For this week's VSP, you are tasked with the following:Choose one of the class readings from week 7 or 8, then respond to one of the prompts from the Discussion for that reading that you have not alre
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"UH, OH. WE MIGHT BE IN TR OUBLE" - An Emergency Message from Histor y Is A Weapon (please clic k)
A P EO PLE 'S H IS TO RY O F T H E U NIT E D S TA TE S by How ard Zinn
Tab le of CO NTEN TS
C hapte r 1 : C O LU M BU S, T H E IN DIA N S, A N D H UM AN P R O GRESS
A ra w ak m en a nd w omen, na ked, t aw ny , and f ull of wonde r, e merge d f rom the ir vi lla ge s ont o the
is la nd' s be ache s a nd s wam out to ge t a clos er l ook a t t he str a nge big boa t. W hen C olum bus and hi s
sa ilor s c am e a shor e, c arryi ng s wor ds , spe aki ng oddl y, t he A ra w aks ran t o gr eet t he m, br ought the m
food, w ate r, gi fts . H e l ate r w rot e of thi s i n hi s l og:
T hey ... b rou ght u s p ar rot s an d b alls of cot ton an d s pear s an d m any ot her t hin gs ,
whic h they e xchan ged for the gl ass b ead s an d h aw ks' b ells . T hey w illin gl y t rad ed
eve ryt hin g t hey ow ned ... . T hey w ere w ell- b uilt , w it h good bod ie s an d h an dsom e
fe at ures.... T hey d o not bear ar ms, an d d o n ot know them , for I show ed them a
sw or d, t hey t ook it b y t he e dge an d c ut t hem se lve s ou t of ign oran ce. T hey h ave no
ir on . T heir s pear s ar e m ade of can e... . T hey w ould m ake f in e s ervan ts .... Wi th
fif ty m en w e c ou ld s ubju gat e t hem al l an d m ake t hem do w hat eve r w e w an t.
T he se A ra w aks of the Baha ma I sla nds were m uch l ike Indi ans on t he m ainl and, w ho were
re m arka ble ( E ur ope an obs erve rs w ere t o s ay a gain a nd a gain) for the ir hos pita lity , t he ir be lie f i n
sha ring. T hese t ra its di d not sta nd out in t he Europe of the Rena is sa nc e, dom ina te d a s i t w as by t he
re ligi on of pope s, t he gove rnm ent of kings , the fre nz y f or m one y that m arke d W este rn c ivi liz ation
a nd i ts f ir s t m esse nge r t o t he A meric as, C hris tophe r C olum bus .
Col um bus wrot e:
A s s oon as I ar rive d in the I ndie s, on the f ir st I slan d w hic h I fou nd, I took som e of
th e n ative s b y f orce i n or der t hat they m igh t l ear n an d m igh t gi ve m e i n for mation
of w hat eve r t here i s i n these p ar ts . The inf ormation t hat C olum bus want ed m ost w as: W here i s t he gol d? H e ha d pe rs ua ded t he ki ng
and que en of Spa in t o f ina nce a n e xpe dition t o the lands , the w ealth, he expe cte d w ould be on t he
othe r s ide of the A tla nt ic -the Indi es a nd A sia , gol d and s pices. F or, like ot her i nf ormed pe ople of his
tim e, he kne w the w orld w as r ound a nd he coul d sail w est i n or der t o ge t t o t he Far E ast.
S pa in w as r ecent ly uni fie d, one of the ne w m ode rn na tion- sta te s, l ike Fra nc e, E ngl and, a nd
Por tuga l. I ts popul ation, m ostly poor peasa nt s, w orke d f or the nobi lity , w ho w ere 2 pe rc ent of the
popul ation a nd ow ned 95 pe rc ent of the land. S pain ha d tie d i ts e lf t o t he Cathol ic C hur ch, e xpelle d
all t he Jew s, dr ive n out the M oor s. L ike ot her s ta te s of the m ode rn w orld, S pain s ought gold, w hich
w as be com ing t he ne w m ark of wealth, m ore us eful tha n l and be caus e i t c oul d buy a nything.
The re w as gol d in A sia , i t w as t hought , and c erta inl y s ilks and s pices, f or M arc o P olo a nd ot hers
ha d br ought back m arve lous thi ngs from the ir ove rla nd e xpeditions cent ur ie s be for e. N ow tha t t he
T ur ks ha d conque re d C onsta nt inopl e a nd t he easte rn M edi te rra ne an, a nd c ontrol le d t he land r outes
to A sia , a sea r out e w as ne ede d. P ortugue se s ailor s w ere w orking t heir w ay a round t he sout hern t ip
of A fric a. S pain de cide d t o ga mble on a long s ail a cros s a n unknow n ocean.
In r etur n f or br ingi ng ba ck gol d and s pices, t he y pr omis e d C olum bus 10 pe rc ent of the pr ofits ,
gove rnor shi p ove r ne w-found l ands , and t he fam e t ha t w oul d go w ith a new title : A dm ir a l of the
O cean S ea. H e w as a m erc ha nt's c le rk f rom the Ita lia n c ity of Genoa , part- tim e w eave r ( the son of a
ski lle d w eave r), a nd e xpert s ailor . H e s et out with t hree s ailing s hips , the large st of which w as t he
Sant a Maria , pe rha ps 100 f eet l ong, a nd thirty- nine cre w m em be rs .
C ol um bus woul d ne ver ha ve m ade it t o A sia , w hich w as t hous ands of mile s f arthe r a w ay t han he
had c alc ul ate d, i magi ning a sm alle r w orld. H e w oul d ha ve be en doom ed by t hat gr eat e xpa nse of
se a. B ut he was l uc ky. O ne-four th of the w ay t here he cam e upon a n unknow n, uncharte d l and t hat
la y be tw een E urope and A sia -the A meric as. I t w as e arly O ctobe r 1492, a nd thirty- thr ee da ys sinc e
he and hi s c re w ha d left t he Cana ry I sla nds , off t he A tla nt ic c oa st of Afric a. N ow the y s aw br anc hes
and s tic ks floa ting i n the w ate r. T hey s aw floc ks of birds .
The se w ere s igns of land. T hen, on O ctobe r 12, a sailor calle d R odrigo s aw the early m orning
moon s hining on w hite s ands , and c rie d out . It w as a n i sla nd i n the Baha mas, t he Caribbe an s ea.
T he fir s t m an t o s ight land w as s uppos ed t o ge t a ye arly pe nsion of 10,000 m ara ve dis f or lif e , but
R odr igo ne ver got it. C olum bus cla im ed he had seen a light the eve ning be for e. H e got the rew ard.
S o, a pproachi ng l and, t hey w ere m et by t he A ra w ak I ndi ans , w ho s wam out to gr eet t he m. T he
Ara w aks live d i n vi lla ge com mune s, ha d a develope d agric ul tur e of cor n, ya ms, c assa va . T hey coul d spin a nd w eave , but the y ha d no hor se s or work a nimals . T hey ha d no i ron, but the y w ore
tiny gol d ornament s i n t heir e ars .
T hi s w as t o ha ve enor mous cons eque nces: i t l ed C olum bus to t ake som e of the m aboa rd s hip a s
pris one rs be caus e he ins is te d t hat t he y gui de hi m to t he sour ce of the gol d. H e t he n s aile d t o w hat i s
now Cuba , the n t o H is pa niola ( the isla nd w hich t oda y cons is ts of Haiti a nd t he D om ini can
R epubl ic ). T here , bi ts of visibl e gol d in the rive rs , a nd a gold mask pr ese nt ed t o C olum bus by a
loc al I ndi an c hief, l ed t o w ild vi sions of gol d fie lds .
On H is pa niola, out of tim be rs f rom the Sant a Maria , w hich ha d run a ground, C olum bus bui lt a
f or t, t he fir s t E urope an m ilita ry ba se i n t he W este rn H em is phe re . H e c alle d i t N avi da d ( Chr is tm as)
a nd l eft t hi rty- nine cre w mem be rs t he re , w ith i nstr uc tions to f ind a nd stor e t he gol d. H e t ook m ore
Indi an pr is one rs a nd put the m aboa rd hi s t w o r em aini ng s hips . A t one part of the isla nd he got int o a
fight with I ndi ans w ho r efus ed t o tra de as m any bow s a nd a rrow s a s he and hi s m en w ant ed. T wo
were r un t hrough w ith s wor ds and bl ed t o de ath. T hen t he Nina a nd t he Pint a set s ail f or the A zor es
and S pain. W hen t he w eathe r t ur ne d c old, t he Indi an pr is one rs be gan t o di e.
C ol um bus 's r epor t t o t he Cour t i n M adr id w as e xt ra va gant. H e i ns is te d he had reache d A sia ( it
w as C uba ) a nd a n isla nd of f t he coa st of China (H is pa niola). H is de sc ript ions were pa rt f act, pa rt
fic tion:
H is p an iol a i s a m ir ac le . M ountai ns an d h ills , p lai ns an d p as tu res, ar e b oth fertile
an d b eau tif u l ... t he h ar bor s ar e u nbelie vab ly good and there ar e m any w id e
rive rs of whic h the m ajor it y c ontai n gol d. . . . T here ar e m any s pic es, an d gr eat
m in es of gol d an d ot her m etal s....
