Assume that a new employee is taking over your job because you have been promoted. Identify a specific problem in the job that could cause difficulty for the new employee. Assume that you will need to

Technical Writing by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, Michele DeSilva is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

• Acknowledgements

• External Link Disclaimer

• Introduction cc-by

• 1. Professional Communications

• 1.1 Texting

• 1.2 E-mail

• 1.3 Netiquette

• 1.4 Memorandums

• 1.5 Letters

• 2. Audience Analysis

• 2.1 Types of audiences

• 2.2 Audience analysis

• 2.3 Adapting your writing to meet your audience’s

needs

• 3. Proposals

• 3.1 Some preliminaries

• 3.2 Types of proposals

• 3.3 Typical scenarios for the proposal

• 3.4 Common sections in proposals

• 3.5 Special assignment requirements

• 3.6 Proposals and audience

• 3.7 Revision checklist for proposals

• 4. Information Literacy

• 4.1 Information formats

• 4.2 The information timeline

• 4.3 The research cycle

• 4.4 Research tools

• 4.5 Search strategies

• 4.6 Evaluate sources

• 5. Citations and Plagiarism

• 5.1 Citations

• 5.2 Plagiarism

• 6. Progress Reports

• 6.1 Functions and Contents of Progress Reports

• 6.2 Timing and Format of Progress Reports

• 6.3 Organizational Patterns or Sections for Progress Reports

• 6.4 Other Parts of Progress Reports

• 6.5 Revision Checklist for Progress Reports

• 7. Outlines

• 7.1 Creating and using outlines

• 7.2 Developing the rough outline

• 8. Creating and Integrating Graphics

• 8.1 Deciding which graphics to include

• 8.2 Other considerations: audience

• 8.3 Other considerations: placement and context

• 8.4 Samples

• 8.5 Guidelines for graphics: a final review

• 9. Ethics in Technical Writing

• 9.1 General Principles

• 9.2 Presentation of information

• 9.3 Typical Ethics Issues in Technical Writing

• 9.4 Ethics and documenting sources

• 9.5 Ethics, Plagiarism, and Reliable Sources

• 9.6 Professional ethics

• 10. Document Design

• 10.1 Cover letter

• 10.2 Cover page

• 10.3 Abstract and executive summary

• 10.4 Table of contents

• 10.5 List of figures and tables

• 10.6 Introduction

• 10.7 Body of the report

Much of this text, published under a Creative Commons license, was originally developed by Dr. David McMurrey, who is both a technical writer and a college instructor. For more about him and his original work, please visit his biography page at: https://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/ index.html. He kindly gave his text a CC-BY license at our request so that we could adapt our text from it. We extend our sincere appreciation to Dr. McMurrey, the team of consultants at Saylor University whose work shared via open educational resources is also featured in this text, and the host of educators, librarians, and professionals who

have shared their creations with a Creative Commons license. Our thanks as well to our colleague, Dr. Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, whose work we consulted and adapted into this text.

Additional materials have been adapted or created by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva of Central Oregon Community College.

We also extend our gratitude to Open Oregon Educational Resources for the grant funding to pursue this project and especially to Amy Hofer of Open Oregon for her knowledgeable and helpful answers to many questions.

This textbook links to external websites over which the authors have no control. The authors have made efforts to ensure that external links are accurate and operational, but problems are inevitable. If you find a problem, please report it to Michele DeSilva at [email protected].

Technical writing courses introduce you to some of the most important aspects of writing in the worlds of science, technology, and business—in other words, the kind of

writing that scientists, nurses, doctors, computer specialists, government officials, engineers, and other such people do as a part of their regular work. The skills learned in technical writing courses can be useful in other fields as well, including education and social sciences.

To learn how to write effectively for the professional world, you will study common types of reports, special format items such as lists and headings, simple techniques for creating and using graphics in reports, and some techniques for producing professional-looking final copy.

Technical writing courses build on what you have learned in other writing courses. But there is plenty new to learn! If you currently have a job in which you do some writing, you will discover that you can put what you learn in your technical writing course to immediate use.

While technical communication is essential in a wide range of fields and occupations, technical writing is also a fully professional field of its own with degree programs, certifications, and—yes!—even theory. It is a good field with a lot of growth and income potential, and an introductory technical writing course is a good way to start if you are interested in a career in this field or will work in a career in which writing is a component.

However, many students of technical writing courses are not necessarily planning for a career as a technical writer.

That is why this course provides you with an introduction to the kinds of writing skills you need in practically any technically oriented professional job. No matter what sort of professional work you do, you are likely to do some writing—and much of it may be technical in nature. The more you know about some basic technical writing skills, the better job of writing you’re likely to do. And that will be good for the projects you work on, for the organizations you work in, and—most of all—good for you and your career.

Technical communication—or technical writing, as the course is often called—is not writing about a specific technical topic such as computers, but about any technical topic. The term “technical” refers to knowledge that is not widespread, that is more the territory of experts and specialists. Whatever your major is, you are developing an expertise—you are becoming a specialist in a particular technical area. And whenever you try to write or say anything about your field, you are engaged in technical communication.

Another key part of the definition of technical communication is the receiver of the information—the audience. Technical communication is the delivery of technical information to readers (or listeners or viewers) in a manner that is adapted to their needs, level of understanding, and background. In fact, this audience element is so important that it is one of the cornerstones of

this course: you are challenged to write about technical subjects but in a way that a beginner—a nonspecialist—could understand. This ability to “translate” technical information to nonspecialists is a key skill to any technical communicator. In a world of rapid technological development, many people are constantly falling behind.

Technology companies are constantly struggling to find effective ways to help customers or potential customers understand the advantages or the operation of their new products.

So relax! You don’t have to write about computers or rocket science—write about the area of technical specialization you know or are learning about. And plan to write about it in such a way that even Grandad can understand!

Keep relaxing, but you should know that professional technical writers do in fact write about very technical stuff—information that they cannot begin to master unless they go back for a Ph.D. But wait a minute! The technical documents have to ship with the product in less than nine months! How do they manage? Professional technical writers rely on these strategies to ensure the technical accuracy of their work:

• Study of books, articles, reports, websites related to the product

• Product specifications: what the product is supposed to do, how it is designed

• Interviews with subject matter experts: the product specialists, developers, engineers

• Product meetings during the development cycle

• Live demonstrations of the product

• Familiarization with similar, competing products

• Experimenting with working models of the product

• Subject matter experts’ review of technical writers’ work for technical accuracy and completeness

Of course, experienced technical writers will tell you that product development moves so fast that specifications are not always possible and that working models of the product are rarely available. That’s why the subject matter experts’ review is often the most important.

