philosophies which approached totalitarianism.
Direct versus Representative Democracy
In direct democracy ("participatory democracy") all citizens may vote on every important governmental decision, as in New England town meetings or statewide referenda issues. Representative democracy is far more common and dominates American politics. Under representative democracy, representatives are periodically selected by vote under universal suffrage in competitive elections under conditions of free speech, and it is these representatives, not the voters directly, who vote upon proposed legislation.
Who Really Governs?
The debate over who "really governs" America is epitomized by the contrast of two perspectives.
1. The elitist perspective holds that decisions reflect the interests of a relatively small number of individuals and groups. For instance, sociologist C. Wright Mills held key decisions were made by a "power elite," composed of institutional elites in corporations, government, and the military. Elitism may, of course, be benevolent or malevolent: elite theory only holds that an elite makes key decisions, particularly those affecting the economic and other important interests of an institutionalized elite.
2. The pluralist perspective holds that key decisions reflect the compromises resulting from the clash of diverse interests, such as government bureaucracies, large corporations, television media, labor unions, public interest groups, and many others. Each sector usually has great internal diversity such that one may find, for example, some media for an issue and others against. That is, pluralism holds diverse interests in American politics that constitute countervailing powers which keep any one interest from dominating.