T he Indi ans , C olum bus repor te d, " are s o na ive and s o fre e w ith t heir pos se ssions tha t no one
w ho ha s not witne sse d t hem w oul d be lie ve it. W hen you a sk f or som ethi ng t hey ha ve, the y ne ver
sa y no. T o the cont ra ry , t he y of fe r t o s hare w ith a nyone ...." He c onc lude d hi s r epor t by a ski ng f or a
little he lp f rom the ir M aje stie s, a nd i n retur n he woul d br ing t hem from his ne xt voya ge "as m uch
gol d as t he y ne ed ... a nd as m any s la ve s a s t he y a sk." He w as f ul l of religi ous talk: "Thus the ete rna l
God, our Lord, gi ves vi ctor y t o thos e w ho f ollow His w ay ove r a ppa re nt im pos sibi litie s."
B ecaus e of Colum bus 's e xa gge ra te d r epor t a nd pr omis e s, hi s s econd e xpedition w as gi ven
se ve nteen s hips and m ore t ha n t welve hundr ed m en. T he aim w as c le ar: s la ve s a nd gol d. They w ent
from isla nd t o isla nd i n the Caribbe an, t aki ng I ndians as c apt ive s. B ut as w ord s pread of the
E ur ope ans ' i nt ent the y f ound m ore a nd m ore e m pty vi lla ge s. O n H aiti, t he y f ound t hat t he sailor s l eft behind a t F ort N avi da d ha d been ki lle d i n a battle w ith t he Indi ans , a fte r t he y ha d roamed t he isla nd
in ga ngs looki ng for gol d, taki ng w omen a nd c hildr en a s s la ve s f or sex a nd l abor .
Now , from his ba se on H aiti, C olum bus sent expe dition a fte r e xpe dition i nto t he int erior . T hey
found no gol d fie lds , but had to f ill up t he shi ps retur ning t o Spain w ith s om e ki nd of divide nd. I n
the ye ar 1495, t hey w ent on a great s la ve raid, r ounde d up fif te en hundr ed A ra w ak m en, w omen,
and c hildr en, put the m in pe ns gua rde d by S paniards and dogs , the n pi cke d t he five hundr ed be st
spe cim ens to l oad ont o ships . O f t hos e f ive hundr ed, t wo hundr ed di ed e n rout e. T he rest a rrive d
alive in S pain a nd w ere put up f or sale by t he arc hde acon of the tow n, w ho repor te d t hat, a lthough
the sla ve s w ere " na ked a s t he da y they w ere bor n," the y s how ed " no m ore e m ba rra ssm ent tha n
ani mals ." C olum bus late r w rot e: " Let us in t he na me of the H oly T rini ty go on s endi ng a ll t he sla ve s
tha t c an be sol d."
But too m any of the sla ve s di ed i n c apt ivi ty . A nd s o Colum bus , de spe ra te t o pa y back di vide nds
to t hos e w ho ha d inve ste d, ha d to m ake good hi s pr om is e t o f ill t he shi ps w ith gol d. In the pr ovi nce
of C ic ao on H aiti, w here he and hi s m en i magi ne d huge gold fie lds to e xist, t he y or dere d a ll pe rs ons
four te en ye ars or older t o c olle ct a certa in qua ntity of gold every t hree m ont hs. W hen t hey br ought
it, t he y w ere gi ven c oppe r t oke ns to ha ng around t heir ne cks . Indi ans found w ithout a coppe r t oke n
had t heir ha nds cut of f a nd bl ed t o de ath.
T he Indi ans ha d be en gi ven a n impos sibl e t ask. T he onl y gol d around w as bi ts of dus t ga rne re d
from the str e am s. S o they f le d, w ere hunt ed dow n with dogs , and w ere ki lle d.
T ryi ng t o put toge the r a n a rm y of resis ta nc e, t he A ra w aks faced S paniards w ho ha d arm or,
mus ke ts , s wor ds , hor se s. W hen t he Spa niards took pr is one rs t he y ha nged them or bur ned t hem to
de ath. A mong t he A ra w aks , m ass s ui cide s be gan, w ith c assa va poi son. I nfant s w ere ki lle d t o s ave
the m from the Spa niards . In t wo ye ars , t hr ough m urde r, m utila tion, or sui cide , ha lf of the 250,000
Indi ans on H aiti w ere de ad.
W hen i t be cam e c le ar t ha t t he re w as no gol d left, t he Indi ans w ere t ake n a s s la ve labor on huge
esta te s, know n late r a s e nc om ie nda s. T hey w ere w orke d a t a feroc ious pace, a nd di ed by t he
thous ands . By the ye ar 1515, t here w ere pe rha ps fif ty t hous and I ndians left. B y 1550, t here w ere
five hundr ed. A repor t of the ye ar 1650 s hows none of the or igi na l A ra w aks or the ir de sc enda nts
le ft on t he isla nd.
T he chi ef s our ce-a nd, on m any m atte rs t he onl y sour ce-of inf ormation a bout what ha ppe ned on
the isla nds afte r C olum bus cam e i s B artol om e de las C asa s, w ho, a s a young pr ie st, pa rtic ipa te d i n
the conque st of Cuba . For a tim e he ow ned a plant ation on w hich I ndi an s la ve s w orke d, but he gave tha t up a nd be cam e a ve hement critic of Spa nish c rue lty . L as C asa s t ra ns cribe d C olum bus 's j our nal
and, i n his f if tie s, be gan a multivol ume H is tor y of the Indi es. I n i t, he desc ribe s t he Indi ans . T hey a re
a gi le , he says , a nd c an s wim long di sta nc es, e spe cia lly t he w om en. T hey a re not com plete ly
pe aceful , be caus e t he y do ba ttle f rom tim e t o t im e w ith ot her t ribe s, but the ir c asua ltie s s eem sm all,
a nd t hey f ight when t hey a re i ndi vidua lly m oved to do s o becaus e of som e gr ie va nce, not on the
orde rs of capt ains or kings .
Wom en i n I ndi an s ocie ty w ere t re ate d s o w ell a s t o s ta rtle t he Spa niards . L as C asa s de sc ribe s s ex
re la tions :
Marriage law s ar e n on -e xi ste n t m en an d w om en al ik e c hoos e t heir m ates an d
le ave them as they p le as e, w it h ou t of fe n se , j eal ou sy or anger. T hey m ult ip ly i n
great ab undan ce; p regn ant w om en w ork to t he l as t m in ute an d gi ve bir th al mos t
pai nle ssly; up the n ext day , they b athe i n the r ive r an d ar e as cle an an d h eal th y as
befor e gi ving b ir th . I f t hey t ir e of their m en , t hey gi ve them se lve s ab ortion s w it h
h erb s t hat for ce s tillb ir th s, c ove rin g t heir s ham efu l p ar ts w it h leave s or cot ton
c lot h; al th ou gh on the w hol e, I ndian men an d w om en look upon tot al n ak ed ness
w it h as much c as ual ness as we l ook upon a m an's h ead or at his h an ds.
T he Indi ans , L as C asa s s ays , ha ve no r eligi on, a t l east no t em ples. T hey l ive in
lar ge com munal b ell- s h ap ed b uild in gs , h ousin g u p to 600 p eop le at on e t im e ...
m ad e of ve ry s tr on g w ood and r oof ed w it h p alm leave s.... T hey p riz e b ir d
fe at hers of var iou s c ol or s, b ead s m ade of fis h bon es, an d gr een an d w hit e s ton es
w it h w hic h they ad orn their e ar s an d lip s, b ut t hey p ut n o val ue on gol d an d
other p reciou s t hin gs . T hey l ack al l m anner of com merce, n eit h er b uyi ng n or
se llin g, an d r ely e xclu sive ly on their n atural envi ron men t f or m ainte n an ce. T hey
ar e e xt rem ely ge nerou s w it h their p os se ssion s an d b y t he s am e t ok en c ove t t he
pos se ssion s of their f rie n ds an d e xp ect t he s am e d egr ee of lib eral it y . ...
In B ook T wo of his H is tor y of the Indi es , L as C asa s ( w ho a t f ir s t ur ged r epl acing I ndians by bl ack
sla ve s, t hinki ng t hey w ere s tr onge r a nd w ould survive , but late r r ele nt ed w hen he saw the effe cts on
bl acks ) t ells a bout the tre atm ent of the Indi ans by t he Spa niards . It i s a uni que account and de se rve s
to be quot ed a t l engt h:
Endle ss t estim on ie s . .. p rove the m ild an d p ac if ic t em peram en t of the n ative s....
B ut ou r w ork w as to e xas perat e, r avage , kill, m angle an d d estr oy; sm all w on der,
th en , i f t hey t rie d to k ill on e of us n ow an d then .... T he ad mir al , it i s t ru e, w as blin d as thos e w ho c am e af te r h im , an d h e w as so an xiou s t o p le as e t he K in g t hat
he c om mit te d irrep ar ab le c rim es agai nst t he I ndian s....
L as C asa s t ells how the Spa niards "gr ew m ore c onc eite d e very da y" and a fte r a w hile r efus ed t o
walk a ny di sta nc e. T hey " rode the ba cks of Indi ans if t he y w ere i n a hur ry" or were c arrie d on
ha mmoc ks by I ndians runni ng in rela ys . " In t his c ase t he y a ls o ha d Indi ans carry l arge leave s t o
sha de the m from the sun a nd ot hers t o f an t hem w ith goos e w ings ."
Tot al c ont rol led t o total c rue lty . T he Spa niards "thought nothing of knifing I ndians by t ens and
tw ent ie s a nd of cut ting s lic es of f t he m to t est t he sha rpne ss of the ir bl ade s." L as C asa s t ells how
" tw o of the se s o- calle d C hris tia ns m et t w o I ndi an boys one day, e ach c arryi ng a parrot ; t he y t ook t he
parrot s a nd f or fun be heade d t he boys ."