You have probably taken at least one academic writing course before this one, so you will be familiar with some of the practices of writing for your college classes. The video below will introduce you to some of the differences between academic and technical writing.

First slide of intro lecture

In technical-writing courses, the main focus is typically the

technical report, due toward the end of the term. Just about everything you do in the course is aimed at developing skills needed to produce that report. Of course, some technical-writing courses begin with a resume and application letter (often known as the cover letter), but after that you plan the technical report, then write a proposal in which you propose to write that report. Then you write short documents (memos, emails, outlines, drafts) where you get accustomed to using things like headings, lists, graphics, and special notices—not to mention writing about technical subject matter in a clear, concise, understandable way that is appropriate for a specific audience.

Caution: You should be aware that technical-writing courses are writing-intensive. You will probably write more in your technical-writing course than in any other course you have ever taken. If you are taking a full load of classes, working full time, and juggling unique family obligations, please consider whether this is the right time for you to take technical writing. Consult with your professor about the workload for this class in order to make your decision.

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. Professional Communications

Professional communication in written form requires skill and expertise. From text messages to reports, how you

represent yourself with the written word counts. Writing in an online environment requires tact, skill, and an awareness that what you write may be there forever. From memos to letters, from business proposals to press releases, your written business communication represents you and your company: your goal is to make it clear, concise, and professional.

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

• Communicating Online: Netiquette by UBC Centre for Teaching, Learning and Technology – CC:

BY-SA 4.0

1. 1. Texting

Text messages and e-mails are part of our communication landscape, and skilled business communicators consider them a valuable tool to connect.

Whatever digital device you use, written communication in the form of brief messages, or texting, has become a common way to connect. It is useful for short exchanges, and is a convenient way to stay connected with others when talking on the phone would be cumbersome. Texting is not

useful for long or complicated messages, and careful consideration should be given to the audience. Although texting will not be used in this class as a form of professional communication, you should be aware of several of the principles that should guide your writing in this context.

When texting, always consider your audience and your company, and choose words, terms, or abbreviations that will deliver your message appropriately and effectively.

• Know your recipient; “? % dsct” may be an understandable way to ask a close associate what the proper discount is to offer a certain customer, but if you are writing a text to your boss, it might be wiser to write, “what % discount does Murray get on $1K order?”

• Anticipate unintentional misinterpretation. Texting often uses symbols and codes to represent thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Given the complexity of communication, and the useful but limited tool of texting, be aware of its limitation and prevent misinterpretation with brief messages.

• Contacting someone too frequently can border on harassment. Texting is a tool. Use it when appropriate but don’t abuse it.

• Don’t text and drive. Research shows that the likelihood of an accident increases dramatically if the driver is texting behind the wheel. Houston

Chronicle. (2009, September 23). Deadly distraction: Texting while driving, twice as risky as drunk driving, should be banned. Houston Chronicle (3 STAR R.O. ed.), p. B8. Retrieved from http://www.chron.com/opinion/editorials/ article/Deadly-distraction-Texting-while-driving- should-1592397.php Being in an accident while conducting company business would reflect poorly on your judgment as well as on your employer.

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

1. 1. E-mail

E-mail is familiar to most students and workers. It may be used like text, or synchronous chat, and it can be delivered to a cell phone. In business, it has largely replaced print hard copy letters for external (outside the company) correspondence, and in many cases, it has taken the place of memos for internal (within the company) communication.Guffey, M. (2008). Essentials of business communication (7th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson/ Wadsworth. E-mail can be very useful for messages that have slightly more content than a text message, but it is still

best used for fairly brief messages. Many businesses use automated e-mails to acknowledge communications from the public, or to remind associates that periodic reports or payments are due. You may also be assigned to “populate” a form e-mail in which standard paragraphs are used but you choose from a menu of sentences to make the wording suitable for a particular transaction.

E-mails may be informal in personal contexts, but business communication requires attention to detail, awareness that your e-mail reflects you and your company, and a professional tone so that it may be forwarded to any third party if needed. E-mail often serves to exchange information within organizations. Although e-mail may have an informal feel, remember that when used for business, it needs to convey professionalism and respect.

Never write or send anything that you wouldn’t want read in public or in front of your company president.

As with all writing, professional communications require attention to the specific writing context, and it may surprise you that even elements of form can indicate a writer’s strong understanding of audience and purpose. The principles explained here apply to the educational context as well; use them when communicating with your instructors and classroom peers.

• Open with a proper salutation. Proper salutations demonstrate respect and avoid mix-ups in case a

message is accidentally sent to the wrong recipient. For example, use a salutation like “Dear Ms. X” (external) or “Hi Barry” (internal).

• Include a clear, brief, and specific subject line. This helps the recipient understand the essence of the message. For example, “Proposal attached” or “Your question of 10/25.”

• Close with a signature. Identify yourself by creating a signature block that automatically contains your name and business contact information.

• Avoid abbreviations. An e-mail is not a text message, and the audience may not find your wit cause to ROTFLOL (roll on the floor laughing out loud).

• Be brief. Omit unnecessary words.

• Use a good format. Divide your message into brief paragraphs for ease of reading. A good e-mail should get to the point and conclude in three small paragraphs or less.

• Reread, revise, and review. Catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before you press “send.” It will take more time and effort to undo the problems caused by a hasty, poorly written e- mail than to get it right the first time.

• Reply promptly. Watch out for an emotional response—never reply in anger—but make a habit of replying to all e-mails within twenty-four hours, even if only to say that you will provide the requested information in forty-eight or seventy-two hours.

• Use “Reply All” sparingly. Do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial e-mail unless your message absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.

• Avoid using all caps. Capital letters are used on the Internet to communicate emphatic emotion or yelling and are considered rude.

• Test links. If you include a link, test it to make sure it is working.

• E-mail ahead of time if you are going to attach large files (audio and visual files are often quite large) to prevent exceeding the recipient’s mailbox limit or triggering the spam filter.

• Give feedback or follow up. If you don’t get a response in twenty-four hours, e-mail or call. Spam filters may have intercepted your message, so your recipient may never have received it.