The Indi ans ' a tte m pts t o de fe nd t hemse lve s f aile d. A nd w hen t hey r an of f i nt o t he hi lls t he y w ere
found a nd kille d. S o, L as C asa s r epor ts , " the y s uffe re d a nd di ed i n the m ine s a nd ot her l abor s i n
de spe ra te s ile nc e, know ing not a soul in t he w orld t o w hom the y c oul d turn f or he lp." He de sc ribe s
the ir w ork i n the m ine s:
... m ountai ns ar e s tr ip ped from top to b ottom and b ottom to t op a t hou san d
tim es; t hey d ig, s plit r oc ks, m ove ston es, an d c ar ry d ir t on their b ac ks t o w ash it
in the r ive rs, w hile t hos e w ho w ash gol d s tay i n the w ater al l t he t im e w it h their
b ac ks b en t s o c onstan tly i t b reak s t hem ; an d w hen w ater i n vad es t he m in es, t he
m os t ar duou s t as k of all i s t o d ry t he m in es b y s coop in g u p p an sfu l of water an d
th row in g i t u p ou ts id e....
A fte r e ach s ix or eight mont hs' w ork i n the m ine s, w hich w as t he tim e r equi re d of each c re w to di g
enough gol d for m elting, up t o a thi rd of the m en di ed.
W hile t he m en w ere s ent m any m ile s a w ay t o the m ine s, t he w ive s r em aine d t o w ork t he soi l,
f or ced i nto t he exc ruc ia ting j ob of diggi ng a nd m aki ng t hous ands of hills f or cassa va pl ant s.
T hus h usb an ds an d w ive s w ere t oge th er on ly on ce e ve ry e igh t or ten m onth s an d
when they m et t hey w ere s o e xhauste d an d d ep resse d on both s id es ... t hey c eas ed
to p roc reat e. A s f or the n ew ly b orn, t hey d ie d e ar ly b ecau se t heir m others,
ove rw or ked an d fam is h ed , h ad no m ilk to n urse t hem , an d for this r eas on , w hile I
w as in C uba, 7000 c hild ren d ie d in three m onth s. S om e m others e ve n d row ned
th eir b ab ie s f rom sheer d esp erat ion .... i n this w ay, h usb an ds d ie d in the m in es,
w ive s d ie d at work, an d c hild ren d ie d from lac k of milk . .. an d in a s hor t t im e th is l an d w hic h w as so gr eat , s o p owerfu l an d fertile ... w as dep op ulat ed . ... M y
eye s h ave seen these ac ts s o f oreign to h um an nature, an d n ow I trem ble as I
writ e . ...
W hen he arrive d on H is pa niola i n 1508, L as C asa s s ays , " the re w ere 60,000 pe ople l ivi ng on t his
is la nd, i ncludi ng t he Indi ans ; s o t hat f rom 1494 t o 1508, ove r t hr ee m illion pe ople ha d pe ris he d f rom
w ar, s la ve ry , a nd t he m ine s. W ho i n futur e ge nera tions will be lie ve thi s? I m yself w riting i t a s a
know le dge abl e e ye witne ss c an ha rdl y be lie ve it...."
T hus began t he hi stor y, f ive hundr ed ye ars a go, of the Europe an i nva sion of the Indi an
se ttle m ent s i n t he A meric as. T hat be ginni ng, w hen you r ead L as C asa s-e ve n i f hi s f igur es a re
e xa gge ra tions (w ere t he re 3 m illion I ndians to be gin w ith, a s he says , or less t ha n a million, a s s om e
histor ia ns ha ve calc ul ate d, or 8 million a s ot hers now belie ve ?)-is c onque st, s la ve ry , de ath. W hen w e
re ad t he hi stor y books given t o c hildr en i n the U nite d S ta te s, i t a ll s ta rts w ith he roi c a dve ntur e-the re
is no bl oodshed-and C olum bus Day i s a cele br ation.
P ast t he ele m ent ary a nd hi gh school s, t he re a re onl y oc casiona l hi nts of som ethi ng e ls e . S am ue l
Eliot M oris on, t he H arva rd hi stor ia n, w as t he m ost di stingui she d w rite r on C olum bus , the aut hor of
a m ultivol ume bi ogr aphy , and w as hi mse lf a sailor w ho r etr a ced C olum bus 's r out e a cros s t he
A tla nt ic . I n hi s popul ar book C hris tophe r C olum bus , Marine r, w ritte n i n 1954, he tells a bout the
ens la ve ment and t he ki lling: "The crue l pol ic y i nitia te d by C olum bus and pur sue d by hi s s uc cessor s
re sul te d i n c om plete ge noc ide ."
Tha t i s on one page, bur ie d ha lf w ay i nto t he telling of a gr and r omanc e. I n t he book' s l ast
pa ra gr aph, M oris on s ums up hi s vi ew of Colum bus :
He h ad his f au lt s an d h is d efe cts , b ut t hey w ere l ar gely t he d efe cts of the q ual it ie s
th at m ade h im gr eat -h is i n dom it ab le w ill, h is s uperb fai th in G od an d in h is ow n
mis sion as the C hris t-b ear er t o l an ds b eyon d the s eas , h is s tu bbor n p ersis te n ce
d esp it e n egl ect, p ove rty an d d is c ou rage men t. B ut t here w as no f law , no d ark s id e
to t he m ost ou ts tan din g an d e sse n tial of all h is q ual it ie s-h is s eam ansh ip .
O ne can l ie out right about the pa st. O r one can om it f acts w hich m ight lead t o una ccept abl e
conc lus ions . Moris on doe s ne ithe r. H e r efus es t o l ie a bout Colum bus . He doe s not omit t he stor y of
mass m urde r; i nde ed he desc ribe s i t w ith t he ha rs he st w ord one can us e: ge noc ide .
But he doe s s om ethi ng e ls e -he m ent ions the trut h qui ckl y a nd goe s on t o other t hi ngs more
im por ta nt to hi m. O utright lyi ng or quiet om is sion t ake s t he ris k of disc ove ry w hich, w hen m ade , might arous e t he reade r t o r ebe l a ga ins t t he w rite r. T o s ta te t he facts , how eve r, a nd t hen t o bur y them
in a mass of other i nf ormation i s t o s ay t o the reade r w ith a certa in i nfectious calm : ye s, m ass m urde r
took pl ace, but it's not tha t i m por ta nt -it s houl d weigh ve ry l ittle i n our fina l j udgm ent s; i t s houl d
affe ct ve ry l ittle w hat w e do i n the w orld.
I t i s not tha t t he hi stor ia n c an a voi d empha sis of som e f acts a nd not of others . T his i s a s na tur al t o
hi m as t o t he m apm ake r, w ho, i n order t o pr oduc e a us abl e dr aw ing f or pr actic al pur poses, m ust f ir s t
fla tte n a nd di stor t t he sha pe of the earth, t hen c hoos e out of the be wilde ring m ass of ge ogr aphi c
inf ormation t hose t hi ngs neede d f or the pur pose of thi s or tha t pa rtic ul ar m ap.
M y a rgum ent cannot be aga ins t s ele ction, s im plif ic ation, e mpha sis , w hich a re i ne vita bl e f or bot h
cartogr aphe rs a nd hi stor ia ns . B ut the m ap- make r's di stor tion i s a techni cal ne cessity f or a com mon
pur pos e s ha re d by a ll pe opl e w ho ne ed m aps . T he hi stor ia n' s di stor tion i s m ore t ha n t echni cal, i t i s
ide ologi cal; i t i s r ele ase d i nto a world of cont endi ng i ntere sts , w here a ny c hosen e mpha sis s uppor ts
( w he the r t he hi stor ia n m eans to or not) s om e ki nd of int ere st, w hethe r e conom ic or pol itic al or racia l
or na tiona l or sexua l.
F ur the rm or e, t his i de ologi cal i nt ere st i s not ope nly e xpr esse d i n the w ay a mapm ake r's t echni cal
int ere st i s obvi ous ("T hi s i s a M erc ator pr ojection f or long- ra nge naviga tion- for shor t- ra nge , you' d
bette r us e a di ffe re nt pr ojection" ). N o, it i s pr ese nt ed a s i f a ll r eade rs of histor y ha d a com mon
int ere st w hich hi stor ia ns serve to t he be st of the ir a bi lity . T his i s not int ent iona l de cept ion; the
hi stor ia n ha s be en t ra ine d i n a soc ie ty i n w hich e duc ation a nd know le dge are put for ward a s
te chni cal pr obl em s of exc elle nc e a nd not as t ool s f or cont endi ng s ocia l c la sse s, r aces, na tions .
To e mpha siz e t he he roi sm of Colum bus and hi s s uc cessor s a s na viga tor s a nd di sc ove re rs , a nd t o
de-e m pha siz e t he ir ge noc ide , is not a techni cal ne cessity but an i deologi cal c hoi ce. I t s erve s-
unw ittingl y-to j ustif y w hat w as done . My poi nt is not tha t w e m ust, i n t elling hi stor y, a ccus e, j udge ,
conde mn C olum bus in abs ent ia . I t i s t oo l ate f or tha t; i t w oul d be a us ele ss s chol arly e xerc is e i n
m or ality . B ut the easy a ccept anc e of atr oc itie s a s a de plor abl e but necessa ry pr ic e t o pa y for pr ogr ess
(H ir os hima a nd V ie tna m, to s ave W este rn c ivi liz ation; Krons ta dt and H ungary , t o s ave soc ia lis m ;
nuc le ar pr olif e ra tion, t o save us all) -tha t i s s till w ith us . One reason t hese a tr oc itie s a re s till w ith us is
tha t w e ha ve learne d t o bur y them in a mass of other f acts , a s r adi oa ctive w aste s a re bur ie d i n
cont aine rs i n t he earth. W e ha ve learne d t o gi ve the m exa ctly t he sam e pr opor tion of atte nt ion t hat
te ache rs a nd w rite rs of te n gi ve the m in t he m ost r espe cta bl e of cla ssroom s a nd t ext books . This
le arne d s ens e of moral pr opor tion, c oming f rom the appa re nt obj ectivi ty of the schol ar, i s a ccept ed
m or e e asily t han w hen i t c om es f rom pol itic ia ns at pr ess c onf ere nc es. I t i s t he re for e m ore de adl y. The tre atm ent of he roe s ( C ol um bus ) a nd t heir vi ctim s ( the A ra w aks )-the qui et a ccept anc e of
conque st a nd m urde r i n t he na me of progr ess-is onl y one aspe ct of a certa in a ppr oach t o hi stor y, i n
which t he pa st i s t ol d f rom the poi nt of view of gove rnm ent s, c onque ror s, di plom ats , l eade rs . I t i s a s
if t he y, l ike Colum bus , de se rve uni vers a l a ccept anc e, a s i f t he y-the Foundi ng Fathe rs , J acks on,
Linc oln, W ils on, R ooseve lt, K enne dy, the leadi ng m em be rs of Congr ess, t he fam ous Jus tic es of the
S upr em e C our t- re pr ese nt the na tion a s a w hol e. T he pr ete ns e i s t ha t t he re r eally i s s uc h a thi ng a s
"the U nite d S ta te s," subj ect t o oc casiona l c onf lic ts a nd qua rre ls , but funda ment ally a com muni ty of
pe opl e w ith c om mon i ntere sts . I t i s a s i f t he re r eally i s a "na tiona l i nt ere st" r epr ese nt ed i n the
Cons titut ion, i n territor ia l e xpa nsion, i n the law s pa sse d by C ongress, t he de cis ions of the cour ts , t he
de velopm ent of capi ta lis m , the cul tur e of educ ation a nd the m ass m edi a.
"H is tor y i s t he m em or y of sta te s," w rot e H enr y K is singe r i n hi s f ir s t book, A W orld R estor ed , i n
which he proceede d t o tell t he hi stor y of ninete ent h- cent ur y E urope from the vi ew poi nt of the
le ade rs of Austr ia a nd E ngland, i gnor ing t he m illions who s uffe re d f rom thos e s ta te sm en' s pol ic ie s.
F rom his s ta ndpoi nt, the "pe ace" t ha t E urope had be for e t he Fre nc h R evol ution w as " re stor ed" by
the di plom acy of a few na tiona l l eade rs . B ut for factor y w orke rs i n E ngland, f arm ers i n F ra nc e,
col or ed pe ople i n A sia a nd A fric a, w omen a nd c hildr en e veryw here e xc ept in t he uppe r c la sse s, i t
was a w orld of conque st, vi olenc e, hunge r, e xpl oita tion- a w orld not restor ed but disint egr ate d.
M y vi ew poi nt, in t elling t he hi stor y of the U nite d S ta te s, i s di ffe re nt : t ha t w e m ust not accept the
m em or y of sta te s a s our own. N ations are not com muni tie s a nd ne ver ha ve be en, T he hi stor y of any
count ry , pr ese nt ed a s t he hi stor y of a fam ily , c onc eals f ie rc e c onf lic ts of int ere st ( som etim es
expl oding, m ost of te n r epr esse d) be tw een c onque ror s a nd c onque re d, m aste rs a nd s la ve s, c api ta lis ts
a nd w orke rs , dom ina tor s a nd dom ina te d i n r ace a nd s ex. A nd in such a world of conf lic t, a w orld of
vi ctim s a nd e xecut ione rs , i t i s t he job of thi nki ng pe ople, a s A lbe rt C am us sugge ste d, not to be on
the side of the exe cut ione rs .
T hus , in t hat i ne vita bl e t aki ng of side s w hich c om es f rom sele ction a nd empha sis i n hi stor y, I
pr efe r t o t ry t o tell t he stor y of the di sc ove ry of Americ a f rom the vi ew poi nt of the A ra w aks , of the
C ons titut ion f rom the sta ndpoi nt of the sla ve s, of Andr ew Jacks on a s s een by t he Cheroke es, of the
C ivi l W ar a s s een by t he N ew Y ork I ris h, of the M exi can w ar a s s een by t he de se rting s oldiers of
S cot t's a rm y, of the ris e of indus tr ia lis m as s een by t he young w omen i n the Low ell t ext ile m ills , of
the Spa nish- Americ an w ar a s s een by t he Cuba ns, the conque st of the Philippi nes a s s een by bl ack
sol diers on L uzon, t he G ilde d A ge as s een by s outhern f arm ers , t he Fir s t W orld W ar a s s een by
soc ia lis ts , t he Second W orld W ar a s s een by pa cif is ts , t he N ew D eal a s s een by bl acks in H arle m ,
the pos tw ar A meric an e mpire a s s een by pe ons in L atin A meric a. A nd s o on, t o the lim ite d e xtent
tha t a ny one pers on, how eve r he or she str a ins , c an " se e" hi stor y f rom the sta ndpoi nt of others . My poi nt is not to gr ie ve for the vi ctim s a nd de nounc e t he exe cut ione rs . T hos e t ears , t ha t a nge r,
c ast i nt o t he pa st, de plete our moral e ne rgy f or the pr ese nt . A nd t he line s a re not alw ays cle ar. I n t he
long r un, the oppr essor is a ls o a victim . I n t he shor t r un ( and s o far, hum an hi stor y ha s c ons is te d
onl y of shor t r uns ), t he vi ctim s, t he mse lve s de spe ra te a nd t aint ed w ith t he cul tur e t ha t oppr esse s
the m, tur n on ot her vi ctim s.
S till, unde rs ta ndi ng t he com plexi tie s, t his book w ill be ske ptic al of gove rnm ent s a nd t heir
a tte m pts, t hr ough pol itic s a nd c ultur e, t o e nsna re or dina ry pe ople i n a giant w eb of nationhood
pr ete ndi ng t o a com mon i ntere st. I w ill t ry not to ove rlook t he crue ltie s t ha t vi ctim s i nf lic t on one
a not her a s t he y a re j am med t oge the r i n t he boxc ars of the sys te m . I don' t w ant to r om ant ic iz e t he m.
But I do r em em be r ( in r ough pa ra phr ase ) a sta te m ent I onc e r ead: "The cry of the poor is not alw ays
jus t, but if you don' t l is te n t o it, you w ill ne ver know what j us tic e i s."
I don' t w ant to i nve nt vi ctor ie s f or pe opl e's m ove ment s. B ut to t hink t hat hi stor y-writing m ust a im
s im ply t o r ecapi tul ate t he failur es t ha t dom ina te t he pa st i s t o m ake hi stor ia ns col la bor ator s i n a n
endl ess c yc le of de fe at. I f hi stor y i s t o be cre ative , to a ntic ipa te a pos sibl e f ut ur e w ithout denyi ng t he
past, i t s houl d, I belie ve , empha siz e ne w pos sibi litie s by di sc los ing t hose hi dde n episode s of the pa st
w he n, e ven i f i n br ie f f la she s, pe ople s how ed t heir a bi lity t o r esis t, t o j oin t oge the r, oc casiona lly t o
win. I am suppos ing, or perha ps onl y hopi ng, that our fut ur e m ay be found i n the pa st's f ugi tive
m om ent s of com passion r athe r t ha n i n its s ol id c ent ur ie s of warfa re .
T ha t, be ing a s bl unt as I c an, i s m y a ppr oach t o the hi stor y of the U nite d S ta te s. T he reade r m ay
as w ell know tha t be for e goi ng on.
What C olum bus did to the A ra w aks of the Baha mas, C orte s di d to the A zte cs of M exi co, P iz arro
to t he Inc as of Peru, a nd t he Engl is h s ettle rs of Vir gi nia a nd M assa chus etts t o t he Pow hata ns and t he
Pequot s.
T he A zte c c ivi liz ation of Mexi co c am e out of the he rita ge of M aya n, Z apot ec, a nd T olte c
cul tur es. I t bui lt e nor mous cons tr uc tions from stone tool s a nd hum an l abor , de velope d a writing
s ys te m and a prie sthood. I t a ls o e nga ged i n ( le t us not ove rlook t his) t he ritua l ki lling of thous ands of
peopl e a s s acrif ic es t o t he gods . The crue lty of the A zte cs, how eve r, di d not era se a certa in
innoc enc e, a nd w hen a Spa nish a rm ada appe are d a t V era C ruz , and a bearde d w hite m an c am e
ashor e, w ith s tr a nge beasts ( hor se s), c la d i n iron, i t w as t hought tha t he was t he lege nda ry A zte c
m an- god w ho had died t hree hundr ed ye ars be for e, w ith t he pr om is e t o r etur n-the m yste rious
Q ue tz alc oa tl. A nd s o they w elc om ed hi m, w ith m unific ent hos pita lity . Tha t w as H erna ndo C orte s, c om e f rom Spa in w ith a n expe dition f ina nced by m erc ha nts a nd
la ndow ners a nd bl esse d by t he de put ie s of God, w ith one obsessive goa l: t o f ind gol d. In the m ind
of M ont ezum a, t he ki ng of the A zte cs, t he re m ust ha ve be en a certa in doubt about whethe r C orte s
w as i nde ed Q uetz alc oa tl, be caus e he sent a hundr ed r unne rs t o C orte s, be aring e normous tre asur es,
gol d and s ilve r w rought int o obj ects of fant astic be aut y, but at t he sam e t im e be ggi ng hi m to go
ba ck. ( The pa int er D urer a few ye ars l ate r de sc ribe d w hat he saw jus t a rrive d i n S pain f rom tha t
expe dition- a s un of gold, a moon of silve r, w orth a for tune .)