Figure 1 shows a sample email that demonstrates the principles listed above.

Figure 1. Sample email

From: Steve Jobs <[email protected] To: Human Resources Division <hr Date: September 12, 2015 Subject: Safe Zone Training

Dear Colleagues:

Please consider signing up for the next available Safe Zone workshop College. As you know, our department is working toward increasing th Safe Zone volunteers in our area, and I hope several of you may be ava next workshop scheduled for Friday, October 9.

For more information on the Safe Zone program, please visit http://ww multicultural/safe-zone-training/

Please let me know if you will attend.

Steve Jobs

CEO Apple Computing [email protected]

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

1. 1. Netiquette

Netiquette refers to etiquette, or protocols and norms for communication, on the Internet. We create personal pages, post messages, and interact via online technologies as a normal part of our careers, but how we conduct ourselves can leave a lasting image, literally. The photograph you posted on your Facebook page or Twitter feed may have been seen by your potential employer, or that nasty remark in a post may come back to haunt you later.

Following several guidelines for online postings, as detailed below, can help you avoid embarrassment later.

• Introduce yourself.

• Avoid assumptions about your readers. Remember that culture influences communication style and practices.

• Familiarize yourself with policies on Acceptable Use of IT Resources at your organization. (COCC’s acceptable use policy can be found here: http://www.cocc.edu/its/computer-labs/acceptable- use-of-information-technology-resources/ )

• Remember there is a person behind the words. Ask for clarification before making judgement.

• Check your tone before you publish.

• Respond to people using their names.

• Remember that culture and even gender can play a part in how people communicate.

• Remain authentic and expect the same of others.

• Remember that people may not reply immediately. People participate in different ways, some just by reading the communication rather than jumping into it.

• Avoid jokes and sarcasm; they often don’t translate well to the online environment.

• Be judicious. What you say online is difficult to retract later.

• Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment.

• Agree on ground rules for text communication (formal or informal; seek clarification whenever needed, etc) if you are working collaboratively.

• Accept and forgive mistakes.

• Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment.

• Seek clarification before reacting.

• Ask your supervisor for guidance.*

• Quote the original author if you are responding to a specific point made by someone else.

• Ask the author of an email for permission before forwarding the communication.

This chapter was derived from Communicating Online: Netiquette by UBC Centre for Teaching, Learning and Technology – CC: BY-SA 4.0

1. 4 Memorandums

A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance.

A memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a call to action. All organizations have informal and formal communication

networks. The unofficial, informal communication network within an organization is often called the grapevine, and it is often characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo. On the grapevine, one person may hear that someone else is going to be laid off and start passing the news around.

Rumors change and transform as they are passed from person to person, and before you know it, the word is that they are shutting down your entire department.

One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all employees what is going on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be wise to send a memo explaining the changes that are imminent. If a company wants employees to take action, they may also issue a memorandum. For example, on February 13, 2009, upper management at the Panasonic Corporation issued a declaration that all employees should buy at least $1,600 worth of Panasonic products. The company president noted that if everyone supported the company with purchases, it would benefit all.Lewis, L. (2009, February 13). Panasonic orders staff to buy £1,000 in products. Retrieved from http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/ japan/article5723942.ece

While memos do not normally include a call to action that requires personal spending, they often represent the business or organization’s interests. They may also include statements that align business and employee interest, and underscore common ground and benefit.

A memo has a header that clearly indicates who sent it and who the intended recipients are. Pay particular attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section. Date and subject lines are also present, followed by a message that contains a declaration, a discussion, and a summary.

In a standard writing format, we might expect to see an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. All these are present in a memo, and each part has a clear purpose. The declaration in the opening uses a declarative sentence to announce the main topic. The discussion elaborates or lists major points associated with the topic, and the conclusion serves as a summary. Figure 2 provides a sample memo using the format explained above.

Figure 2. Sample memo (click image for an accessible PDF)

Memorandum To: Bella Jones, Shift supervisor, residential landscaping Garcia, owner, Landscaping Pros AG Date: May 1, 2015 Re: New proc yard waste As you may have heard, the city of Redmond has recently a collecting community yard waste. This will require only minor changes for dispensing of yard waste collected by our residential landscapers. E waste will be taken to the new facility on County Road 35. Please be su members know of this change. If you have any questions, don’t hesitate

Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo. An acronym or abbreviation that is known to management may not be known by all the employees of the organization, and if the memo is to be posted and distributed within the organization, the goal is clear and concise communication at all levels with no ambiguity.

Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the organization. While it may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself is linear, from the organization to the employees. The memo may have legal standing as it often reflects policies or procedures, and may reference an existing or new policy in the employee manual, for example.

The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If the memo is announcing the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the subject line—for example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance.”

Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but memorandums are always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.

Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without personal bias, preference, or interest on display. Avoid subjectivity.

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

1. 1. Letters

Letters are brief messages sent to recipients that are often outside the organization. They are often printed on letterhead paper, and represent the business or organization in one or two pages. Shorter messages may include e-mails or memos, either hard copy or electronic, while reports tend to be three or more pages in length. While e-mail and text messages may be used more frequently today, the effective

business letter remains a common form of written communication. It can serve to introduce you to a potential employer, announce a product or service, or even serve to communicate feelings and emotions. We’ll examine the basic outline of a letter and then focus on specific products or writing assignments.

All writing assignments have expectations in terms of language and format. The audience or readers may have their own ideas of what constitutes a specific type of letter, and your organization may have its own format and requirements. This chapter outlines common elements across letters, and attention should be directed to the expectations associated with your particular writing assignment. There are many types of letters, and many adaptations in terms of form and content, but in this chapter, we discuss the fifteen elements of a traditional block-style letter. Letters may serve to introduce your skills and qualifications to prospective employers, deliver important or specific information, or serve as documentation of an event or decision. Figure 3 demonstrates a cover letter that might introduce a technical report to its recipient.

Figure 3. Sample cover letter (click image for an accessible PDF)

A sample cover letter

Remember that a letter has five main areas:

1. The heading, which names the recipient, often including address and date

2. The introduction, which establishes the purpose

3. The body, which articulates the message

4. The conclusion, which restates the main point and may include a call to action

5. The signature line, which sometimes includes the contact information

Always remember that letters represent you and your company in your absence. In order to communicate effectively and project a positive image, remember that

• your language should be clear, concise, specific, and respectful;

• each word should contribute to your purpose;

• each paragraph should focus on one idea;

• the parts of the letter should form a complete message;

• the letter should be free of errors.