Cor te s t he n be gan hi s m arc h of death f rom tow n to tow n, us ing de cept ion, t urning A zte c a ga ins t
Azte c, ki lling w ith t he ki nd of delibe ra te ne ss t ha t a ccom panies a str a te gy- to pa ra lyz e t he w ill of the
popul ation by a sudde n fright ful de ed. A nd so, in C holulu, he invi te d t he he adm en of the Chol ula
na tion t o the squa re . A nd w hen t hey c am e, w ith t hous ands of una rm ed r eta ine rs , C orte s's s m all
a rm y of Spa niards , pos te d a round t he squa re w ith c annon, a rm ed w ith c ros sbow s, m ount ed on
hor se s, m assa cre d t hem, dow n to the last m an. T hen t hey l oot ed t he city a nd m oved on. W hen t heir
c ava lc ade of murde r w as ove r t he y w ere i n M exi co C ity , M ontezum a w as de ad, a nd t he A zte c
civi liz ation, s hatte re d, w as i n t he ha nds of the Spa niards .
All t hi s i s t ol d i n the Spa niards ' ow n account s.
In P eru, t hat ot her S pa nish c onqui sta dor Piz arro, us ed t he sam e t actic s, a nd f or the sam e r easons -
the fre nz y i n the early c api ta lis t s ta te s of Europe for gol d, for sla ve s, f or pr oduc ts of the soi l, t o pa y
the bondhol ders a nd s toc khol ders of the expe ditions , to f ina nce t he m ona rc hi cal bur eauc ra cie s r is ing
in W este rn E urope , to s pur the gr ow th of the ne w m one y econom y ris ing out of feuda lis m , to
pa rtic ipa te i n w hat K arl M arx w ould late r c all " the pr im itive accum ulation of capi ta l." T he se w ere
the vi olent be ginni ngs of an i ntric ate s ys te m of technol ogy, bus ine ss, pol itic s, a nd c ultur e t ha t w oul d
dom ina te t he w orld f or the ne xt five cent ur ie s.
In t he N orth A meric an E nglis h c oloni es, t he pa tte rn w as s et e arly , a s C olum bus had set i t i n t he
is la nds of the Baha mas. I n 1585, be for e t he re w as a ny pe rm ane nt E ngl is h s ettle m ent in V ir gi nia,
R ic ha rd G re nvi lle l ande d there w ith s eve n s hips . T he Indi ans he met w ere hos pita bl e, but when one
of the m stol e a sm all s ilve r c up, G re nvi lle s acke d a nd bur ned t he w hol e I ndi an vi lla ge .
Ja m estow n its e lf w as s et up i nside the territor y of an I ndi an c onf ede ra cy, l ed by t he chi ef,
P ow hata n. P owhata n w atc he d t he Engl is h s ettle on hi s pe opl e's l and, but did not atta ck, m aint aini ng
a pos tur e of cool ness. W hen t he Engl is h w ere goi ng through t heir " sta rvi ng t im e" i n t he w int er of
1610, s ome of the m ran of f t o j oin t he Indi ans , w here t he y w ould at l east be fed. W hen t he sum mer
cam e, t he gove rnor of the col ony s ent a m esse nge r t o a sk P owhata n t o r etur n t he runa ways ,
whe re upon P owhata n, a ccor ding t o the Engl is h a ccount , repl ie d w ith " noe other t ha n pr owde and disda yne ful l A nswers ." S om e s ol diers w ere t he re for e s ent out "to t ake Reve nge ." T he y f ell upon a n
Indi an s ettle m ent , ki lle d f if te en or sixt een I ndi ans , bur ned t he hous es, c ut dow n the cor n gr owing
a round t he vi lla ge , took t he que en of the tribe and he r c hi ldr en i nto boa ts , t he n e nde d up t hrow ing
the chi ldr en ove rboa rd " and s hoteinge ow it t he ir B ra yne s i n t he w ate r." T he que en w as l ate r t ake n
off a nd s ta bbe d to de ath.
T w elve ye ars l ate r, t he Indi ans , a la rm ed a s t he Engl is h s ettle m ent s ke pt gr ow ing i n num bers ,
a ppa re nt ly de cide d t o try t o w ipe the m out for good. T hey w ent on a ram pa ge and m assa cre d 347
m en, w omen, a nd c hildr en. F rom the n on i t w as t ot al w ar.
N ot abl e t o e nsla ve the Indi ans , a nd not abl e t o l ive w ith t hem, the Engl is h de cide d t o
ext erm ina te t he m. E dm und M orga n w rite s, i n hi s hi stor y of early V ir gi nia, A meric an S la ve ry ,
A meric an F re edom :
Sin ce t he I ndian s w ere b ette r w ood sm en than the E ngl is h an d vi rtu al ly
im pos sib le t o t rac k d ow n, t he m eth od was to f eign peac efu l i n te n tion s, l et t hem
se ttle d ow n an d p lan t t heir c om whereve r t hey c hos e, an d then , j ust b efor e
har vest, f all u pon them , k illin g as many as pos sib le an d b urn in g t he c or n... .
Wi th in tw o or three ye ars of the m assac re t he E ngl is h h ad ave nge d the d eat hs of
th at day m any tim es ove r.
In t hat f ir s t ye ar of the w hite m an i n V ir gi nia, 1607, P owhata n ha d addr esse d a plea t o J ohn S mith
tha t t ur ne d out prophe tic . H ow aut he ntic i t i s m ay be in doubt , but it i s s o m uch l ike so m any I ndian
sta te m ent s t ha t i t m ay be take n a s, i f not the rough l ette r of tha t f ir s t pl ea, t he exa ct s pi rit of it:
I h ave seen tw o ge nerat ion s of my p eop le d ie .... I know the d if fe ren ce b etw een
p eac e an d w ar bette r t han an y m an in m y c ountr y. I am now grow n ol d, an d
must d ie s oon ; m y au th or it y m ust d esc en d to m y brot hers, O pit e h ap an,
Opech an can ough an d C atatou gh-th en to m y two s is te rs, an d then to m y two
dau ghte rs-I w is h them to k now as much as I d o, an d that you r l ove to t hem m ay
be l ik e m in e t o you . Why will you tak e b y f orce w hat you may h ave quie tly b y
love ? Wh y will you destr oy u s w ho s upply you wit h food ? Wh at can you get b y
war ? W e c an hid e ou r p rovi sion s an d r un in to t he w ood s; t hen you will s tar ve for
w ron ging you r f rie n ds. Wh y are you jeal ou s of us? W e ar e u nar med , an d w illin g
to gi ve you what you ask, i f you com e i n a f rie n dly m anner, an d n ot so s im ple as
n ot to k now that it i s m uch b ette r t o e at good meat , s le ep c om for tab ly , l ive quie tly
w it h m y w ive s an d c hild ren , l au gh an d b e m erry w it h the E ngl is h , an d trad e f or
th eir c op per an d h atch ets , t han to r un aw ay f rom them , an d to l ie c ol d in the wood s, f eed on acorns, r oot s an d s uch tras h, an d b e s o h unte d that I c an neit h er
eat nor sle ep . I n these w ars, m y m en m ust s it u p w atch in g, an d if a t wig b reak ,
th ey al l c ry ou t " Here c om es C ap tai n S mit h !" S o I must e nd m y m is e rab le l if e .
T ak e aw ay you r gu ns an d s w or ds, t he c au se of all ou r j eal ou sy , or you may al l d ie
in the s am e m anner.
W hen t he Pilgr im s c am e t o N ew E ngl and t hey t oo w ere c om ing not to va cant land but to t erritor y
inha bite d by t ribe s of Indi ans . T he gove rnor of the M assa chus etts B ay C olony , John W int hr op,
cre ate d t he exc use t o t ake Indi an l and by de cla ring t he are a l ega lly a "va cuum ." T he Indi ans , he
sa id, ha d not "subdue d" the land, a nd there for e ha d onl y a "na tur al" r ight to i t, but not a "civi l
right ." A "na tur al r ight " di d not have lega l s ta ndi ng.
The Purita ns als o a ppe ale d t o the Bibl e, P sa lm s 2: 8: "A sk of me, a nd I sha ll gi ve the e, t he
he athe n f or thi ne inhe rita nc e, a nd t he ut te rm os t pa rts of the earth f or thy pos se ssion." And t o justif y
the ir us e of for ce t o t ake the land, t hey c ite d R omans 13: 2: "W hos oever t he re for e r esis te th t he
pow er, r esis te th t he or dina nce of God: and t hey t hat r esis t s ha ll r eceive to t hemse lve s da mna tion."
T he Purita ns live d i n une asy t ruc e w ith t he Pequot Indi ans , w ho oc cupi ed w hat i s now sout hern
C onne ctic ut and R hode Isla nd. B ut the y w ant ed t hem out of the w ay; the y w ant ed t heir l and. A nd
the y s eem ed t o w ant als o t o e sta bl is h t heir r ul e f ir m ly ove r C onne ctic ut settle rs i n t hat a re a. T he
mur de r of a w hite t ra de r, I ndi an- kidna per, a nd t roubl em ake r be cam e a n e xcuse t o m ake w ar on t he
Pequot s i n 1636.