Cover letters. When you send a report or some other document to your supervisor, send it with a cover letter that briefly explains the purpose of the report and your major

findings. Although your supervisor may have authorized the project and received periodic updates from you, s/he probably has many other employees and projects going and would benefit from a reminder about your work.

Letters of inquiry. You may want to request information about a company or organization such as whether they anticipate job openings in the near future or whether they fund grant proposals from non-profit groups. In this case, you would send a letter of inquiry, asking for additional information. As with most business letters, keep your request brief, introducing yourself in the opening paragraph and then clearly stating your purpose and/or request in the second paragraph. If you need very specific information, consider placing your requests in list form for clarity.

Conclude in a friendly way that shows appreciation for the help you will receive.

Job application letters. Whether responding to job announcements online or on paper, you are likely to write a job application letter introducing yourself and your skills to a potential employer. This letter often sets a first impression of you, so demonstrate professionalism in your format, language use, and proofreading of your work.

Depending on the type of job you are seeking, application letters will vary in length and content. In business, letters are typically no more than one page and simply highlight skills and qualifications that appear in an accompanying resume. In education, letters are typically more fully developed and contain a more detailed discussion of the applicant’s experience and how that experience can benefit the institution. These letters provide information that is not necessarily evident in an enclosed resume or curriculum vitae.

Follow-up letters. Any time you have made a request of someone, write a follow-up letter expressing your appreciation for the time your letter-recipient has taken to respond to your needs or consider your job application. If you have had a job interview, the follow-up letter thanking the interviewer for his/her time is especially important for demonstrating your professionalism and attention to detail.

Letters within the professional context may take on many other purposes, but these four types of letters are some of the most common that you will encounter. For additional examples of professional letters, take a look at the sample letters provided by David McMurrey in his online textbook on technical writing: https://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/ textbook/models.html

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

1. Audience Analysis

The audience of a technical report—or any piece of writing for that matter—is the intended or potential reader or readers. For most technical writers, this is the most

important consideration in planning, writing, and reviewing a document. You “adapt” your writing to meet the needs, interests, and background of the readers who will be reading your writing. In reality, the lack of audience analysis and adaptation is one of the root causes of most of the problems you find in professional, technical documents—particularly instructions where it surfaces most glaringly.

Note: Once you’ve read this chapter on audiences, try using the audience planner. You fill in blanks with answers to questions about your audience and then e-mail it to yourself and, optionally, to your instructor. Use the audience planner for any writing project as a way of getting yourself to think about your audience in detail.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Types of audiences

One of the first things to do when you analyze and audience is to identify its type (or types—it’s rarely just one type). The common division of audiences into categories is as follows:

• Experts: These are the people who know the business or organization (and possibly the theory and the product) inside and out. They designed it,

they tested it, they know everything about it. Often, they have advanced degrees and operate in academic settings or in research and development areas of the government and technology worlds.

• Technicians: These are the people who build, operate, maintain, and repair the items that the experts design and theorize about. Theirs is a highly technical knowledge as well, but of a more practical nature.

• Executives: These are the people who make business, economic, administrative, legal, governmental, political decisions about the products of the experts and technicians. Executives are likely to have as little technical knowledge about the subject as nonspecialists. For many of you, this will be the primary audience for your report.

• Nonspecialists: These readers have the least technical knowledge of all. They want to use the new product to accomplish their tasks; they want to understand the new power technology enough to know whether to vote for or against it in the upcoming bond election. Or, they may just be curious about a specific technical matter and want to learn about it—but for no specific, practical reason. Chances are, these readers will represent your secondary audience.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Audience analysis

It’s important to determine which of the four categories just discussed represent your potential audience(s), but that’s not the end of it. Audiences, regardless of category, must also be analyzed in terms of characteristics such as the following:

• Background—knowledge, experience, training: One of your most important concerns is just how much knowledge, experience, or training you can expect in your readers. If you expect some of your readers to lack certain background, do you automatically supply it in your document? Consider an example: imagine you are writing a guide to using a software product that runs under Microsoft Windows. How much can you expect your readers to know about Windows? If some are likely to know little about Windows, should you provide that information? If you say no, then you run the risk of customers getting frustrated with your product. If you say yes to adding background information on Windows, you increase your work effort and add to the page count of the document (and thus to the cost). Obviously, there’s no easy answer to this question—part of the answer may

involve just how small a segment of the audience needs that background information.

• Needs and interests: To plan your document, you need to know what your audience is going to expect from that document. Imagine how readers will want to use your document; what they will demand from it. For example, imagine you are writing a manual on how to use a new smartphone—what are your readers going to expect to find in it? Imagine you are under contract to write a background report on global warming for a national real estate association—what do readers want to read about; and, equally important, what do they not want to read about?

• Other demographic characteristics: And of course there are many other characteristics about your readers that might have an influence on how you should design and write your document—for example, age groups, type of residence, area of residence, gender, political preferences, and so on.

Audience analysis can get complicated by at least two other factors: mixed audience types for one document, wide variability within audience, and unknown audiences.

• More than one audience: You are likely to find that your report is for more than one audience. For example, it may be seen by technical people (experts and technicians) and administrative people (executives). What should you do in this case? You can either write all the sections so that all the audiences of your document can understand them. Or you can write each section strictly for the audience that would be interested in it, then use headings and section introductions to alert your

audience about where to find relevant information in your report.

• Wide variability in an audience: You may realize that, although you have an audience that fits into only one category, its background varies widely. This is a tough one—if you write to the lowest common denominator of reader, you are likely to end up with a cumbersome, tedious book-like report that will turn off the majority of readers. However, if you don’t write to that lowest level, you lose that segment of your readers. What should you do? Most writers go for the majority of readers and sacrifice that minority that needs more help. Others put the supplemental information in appendixes or insert cross-references to beginners’ books.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Adapting your writing to meet your audience’s needs

Once you’ve analyzed your audience, how do you use this information? How do you keep from writing something that may potentially still be incomprehensible or useless to your readers? Draft your document with your audience’s needs in mind, but remember that writing can be refined over

many drafts. With each subsequent draft, think more carefully about your readers, and revise and edit your document so that you make technical information more understandable for nonspecialist audiences. The lists below are some of the ways you can adapt your writing to your audience’s needs.

The following “controls” have mostly to do with making technical information more understandable for nonspecialist audiences and is information you will refine as you begin to put your final report together. However, it is a good idea to be aware of your audience’s needs even in the early stages of your report drafting.

Add information readers need to understand your document. Check to see whether certain key information is missing—for example, a critical series of steps from a set of instructions; important background that helps beginners understand the main discussion; definition of key terms.

Omit information your readers do not need. Unnecessary information can also confuse and frustrate readers—after all, it’s there so they feel obligated to read it. For example, you can probably chop theoretical discussion from basic instructions.

Change the level of the information you currently have. You may have the right information but it may be “pitched” at too high or too low a technical level. It may be pitched at

the wrong kind of audience—for example, at an expert audience rather than a technician audience. This happens most often when product-design notes are passed off as instructions.

Add examples to help readers understand. Examples are one of the most powerful ways to connect with audiences, particularly in instructions. Even in a non-instructional text, for example, when you are trying to explain a technical concept, examples are a major help—analogies in particular.

Change the level of your examples. You may be using examples but the technical content or level may not be appropriate to your readers. Homespun examples may not be useful to experts; highly technical ones may totally miss your nonspecialist readers.

Change the organization of your information. Sometimes, you can have all the right information but arrange it in the wrong way. For example, there can be too much background information up front (or too little) such that certain readers get lost. Sometimes, background information needs to be consolidated into the main information—for example, in instructions it’s sometimes better to feed in chunks of background at the points where they are immediately needed.

Strengthen transitions. It may be difficult for readers,

particularly nonspecialists, to see the connections between the main sections of your report, between individual paragraphs, and sometimes even between individual sentences. You can make these connections much clearer by adding transition words and by echoing key words more accurately. Words like “therefore,” “for example,” “however” are transition words—they indicate the logic connecting the previous thought to the upcoming thought. You can also strengthen transitions by carefully echoing the same key words. A report describing new software for architects might use the word software several times on the same page or even in the same paragraph. In technical prose, it’s not a good idea to vary word choice—use the same words so that people don’t get any more confused than they may already be.

Write stronger introductions—both for the whole document and for major sections. People seem to read with more confidence and understanding when they have the “big picture”—a view of what’s coming, and how it relates to what they’ve just read. Therefore, write a strong introduction to the entire document—one that makes clear the topic, purpose, audience, and contents of that document.

And for each major section within your document, use mini-introductions that indicate at least the topic of the section and give an overview of the subtopics to be covered in that section.

Create topic sentences for paragraphs and paragraph groups. It can help readers immensely to give them an idea of the topic and purpose of a section (a group of paragraphs) and in particular to give them an overview of the subtopics about to be covered. Road maps help when you’re in a different state!

Change sentence style and length. How you write—down at the individual sentence level—can make a big difference too. In instructions, for example, using imperative voice and “you” phrasing is vastly more understandable than the passive voice or third-personal phrasing. For some reason, personalizing your writing style and making it more relaxed and informal can make it more accessible and understandable. Passive, person-less writing is harder to read—put people and action in your writing. Similarly, go for active verbs as opposed to be verb phrasing. All of this makes your writing more direct and immediate—readers don’t have to dig for it. And obviously, sentence length matters as well. An average of somewhere between 15 and 25 words per sentence is about right; sentences over 30 words are to be mistrusted.

Edit for sentence clarity and economy. This is closely related to the previous “control” but deserves its own spot. Often, writing style can be so wordy that it is hard or frustrating to read. When you revise your rough drafts, put them on a diet—go through a draft line by line trying to reduce the overall word, page, or line count by 20 percent. Try it as an experiment and see how you do. You’ll find a lot of fussy, unnecessary detail and inflated phrasing you can chop out.

Add and vary graphics. For nonspecialist audiences, you may want to use more graphics—and simpler ones at that. Graphics for specialists are more detailed, more technical. In technical documents for nonspecialists, there also tend to be more “decorative” graphics—ones that are attractive but serve no strict informative or persuasive purpose at all.

Break text up or consolidate text into meaningful, usable chunks. For nonspecialist readers, you may need to have shorter paragraphs. Maybe a 6- to 8-line paragraph is the usual maximum. Notice how much longer paragraphs are in technical documents written for specialists.

Add cross-references to important information. In technical information, you can help nonspecialist readers by pointing them to background sources. If you can’t fully explain a topic on the spot, point to a section or chapter where it is.

Use headings and lists. Readers can be intimidated by big dense paragraphs of writing, uncut by anything other than a blank line now and then. Search your rough drafts for ways to incorporate headings—look for changes in topic or subtopic. Search your writing for listings of things—these can be made into vertical lists. Look for paired listings such as terms and their definitions—these can be made into two- column lists. Of course, be careful not to force this special formatting, and don’t overdo it.

length, line spacing, type size, and type style. For nonspecialist readers, you can do things like making the lines shorter (bringing in the margins), using larger type sizes, and other such tactics. Typically, sans-serif fonts, such as Ariel, are useful for online readers. Serif fonts, such as Time New Roman, are useful for print texts.

By now you should be able to see that many of the decisions you make as a technical writer depend on who will read your report. From content, to language, to layout, every aspect of your communication must keep your reader’s needs in mind.

We will spend time later in our course expanding our discussion of audience when the time comes to put your report together. At that time, we will discuss document design–an important consideration that can help tremendously in making your document professional and easy to read.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. Proposals

This chapter focuses on the proposal—the kind of document that gets you or your organization approved or hired to complete a project. It is your opportunity to pitch

your idea for change (often times an improvement) within an organization. Proposals often demonstrate that a problem exists that needs addressing and address a very specific audience with the authority to move your suggestions forward.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Some preliminaries

In a technical writing course, the proposal assignment is an opportunity for you to present an idea to a specific, named audience about an idea you have to improve a certain aspect of that company, organization, center, or other business. Whatever topic you choose, you must be able to conduct thorough scholarly research that you will integrate into your final report.

To begin planning a proposal, remember the basic definition: a proposal is an offer or bid to complete a project for someone. Proposals may contain other elements—technical background, recommendations, results of surveys, information about feasibility, and so on. But what makes a proposal a proposal is that it asks the audience to approve, fund, or grant permission to do the proposed project.