A puni tive expe dition l eft B oston t o atta ck t he N arra ga nset I ndi ans on B loc k I sla nd, w ho were
lum ped w ith t he Pequot s. A s G ove rnor Wint hr op w rot e:
T hey h ad com mis sion to p ut t o d eat h the m en of Bloc k I slan d, b ut t o s par e t he
w om en an d c hild ren , an d to b rin g t hem aw ay, an d to t ake p os se ssion of the
is lan d; an d from then ce t o go t o the P eq uod s t o d em an d the m urd erers of
C ap tai n S ton e an d ot her E ngl is h , an d on e t hou san d fat hom of wam pum for
dam age s, e tc . an d s om e of their c hild ren as hos tage s, w hic h if t hey s hou ld r efu se ,
th ey w ere t o ob tai n it b y f orce.
T he Engl is h l ande d and ki lle d s om e I ndi ans , but the rest hi d in the thi ck f orests of the isla nd a nd the
Engl is h w ent from one dese rte d vi lla ge to t he ne xt, de str oyi ng c rops . Then t hey s aile d ba ck t o the
mainl and a nd raide d P equot villa ge s a long t he coa st, de str oyi ng c rops aga in. O ne of the of fic ers of
tha t e xpe dition, i n his a ccount , gives s om e i ns ight int o t he Pequot s t he y e ncount ere d: "The Indi ans spyi ng of us cam e r unni ng in multitude s a long t he w ate r s ide , cryi ng, W hat c he er, E ngl is hm en, w hat
che er, w hat do you c ome f or ? T he y not thi nki ng w e i nt ende d w ar, w ent on c heerful ly ... - "
So, t he w ar w ith t he Pequot s be gan. M assa cre s t ook pl ace on bot h side s. T he Engl is h de velope d
a t actic of warfa re us ed e arlie r by C orte s a nd l ate r, i n t he tw ent ie th c ent ur y, e ven m ore
sys te m atic ally: de libe ra te a tta cks on nonc ombata nt s f or the pur pose of terror iz ing t he ene my. T his i s
ethno hi stor ia n F ra nc is J enni ngs 's i nt erpr eta tion of Capt ain J ohn M ason' s a tta ck on a Pequot villa ge
on t he M ystic R ive r ne ar L ong I sla nd S ound: "M ason pr oposed t o a voi d atta cki ng P equot warrior s,
w hich w ould ha ve ove rta xe d hi s uns easone d, unr elia bl e t roops . Battle , a s s uc h, w as not his pur pose.
B attle i s onl y one of the w ays to de str oy a n enemy's w ill t o f ight . M assa cre c an a ccom plis h t he sam e
end w ith l ess r is k, a nd M ason ha d dete rm ine d t hat m assa cre w oul d be his obj ective ."
So t he Engl is h s et f ir e t o t he w igw am s of the vi lla ge . B y their ow n account : " The Capt ain a ls o
sa id, W e m ust B urn T hem; a nd i mmedi ate ly s te ppi ng i nto t he W igw am ... br ought out a F ir e B ra nd,
and put ting i t i nt o t he M atts w ith w hich t hey w ere c ove re d, s et t he W igw am s on F ir e ." W illia m
B ra df ord, i n hi s H is tor y of the Ply m out h P lant ation w ritte n a t t he tim e, de sc ribe s J ohn M ason' s r aid
on t he Pequot villa ge :
Thos e t hat scap ed the f ir e w ere s lai ne w it h the s w or d; s om e h ew ed to p eeces,
ot hers r une t hrow wit h their r ap ie rs, s o as they w ere q uic k ly d is p at ch te , an d ve ry
fe w esc ap ed . I t w as con ceive d they t hus d estr oye d ab out 400 at this t im e. I t w as a
fe ar fu l s igh t t o s ee t hem thus f ryi ng i n the f ye r, an d the s tr eam s of blood
q uen ch in g t he s am e, an d h or rib le w as the s tin ck e an d s en te t here of , but t he
vi ctor y s eem ed a s weete s ac rif ic e, an d they gave the p raye rs t hereof to G od, w ho
had wrou ght s o w onderfu lly f or them , thus t o i nclos e t heir e nem is e i n their h an ds,
an d gi ve them so s peed y a vi ctor y ove r s o p rou d an d in su lt in g an enim ie .
A s D r. C otton M athe r, P urita n t heologi an, put it: " It w as s uppos ed t hat no l ess t ha n 600 P equot
soul s w ere br ought down to he ll t ha t da y."
T he w ar c ont inue d. Indian t ribe s w ere us ed a gains t one anot her, a nd ne ver s eem ed a ble t o j oin
toge the r i n f ight ing t he Engl is h. J enni ngs sum s up:
T he t error w as ve ry r eal am ong the I ndian s, b ut i n tim e t hey c am e t o m ed it at e
upon its f ou ndat ion s. T hey d rew three l esson s f rom the P eq uot W ar: ( 1) that the
E ngl is h m en 's m ost s ol em n p le d ge w ou ld b e b rok en w hen eve r ob ligat ion
c on flic te d w it h ad van tage ; ( 2) that the E ngl is h w ay of war had no l im it of scru ple or m ercy; an d (3) that w eap ons of Indian makin g w ere al mos t u se le ss agai nst
w eap ons of Europ ean manufac tu re. T hese l esson s t he I ndian s t ook to h ear t.
A foot note i n V ir gi l V oge l's book T his L and W as O urs ( 1972) says : " The of fic ia l f igur e on t he
number of Pequot s now in C onne ctic ut is t w ent y- one pers ons ."
For ty ye ars a fte r t he Pequot War, P urita ns and I ndians fought aga in. T his t im e i t w as t he
W am pa noa gs, oc cupyi ng the sout h shor e of M assa chus etts B ay, w ho w ere i n t he w ay a nd a ls o
be ginni ng t o tra de som e of the ir l and t o pe ople out side the M assa chus etts B ay C olony . Their c hi ef,
M assa soi t, w as de ad. H is s on W am sut ta ha d be en ki lle d by E nglis hm en, a nd W am sut ta s br othe r
Meta com (la te r t o be calle d K ing P hilip by t he Engl is h) be cam e c hi ef. T he Engl is h f ound t heir
e xc use, a m urde r w hich t hey a ttr ibut ed t o M eta com , and t hey be gan a war of conque st a ga ins t t he
W am pa noa gs, a w ar t o t ake the ir l and. T hey w ere c le arly t he aggr essor s, but cla im ed t hey a tta cke d
for pr eve ntive pur poses. A s R oge r W illia m s, m ore f rie ndl y to the Indi ans tha n m ost, put it: " A ll m en
of cons cie nc e or prude nce pl y to w indw ard, t o m aint ain t heir w ars t o be defe ns ive ."
Je nni ngs says the elite of the Purita ns w ant ed t he w ar; t he or dina ry w hite E ngl is hm an di d not
want it a nd of te n r efus ed t o f ight . The Indi ans certa inl y di d not want w ar, but the y m atc he d a tr oc ity
w ith a tr oc ity . W hen i t w as ove r, i n 1676, t he Engl is h ha d won, but the ir r esour ces w ere dr aine d;
the y ha d lost s ix hundr ed m en. T hree t hous and I ndians w ere de ad, i ncludi ng M eta com himse lf . Y et
the Indi an r aids di d not stop.
F or a w hile , t he Engl is h t rie d s ofte r t actic s. B ut ul tim ate ly , i t w as ba ck t o a nni hila tion. T he Indi an
popul ation of 10 m illion t hat l ive d nor th of Mexi co w hen C olum bus cam e w oul d ul tim ate ly be
r e duc ed t o less t ha n a million. H uge num bers of Indi ans w oul d di e f rom dise ase s i nt roduc ed by t he
white s. A Dutch t ra ve le r i n N ew N ethe rla nd w rot e i n 1656 t hat " the Indi ans ... a ffir m , tha t be for e
the arriva l of the Chris tia ns , a nd be for e t he sm allpox br oke out am ongs t t he m, the y w ere t en t im es a s
num erous as t he y now are , a nd t hat t he ir popul ation ha d been m elte d dow n by this di se ase , w here of
ni ne -te nt hs of the m ha ve di ed." When t he Engl is h f ir s t s ettle d M artha 's V ine yard i n 1642, t he
Wam pa noa gs the re num bere d pe rha ps thr ee t hous and. T here w ere no w ars on t hat i sla nd, but by
1764, onl y 313 Indians w ere l eft t he re . S im ila rly , B loc k I sla nd I ndians num bere d pe rha ps 1,200 t o
1,500 in 1662, a nd by 1774 w ere r educ ed t o f if ty- one .
Behi nd t he Engl is h i nva sion of North A meric a, be hind t heir m assa cre of Indi ans , the ir de cept ion,
the ir br utality , w as t ha t s pe cia l pow erful dr ive bor n in c ivi liz ations base d on pr iva te pr ope rty . I t w as
a m orally a mbiguous drive ; t he ne ed f or spa ce, f or land, w as a real hum an ne ed. B ut in c ondi tions of
sc arc ity , i n a barba rous epoc h of histor y r uled by c ompetition, t his hum an ne ed w as t ra ns for med i nto
the m urde r of whol e pe opl es. R oge r W illia m s s aid i t w as a dep rave d ap petit e af te r t he gr eat van it ie s, d ream s an d s had ow s of this
van is h in g l if e , gr eat por tion s of lan d, l an d in this w ild ern ess, as if m en w ere i n as
gr eat necessit y an d d an ger f or w an t of gr eat por tion s of lan d, as poor , hungr y,
th ir sty s eam en h ave , afte r a s ic k an d s tor my, a l ong an d s tar ving p assage . This i s
on e of the god s of New E ngl an d, w hic h the l ivi ng an d m ost h igh Ete rn al w ill
d estr oy an d fam is h .