A proposal should contain information that would enable

the audience of that proposal to decide whether to approve the project, to approve or hire you to do the work, or both. To write a successful proposal, put yourself in the place of your audience—the recipient of the proposal—and think about what sorts of information that person would need in order to feel confident having you complete the project.

It is easy to confuse proposals with other kinds of documents in technical writing. Imagine that you have a terrific idea for installing some new technology where you work, and you write up a document explaining how it work, showing the benefits, and then urging management to install it. Is that a proposal? All by itself, this would not be a complete proposal. It would be more like a feasibility report, which studies the merits of a project and then recommends for or against it. However, all it would take to make this document a proposal would be to add elements that ask management for approval for you to go ahead with the project. Additionally, for some technical writing classes offered in college, one of those elements may be scholarly research. Check with your instructor to see if this is the case. Certainly, some writers of proposals must sell the projects they propose, but in all cases, proposals must sell the writer (or the writer’s organization) as the one to complete the project.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Types of proposals

Consider the situations in which proposals occur. A company may send out a public announcement requesting proposals for a specific project. This public announcement—called a request for proposals (RFP)—could be issued through websites, emails, social media, newspapers, or trade journals. Firms or individuals interested in the project would then write proposals in which they summarize their qualifications, project schedules and costs, and discuss their approach to the project. The recipient of all these proposals would then evaluate them, select the best candidate, and then work up a contract.

But proposals also come about much less formally. Imagine that you are interested in doing a project at work (for example, investigating the merits of bringing in some new technology to increase productivity). Imagine that you met with your supervisor and tried to convince her of this. She might respond by saying, “Write me a proposal and I’ll present it to upper management.” This is more like the kind of proposal you will write in a technical writing course.

Most proposals can be divided into several categories:

• Internal, external: A proposal to someone within your organization (a business, a government agency, etc.) is an internal proposal. With internal proposals, you may not have to include certain sections (such as qualifications) or as much information in them. An external proposal is one written from one separate, independent organization or individual to another such entity.

The typical example is the independent consultant proposing to do a project for another firm. This kind of proposal may be solicited or unsolicited, as explained below.

• Solicited, unsolicited: A solicited proposal is one in which the recipient has requested the proposal. Typically, a company will send out requests for proposals (RFPs) through the mail or publish them in some news source. But proposals can be solicited on a very local level: for example, you could be explaining to your boss what a great thing it would be to install a new technology in the office; your boss might get interested and ask you to write up a proposal that offered to do a formal study of the idea. Unsolicited proposals are those in which the recipient has not requested proposals. With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes must convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before you can begin the main part of the proposal.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Typical scenarios for the proposal

Many of you may have never given much thought to producing a technical report based on a viable proposal. Several sample topics are included on the assignment sheet; here are some additional ideas:

• Imagine that a company has a problem or wants to make some sort of improvement. The company sends out a request for proposals; you receive one and respond with a proposal. You offer to come in, investigate, interview, make recommendations—and present it all in the form of a report.

• An organization wants a seminar in your expertise. You write a proposal to give the seminar—included in the package deal is a guide or handbook that the people attending the seminar will receive.

• An agency has just started using a new online data system, but the user’s manual is technically complex and difficult to read. You receive a request for proposals from this agency to write a simplified guide or startup guide.

• Imagine that a nonprofit organization focused on a particular issue wants an consultant to write a handbook or guide for its membership. This document will present information on the issue in a way that the members can understand.

Not all research topics are appropriate for technical writing. Topics that are based on values and beliefs do not fall into the category of technical. Historical and literary topics do not qualify.

If your technical writing course requires that you integrate scholarly research into your final report, choose a topic for which you can readily find such material. While interviews and other first-hand sources are often valuable to a report, one that relies heavily on these sources will not meet the outcomes of this course.

Always check with your instructor about any topic ideas you have before starting on your project.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Common sections in proposals

The following provides a review of the sections you will commonly find in proposals. Do not assume that each one of them has to be in the actual proposal you write, nor that they have to be in the order they are presented here. Refer to the assignment sheet provided by your instructor and consider other kinds of information unique to your topic that should be included in your particular proposal.

Introduction. Plan the introduction to your proposal carefully. Make sure it does all of the following things (but not necessarily in this order) that apply to your particular proposal:

• Indicate that the content of the memo is a proposal for a specific project.

• Develop at least one brief motivating statement that will encourage the recipient to read on and to consider approving the project (especially if it is an unsolicited or competitive proposal).

• Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.

Background on the problem, opportunity, or situation. Often occurring just after the introduction, the background section discusses what has brought about the need for the project—what problem, what opportunity exists for improving things, what the basic situation is. For example, management of a chain of day care centers may need to ensure that all employees know CPR because of new state mandates requiring it, or an owner of pine timber land in eastern Oregon may want to get the land producing saleable timber without destroying the environment.

While the named audience of the proposal may know the problem very well, writing the background section is useful in demonstrating your particular view of the problem. Also, if the the proposal is unsolicited, a background section is almost a requirement—you will probably need to convince the audience that the problem or opportunity exists and that it should be addressed.

Benefits and feasibility of the proposed project. Most proposals briefly discuss the advantages or benefits of completing the proposed project. This acts as a type of argument in favor of approving the project. Also, some proposals discuss the likelihood of the project’s success. In an unsolicited proposal, this section is especially important—you are trying to “sell” the audience on the project.

Description of the proposed work (results of the project). Most proposals must describe the finished product of the proposed project. In a technical writing course, that means describing the written document you propose to write, its audience and purpose; providing an outline; and discussing such things as its length, graphics, binding, and so forth. In the scenario you define, there may

be other work such as conducting training seminars or providing an ongoing service. At this early stage, you might not know all that it will take to complete your project, but you should at least have an idea of some of the steps required.

Method, procedure, theory. In some proposals, you will need to explain how you will go about completing the proposed work. This acts as an additional persuasive element; it shows the audience you have a sound, thoughtful approach to the project. Also, it serves to demonstrate that you have the knowledge of the field to complete the project.

Schedule. Most proposals contain a section that shows not only the projected completion date but also key milestones for the project. If you are doing a large project spreading over many months, the timeline would also show dates on which you would deliver progress reports. If you cannot cite specific dates, cite amounts of time for each phase of the project.

Costs, resources required. Most proposals also contain a section detailing the costs of the project, whether internal or external. With external projects, you may need to list your hourly rates, projected hours, costs of equipment and supplies, and so forth, and then calculate the total cost of the complete project. Internal projects, of course, are not free, so you should still list the project costs: hours you will need to complete the project, equipment and supplies you will be using, assistance from other people in the organization, and so on.

Conclusions. The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring readers back to a focus on the positive aspects

of the project. In the final section, you can urge them to contact you to work out the details of the project, remind them of the benefits of doing the project, and maybe make one last argument for you or your organization as the right choice for the project.

Special project-specific sections. Remember that the preceding sections are typical or common in written proposals, not absolute requirements. Always ask yourself what else might your audience need to understand the project, the need for it, the benefits arising from it, your role in it, and your qualifications to do it. What else do they need to see in order to approve the project and to approve you to do it?

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Special assignment requirements

Depending on the writing situation, your proposal may need to include other specialized elements as well. Your supervisor might ask you to include in your proposal any of the following:

Audience: Describe the audience of the final report (which may be different than the audience for the proposal). You may need to discuss for whom the report is designed, their

titles and jobs, their technical background, and their ability to understand the report.

Information sources: List information sources; make sure you know that there is adequate information for your topic; list citations for specific books, articles, reference works, other kinds of sources that you think will contribute to your report.

Graphics: List the graphics you think your report will need according to their type and their content. (If you cannot think of any your report would need, you may not have a good topic—do some brainstorming with your instructor.)

Outline: Include an outline of the topics and subtopics you think you will cover in your report.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Proposals and audience

Remember that, in a technical writing course, the proposal assignment serves several purposes: (1) it gives you some experience in writing a proposal; (2) it gets you started planning your term report; (3) it gives your instructor a chance to work with you on your project, to make sure you have a viable topic. For the second and third reasons, you need to include specific elements in your proposal (as noted

in your assignment sheet) some of which may not seem appropriate in a real-world proposal.

The proposal is often the beginning of a weeks-long research and writing process that goes through many stages until it gets to the end point: the technical report. In this case, you only submit the proposal once during this process. After that, you may write and submit different types of documents: a progress report, an outline, an annotated bibliography, a graphics draft, a report draft, and a final report. Be careful to use the term “proposal” only if you are specifically referring to the proposal stage of your project.

Another point to keep in mind relates to the audience for different kinds of documents that may be produced for the same project. Consider the example of a proposal written to a supervisor at a solar power company suggesting the creation of a policy manual for residential solar panel installers. The proposal’s audience may be an executive, whose knowledge of the technicalities may be very broad. Let’s imagine the executive approves the proposal and requests completion of the manual, which will be produced well after the proposal. The manual’s audience is the technicians, who may have more specialized knowledge than the executive. The content and language used for these two different audiences will need to be adjusted to fit the writing situation. (For more on this, review the chapter on Audience Analysis.)

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Revision checklist for proposals

As you review and revise your proposal, keep the following in mind:

• Use the right format. Check with your instructor to insure you are using the format requested and look at any samples provided.

• Write a clear summary of (or introduction to) your proposal topic.

• Identify exactly what you are proposing to do.

• Insure that a report—a written document—is somehow involved in the project you are proposing to do if that is what your instructor has assigned.

• Insure that the sections of your proposal are in a logical, natural order and that you use sub-headers and bullets (and any other formatting styles) correctly.

• Address the proposal to your named audience—not your instructor.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. Information Literacy

What does it mean to be information literate? Simply stated, information literate individuals “know how to find, evaluate and use information effectively.”American Library Association. (1989). Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/ presidential.

In college, you typically find, evaluate, and use information to satisfy the requirements of an assignment. Assignments often specify what kind of information you need and what tools you should use – or avoid – in your research. For example, your professor may specify that you need three peer-reviewed resources from academic articles and that you should not cite Wikipedia in your final paper.

However, in life beyond college – especially the work world – you may not have that kind of specific guidance. You need to be information literate in order to plan and perform your own research efficiently, effectively, and with the needs of your audience in mind.

You might be thinking, “Research? I’ve got that covered. That’s what the Internet is for, right?” In fact, it is much more than doing a simple search engine query and reviewing the first ten results it returns. A 2012 study by Project Information Literacy (PIL) interviewed 33 employers and found that they were dissatisfied with the research skills of recently graduated hires. Employers cited recent graduates’ over-reliance on online search tools and the first page of results as reasons for their dissatisfaction. Research performed by recent graduates was too superficial and lacked analysis and synthesis of multiple types of

information from a variety of sources.Head, A.J. (2012). Learning Curve: How College Graduates Solve Problems Once They Join the Workforce. (Project Information Literacy Research Report: The Passage Series). Retrieved from http://projectinfolit.org/images/pdfs/ pil_fall2012_workplacestudy_fullreport_revised.pdf.

In this chapter, you will learn

• how to identify different information formats;

• where to conduct your research;

• how to search effectively;

• how to evaluate sources you find;

• how to cite sources;

• what plagiarism is and how to avoid it.

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Information Formats derived from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

• Information Formats: Primary and Secondary Information Sources derived from Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

• Information Formats: Popular, Professional, and Scholarly Information derived from Magazines, Trade Journals, and Scholarly Journals by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

• The Information Timeline derived from Information Timeline by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

• The Research Cycle derived from A Cycle of Revolving Research by UC Libraries, CC: BY-NC- SA 3.0

• Research Tools derived from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

• Search Strategies: Develop Effective Keywords derived from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

• Search Strategies: Advanced Search Techniques derived from Database Search Tips: Boolean Operators by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

• Evaluate Sources derived from Evaluating Information by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY- NC-SA 4.0

1. 1. Information formats

Traditionally, information has been organized in different formats, usually because of the time it takes to gather and publish the information. For example, the purpose of news reporting is to inform the public about the basic facts of an event. This information needs to be disseminated quickly, so it is published daily in print, online, on broadcast television, and radio media.

Today, publication of information in traditional formats continues as well as in constantly evolving formats on the Internet. These new information formats can include electronic journals, e-books, news websites, blogs, Twitter,

Facebook, and other social media sites. The coexistence of all of these information formats is messy and chaotic, and the process for finding relevant information is not always clear.