W as a ll t hi s bl oods hed a nd de ceit- from Colum bus to C orte s, P iz arro, t he Purita ns -a ne cessity f or the
hum an r ace t o pr ogress f rom sava gery t o c ivi liz ation? Was M oris on r ight in bur ying t he stor y of
ge noc ide ins ide a m ore i m por ta nt stor y of hum an pr ogress? P erha ps a pe rs ua sive argum ent can be
m ade -a s i t w as m ade by S ta lin w hen he kille d pe asa nt s f or indus tr ia l pr ogr ess i n t he Sovi et U nion,
as i t w as m ade by C hurchi ll e xpl aini ng t he bom bings of Dre sde n a nd H am bur g, a nd T rum an
expl aini ng H ir os hima. B ut how can t he judgm ent be made if t he be nefits a nd l osse s c annot be
bala nc ed be caus e t he los se s a re e ithe r unm ent ione d or ment ione d qui ckl y?
Tha t qui ck di spos al m ight be accept abl e ( "U nf ortuna te , ye s, but it ha d to be done ") t o t he m iddl e
and uppe r c la sse s of the conque ring a nd "adva nced" count rie s. B ut is i t a ccept abl e t o t he poor of
Asia , A fric a, L atin A meric a, or to t he pr is one rs i n S oviet l abor cam ps , or the bl acks in ur ban
ghe ttos , or the Indi ans on r ese rva tions -to t he vi ctim s of tha t pr ogr ess w hich be nefits a pr ivi le ge d
minor ity i n the w orld? W as i t a ccept abl e ( or jus t i ne sc apa ble?) t o t he m ine rs a nd r ailr oa ders of
A meric a, t he factor y ha nds, the m en a nd w omen w ho di ed by t he hundr eds of thous ands from
a ccide nts or sic kne ss, w here t he y w orke d or where t he y l ive d-casua ltie s of progr ess? A nd e ven t he
privi le ge d m inor ity- mus t i t not recons ide r, w ith t hat pr actic ality w hich e ven pr ivi le ge cannot abol is h,
the va lue of its pr ivi le ge s, w hen t hey be com e t hr eate ne d by t he ange r of the sacrif ic ed, w hethe r i n
or ga nized r ebe llion, unor ganized r iot , or sim ply t hos e br utal i ndi vidua l a cts of de spe ra tion l abe le d
crim es by l aw and t he sta te ?
If t he re ar e ne cessa ry s acrif ic es t o be made for hum an pr ogress, i s i t not esse nt ia l t o hol d to the
princ ipl e t ha t t hos e t o be sacrif ic ed m ust m ake the de cis ion t hemse lve s? W e c an a ll de cide to gi ve up
som ethi ng of ours, but do w e ha ve the right to t hrow int o t he pyr e t he chi ldr en of others , or eve n our
ow n childr en, f or a pr ogr ess w hich i s not nearly a s c le ar or prese nt as s ic kne ss or he alth, l if e or
de ath?
W hat di d pe ople i n S pain ge t out of all t ha t de ath a nd br utality vi site d on t he Indi ans of the
A meric as? F or a br ie f pe riod i n histor y, t he re w as t he gl ory of a S pa nish E mpire i n t he W este rn
H em is phe re . A s H ans K oni ng s ums i t up i n his book C ol um bus : H is E nterpr is e : For al l t he gol d an d s ilve r s tol en an d s hip ped to S pai n d id n ot m ake t he S pan is h
p eop le r ic h er. I t gave their k in gs an edge in the b alan ce of pow er f or a t im e, a
ch an ce t o h ir e m ore m ercen ar y s oldie rs f or their w ars. T hey e nded u p los in g
th os e w ars an yway, an d al l t hat w as left w as a d ead ly i nflat ion , a s tar ving
pop ulat ion , the r ic h r ic h er, t he p oor poor er, an d a r uin ed p eas an t c las s.
B eyond a ll t ha t, how certa in a re w e t ha t w hat w as de str oye d w as i nf erior ? W ho w ere t he se pe opl e
who c am e out on t he be ach a nd s wam to br ing pr ese nt s t o C olum bus and hi s c re w , w ho w atc he d
Cor te s a nd P iz arro r ide thr ough t heir c ount rys ide , w ho pe ere d out of the for ests a t t he fir s t w hite
s e ttle rs of Vir gi nia a nd M assa chus etts ?
C ol um bus calle d t hem Indi ans , be caus e he mis c alc ul ate d t he siz e of the earth. I n this book w e
too c all t he m Indi ans , w ith s om e r eluc ta nc e, be caus e i t ha ppe ns too of te n t hat pe opl e a re s addl ed
w ith na mes gi ven t hem by t heir c onque ror s.
A nd ye t, t he re i s s om e r eason t o call t he m Indi ans , be caus e t he y di d com e, pe rha ps 25,000 ye ars
a go, f rom Asia , a cros s t he land br idge of the Bering S tr a its ( la te r t o di sa ppe ar unde r w ate r) t o
A la ska . T hen t hey m oved sout hward, s eeki ng w arm th a nd l and, i n a tre k l asting t hous ands of ye ars
tha t t ook t hem int o N orth A meric a, t he n C ent ra l a nd S outh A meric a. I n N ic ara gua , Bra zil, a nd
Ecua dor the ir pe tr if ie d f oot print s c an s till be seen, a long w ith t he pr int of bison, w ho disa ppe are d
about five thous and ye ars a go, s o they m ust ha ve reache d S outh A meric a a t l east t ha t f ar ba ck
W ide ly di spe rs e d ove r t he gr eat l and m ass of the A meric as, t he y num bere d a ppr oximate ly 75
m illion pe ople by t he tim e C olum bus cam e, pe rha ps 25 m illion i n North A meric a. R espondi ng to
the di ffe re nt envi ronm ent s of soi l a nd c lim ate , t he y de velope d hundr eds of diffe re nt triba l c ul tur es,
pe rha ps tw o t hous and di ffe re nt langua ges. T hey pe rfe cte d t he art of agr ic ul tur e, a nd f igur ed out how
to gr ow maiz e ( cor n), w hich c annot grow by i ts e lf a nd m ust be plant ed, c ultiva te d, f ertiliz ed,
ha rve ste d, hus ked, s helle d. T hey i nge nious ly de velope d a varie ty of other ve geta bl es a nd f rui ts , a s
well a s pe anut s a nd c hocolate a nd t obacco a nd r ubbe r.
O n t heir ow n, the Indi ans w ere e nga ged i n the gr eat a gr ic ul tur al r evol ution t hat ot her pe opl es i n
A sia , E urope , Afric a w ere goi ng through a bout the sam e t im e.
W hile m any of the tribe s r em aine d nom adi c hunt ers a nd f ood ga the re rs i n w ande ring, e galita ria n
com mune s, ot hers be gan t o live in m ore s ettle d c om muni tie s w here t he re w as m ore f ood, l arge r
popul ations , more di visions of labor am ong m en a nd w omen, m ore s ur plus to f eed c hiefs a nd
pr ie sts , m ore l eis ur e t im e f or artis tic a nd s ocia l w ork, f or bui ldi ng hous es. A bout a thous and ye ars
be for e C hris t, w hile c om para bl e c ons tr uc tions were goi ng on i n Egypt and M esopot am ia , t he Zuni and H opi Indi ans of what i s now New M exi co ha d begun t o build vi lla ge s c ons is ting of large
te rra ced bui ldi ngs , ne stle d i n a mong c lif fs a nd m ountains for pr otection f rom ene mie s, w ith
hundr eds of room s i n e ach vi lla ge . B efor e t he arriva l of the Europe an e xpl orers , t he y w ere us ing
ir riga tion c ana ls , da ms, w ere doi ng c era m ic s, w eavi ng ba ske ts , m aki ng c lot h out of cot ton.
B y t he tim e of Chris t a nd J ulius C aesa r, t he re ha d de velope d in the O hio R ive r V alle y a cul tur e
of so- calle d M oundbui lde rs , I ndi ans w ho c onstr uc te d t hous ands of enor mous scul ptur es out of earth,
s om etim es i n t he sha pes of huge humans , bi rds , or serpe nts, s om etim es a s bur ia l s ite s, s om etim es a s
for tif ic ations . One of the m w as 3 1/ 2 mile s l ong, e nclos ing 100 a cre s. T hese M oundbui lde rs s eem to
ha ve be en pa rt of a com plex t ra di ng s yste m of ornament s a nd w eapons from as f ar of f a s t he G re at
L ake s, t he Far W est, a nd t he G ulf of M exi co.
A bout A.D. 500, a s t hi s M oundbui lde r c ul tur e of the O hio V alle y w as be ginni ng t o de cline ,
anot her c ul tur e w as de velopi ng w estw ard, i n the va lle y of the M is sis sippi , cent ere d on w hat i s now
S t. L oui s. I t ha d an adva nced a gric ul tur e, i nc lude d thous ands of villa ge s, a nd a ls o bui lt huge earthe n
mounds as bur ia l a nd c ere m oni al pl aces ne ar a va st I ndi an m etr opol is t ha t m ay ha ve ha d thirty
thous and pe ople. T he large st m ound w as 100 f eet hi gh, w ith a recta ngul ar ba se l arge r t ha n t hat of
the G re at P yram id of Egypt . In t he city , know n as C ahoki a, w ere t ool make rs , hi de dr esse rs , pot te rs ,
je w elr y m ake rs , w eave rs , s alt m ake rs , c oppe r e ngr ave rs , a nd m agni fic ent cera m is ts . O ne fune ra l
bl anke t w as m ade of tw elve thous and s hell be ads .
From the A dironda cks to t he G re at L ake s, i n w hat i s now Penns ylva nia a nd uppe r N ew Y ork,
live d t he m ost pow erful of the nor the aste rn t ribe s, t he League of the Iroquoi s, w hich i nclude d the
Moha wks (Peopl e of the Flint ), O neida s ( Peopl e of the Stone ), O nonda gas ( Peopl e of the
M ount ain) , C ayuga s ( Peopl e a t t he Landi ng) , and S ene cas ( G re at H ill P eopl e), t hous ands of pe opl e
bound t ogethe r by a com mon I roquoi s l angua ge.
In t he vi sion of the M oha wk c hief I lia w atha , the lege nda ry D eka niwida h s poke to t he Iroquoi s:
" W e bi nd our se lve s t oge the r by t aki ng hol d of each ot her's ha nds so f ir m ly a nd f orming a cir c le s o
str ong t hat i f a tre e s houl d fall upon i t, i t c oul d not sha ke nor break i t, s o t hat our peopl e a nd
gr andc hildr en s hall r em ain i n the cir c le i n s ecur ity , pe ace a nd ha ppiness."
In t he vi lla ge s of the Iroquoi s, l and w as ow ned i n c om mon a nd w orke d i n c om mon. H unting
w as done toge the r, a nd t he catc h w as di vide d a mong t he m em be rs of the vi lla ge . H ous es w ere
c ons ide re d c om mon pr operty a nd w ere s ha re d by s eve ra l f am ilie s. T he conc ept of priva te ow ners hi p
of land a nd hom es w as f or eign t o the Iroquoi s. A Fre nc h J esui t pr ie st w ho e ncount ere d t hem in t he
1650s wrot e: " N o poor houses a re ne ede d a mong t hem, be caus e t he y a re ne ithe r m endi cant s nor paupe rs .. . . T heir ki ndne ss, hum ani ty a nd c ourte sy not only make s t he m libe ra l w ith w hat t he y
have, but caus es t he m to pos se ss ha rdl y a nyt hing e xcept in c om mon."
W om en w ere i m por ta nt and r espe cte d i n I roquoi s s oc ie ty . F am ilie s w ere m atr iline al. T hat i s, t he
fa m ily l ine w ent dow n through t he fem ale m em be rs , w hos e hus bands joi ne d t he fam ily , w hile s ons
w ho m arrie d t hen j oine d t heir w ive s' f am ilie s. E ach e xtende d fam ily l ive d i n a "long hous e." W hen
a w om an w ant ed a divor ce, s he set he r hus band' s t hi ngs out side the door .
Fam ilie s w ere gr oupe d in c la ns , a nd a dozen or more c la ns m ight make up a villa ge . T he seni or
wom en i n the vi lla ge na med t he m en w ho r epr ese nt ed t he cla ns at vi lla ge and t riba l c ounc ils . T hey
als o na med t he for ty- nine chi efs w ho w ere t he rul ing c ounc il f or the Five N ation c onfede ra cy of the
Iroquoi s. T he w om en a tte nde d cla n m eetings , stood be hind t he cir c le of men w ho s poke and vot ed,
and r em ove d the m en f rom offic e i f t he y s tr a ye d t oo f ar f rom the w is he s of the w om en.
T he w om en t ende d the crops and t ook ge nera l c ha rge of villa ge affa ir s w hile t he m en w ere
a lw ays hunt ing or fis hi ng. A nd sinc e t he y s uppl ie d t he m occasins and f ood f or w arring e xpeditions ,
the y ha d som e c ont rol ove r m ilita ry m atte rs . A s G ary B . Nash not es i n hi s f asc ina ting s tudy of early
A meric a, R ed, W hite , a nd B la ck: "Thus pow er w as s ha re d be tw een t he sexe s a nd t he Europe an
ide a of male dom ina ncy a nd f em ale s ubor dina tion i n all t hi ngs was c ons picuous ly a bsent in I roquoi s
soc ie ty ."
C hi ldr en i n I roquoi s s oc ie ty , w hile t aught the cul tur al he rita ge of the ir pe opl e a nd s olida rity w ith
the tribe , w ere a ls o t aught to be inde pende nt, not to s ubm it t o ove rbe aring a uthor ity . T hey w ere
ta ught equa lity i n s ta tus and t he sha ring of posse ssions . The Iroquoi s di d not use ha rs h puni shm ent
on c hildr en; the y di d not ins is t on e arly w eani ng or early t oile t t ra ini ng, but gradua lly a llow ed t he
chi ld t o learn s elf -c are .
A ll of thi s w as i n s harp c ont ra st t o E urope an va lue s a s br ought over by t he fir s t c ol oni sts , a
soc ie ty of ric h a nd poor , cont rol le d by pr ie sts , by gove rnor s, by m ale he ads of fam ilie s. F or
exa mple, t he pa stor of the Pilgr im col ony , John R obinson, t hus advi se d hi s pa ris hi one rs how to de al
w ith t heir c hi ldr en: "A nd s urely t here i s i n a ll c hi ldr en ... a stubbor nness, a nd s tout ness of mind
a ris ing f rom natur al pr ide , w hich m ust, i n t he fir s t pl ace, be broke n and be ate n dow n; tha t s o t he
founda tion of the ir e duc ation be ing l aid i n hum ility a nd t ra cta bl ene ss, ot her vi rtue s m ay, i n t heir
tim e, be bui lt t he re on."
G ary N ash de sc ribe s I roquoi s c ul tur e: No l aw s an d or din an ces, s herif fs an d c on stab le s, j udge s an d jurie s, or cou rts or
jai ls -th e ap par atus of au th or it y i n E urop ean soc ie tie s-w ere t o b e f ou nd in the
nor th eas t w ood lan ds p rior to E urop ean ar rival . Yet b ou ndar ie s of ac cep tab le
b eh avi or w ere f ir m ly s et. T hou gh prid in g t hem se lve s on the au ton om ous
in divi dual , t he I roq uoi s m aintai ned a s tr ic t s en se of righ t an d w ron g.... H e w ho
stol e an other's f ood or acte d in val ourou sly i n w ar w as "sh am ed " b y h is p eop le
an d os tr ac iz ed from their c om pan y u ntil h e h ad atoned for his ac tion s an d
dem on str at ed to t heir s at is fac tion that he h ad morally p urif ie d h im se lf .
N ot onl y the Iroquoi s but other I ndi an t ribe s be haved t he sam e w ay. I n 1635, M aryl and I ndians
re sponde d to the gove rnor 's de mand t hat i f a ny of the m ki lle d a n E nglis hm an, t he gui lty one shoul d
be de live re d up f or puni shm ent accor ding t o Englis h l aw . T he Indi ans said:
I t i s t he m anner am ongst u s I ndian s, t hat if an y such ac cid en t h ap pen , w ee d oe
red eem e t he l if e of a m an that is s o s lai ne, w it h a 100 ar mes l en gt h of Bead es an d
sin ce t hat you are h eere s tr an gers, an d c om e i n to ou r C ou ntr ey, you shou ld
r at her c on for m you rse lve s t o t he C ustom es of ou r C ou ntr ey, t han im pos e you rs
u pon us....
S o, C olum bus and hi s s uc cessor s w ere not com ing i nto a n empty w ilde rne ss, but int o a world w hich
in s om e pl aces w as a s de nsely popul ate d a s E urope its e lf , w here t he cul tur e w as c om plex, w here
hum an r ela tions were m ore e ga lita ria n t han i n E urope , and w here t he rela tions am ong m en, w omen,
chi ldr en, a nd na tur e w ere m ore be aut if ul ly w orke d out tha n pe rha ps any pl ace i n t he w orld.
T he y w ere pe opl e w ithout a w ritte n l angua ge, but with t heir ow n law s, t he ir poe tr y , t he ir hi stor y
ke pt in m em or y a nd pa sse d on, i n an or al voc abul ary m ore c om plex t han E urope 's , a ccom panied by
song, da nce, a nd c ere m oni al dr am a. T hey pa id c are ful atte nt ion t o the de velopm ent of pe rs ona lity ,
int ens ity of will, i nde pende nce a nd f le xi bility , pa ssion a nd pot enc y, t o t heir pa rtne rs hi p w ith one
a not her a nd w ith na tur e.
John C ollie r, a n A meric an s chol ar w ho l ive d a mong I ndians in t he 1920s and 1930s in t he
Americ an S outhwest, s aid of the ir s pi rit: " Coul d w e m ake it our own, there w oul d be an e te rna lly
ine xha ustibl e e arth a nd a for eve r l asting pe ace."
P erha ps the re i s s om e r om ant ic m ythol ogy i n that. B ut the evi de nce f rom Europe an t ra ve le rs i n
the sixt eent h, s eve nteent h, a nd e ight eent h c ent ur ie s, put toge the r r ecent ly by a n Americ an s pecia lis t
on I ndian l if e , W illia m B ra ndon, i s ove rw he lm ingl y suppor tive of much of tha t " m yth." Eve n
allow ing f or the im pe rfe ction of myths , it i s e nough t o make us que stion, f or tha t t im e a nd our s, t he Previous C HAPTER Next C HAPTER
exc use of progr ess i n t he anni hila tion of races, a nd t he telling of histor y f rom the sta ndpoi nt of the
conque ror s a nd l eade rs of W este rn c ivi liz ation.
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