One way to make some sense out of the current information universe is to understand thoroughly traditional information formats. You can then understand the concepts inherent in the information formats found online. There are some direct correlations such as books and journal articles, but there are also some newer formats like tweets that didn’t exist until recently.

Primary sources allow researchers to get as close as possible to original ideas, events, and empirical research as possible. Such sources may include creative works, first hand or contemporary accounts of events, and the publication of the results of empirical observations or research.

Examples of primary sources are interviews, letters, emails, Tweets, Facebook posts, photographs, speeches, newspaper or magazine articles written at the time of an event, works of literature, lab notes, field research, and published scientific research.

Secondary sources analyze, review, or summarize information in primary resources or other secondary resources. Even sources presenting facts or descriptions

about events are secondary unless they are based on direct participation or observation. Secondary sources analyze the primary sources.

Examples of secondary sources are journal articles, books, literature reviews, literary criticism, meta-analyses of scientific studies, documentaries, biographies, and textbooks.

Sometimes the line between primary and secondary sources blurs. For example, although newspapers and news websites contain primary source material, they also contain secondary source material. For example, an article published on November 6, 2012 about the results of the US presidential election would be a primary source, because it was written on the day of the event. However, an article published in the same paper two weeks later analyzing how the successful candidate raised money for his campaign would be a secondary source.

Table 1. Examples of primary and secondary sources for technical writing

Interview with subject matter expert

Documentary on an issue or problem

Surveydata News article about scientific study

Published scientific study Literature review ona

research topic

At some point in your college career, you will be asked to find peer-reviewed resources on your research topic. Your professor may explain that these appear in scholarly journals. You may wonder what makes a scholarly journal article different from an article in a magazine, like National Geographic or Sports Illustrated.

Popular magazines like People, Sports Illustrated, and Rolling Stone can be good sources for articles on recent events or pop-culture topics, while magazines like Harper’s, Scientific American, and The New Republic will offer more in-depth articles on a wider range of subjects. The audience for these publications are readers who, although not experts, are knowledgeable about the issues presented.

Professional journals, also called trade journals, address an audience of professionals in a specific discipline or field. They report news and trends in a field, but not original research. They may also provide product or service reviews, job listings, and advertisements.

Scholarly journals provide articles of interest to experts or researchers in a discipline. An editorial board of respected scholars in a discipline (peers of the authors) reviews all articles submitted to a journal. They decide if the article provides a noteworthy contribution to the field and should be published. Scholarly journals contain few or no advertisements. Scholarly journal articles will include references of works cited and may also have footnotes or endnotes, all of which rarely appear in popular or professional publications.

Peer review is a widely accepted indicator of quality scholarship in a given discipline or field. Peer-reviewed (or refereed) journals are scholarly journals that only publish articles that have passed through this review process.

You can better understand peer-review by watching the video “Peer Review in 3 Minutes.”

Video credit: Peer Review in 3 Minutes by NCSU Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

Video credit: Peer Review in 3 Minutes by NCSU Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

Table 2. Differences among magazines, professional journals, and scholarly journals

Example

National Geographic magazine cover

Food Technology professional publication cover

Journal of Morphology cover

Magazine Professional journal Academic jou

Audience Generalpublic People employed in Researchers,

a field experts

Bibliography No Sometimes Yes

• Long

• Articles

narro

will be of

focus

interest to those

• Spec voca

• • Overview

working in

• Artic

Article

• Current events

that field

struc

length/depth

• General

• Purpose

usual

interest

will be to

conta

Structure

articles

offer

abstr

advice and

litera

tips to those in the trade

revie meth resul conc refer

Review policy

Magazine editor

Magazine editor and possibly a board

Editorial boa scholars in th

Peer-reviewe

Author Journalist or specialist Someoneworking

in the field

Researcher/e the field

• • Glossy

• Glossy

• Leng

Appearance

• Many graphics

• Advertising

articl

• • Many

specific to

• Ofte

advertisements that trade

inclu chart grap

statis

• • Little adve

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Information Formats derived from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

• Information Formats: Primary and Secondary Information Sources derived from Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

• Information Formats: Popular, Professional, and Scholarly Information derived from Magazines, Trade Journals, and Scholarly Journals by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

1. 1. The information timeline

Another difference in popular, professional, and scholarly sources lies in when information appears in these types of sources. Information about an event or issue appears in publications according to a predictable pattern known as

the information timeline. Familiarity with the information timeline can help you best plan your research topics and where to search for information. For example, it typically takes several months to years for information about an event or issue to appear in scholarly publications. If you choose a topic that is very recent, you may have to rely more heavily on news media, popular magazines, and primary sources (such as interviews you conduct) for your research.

Table 3. The information timeline and typical sources.

Time: Day of

Days later Weeks later Months later Year(s)

event

Scholar journal books,

Newspapers, Popular and

Professional

confere

Sources Television, TV, radio,

mass market and

proceed

radio, web web

magazines

scholarly

journals Referen

sources as encyclo

General:

Varies, some

Still in

Research results,

In-dept

who, what, articles

reporting

detailed and

coverag

Type of

where

include

stage,

theoretical

topic,

information (usually

not why)

analysis, statistics,

general, editorial,

discussion

compil of scho

photographs, opinions, editorials,

Bibliography articles

relating topic

statistics, photographs

Genera

opinions

available at

overvie

Usually no

this stage

giving

bibliography informa

at this stage

Bibliog availab

Library catalog

Web search

Web search tools,

Web search tools,

General and

general subject

Locating

tools,

newspaper

newspaper

subject-

specific

tools

social

and

and

specific

databas

networks

periodical

periodical

databases

databases

databases

Library

referen collecti

The Information Timeline derived from Information Timeline by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

1. 1. The research cycle

Although information publication follows a linear timeline, the research process itself is not linear. For example, you might start by trying to read scholarly articles, only to discover that you lack the necessary background knowledge to use a scholarly article effectively. To increase your background information, you might consult an encyclopedia or a book on your topic. Or, you may encounter a statement in a newspaper editorial that inspires you to consult the scholarly literature to see if research supports the statement.

The important thing to remember is that you will probably start your research at different points and move around among resource types depending on the type of information you need.

Figure 1. The research cycle

An image showing various types of resources and the type of informati them, with arrows pointing back and forth.

Image Credit: A Cycle of Revolving Research by UC Libraries, CC: B

The Research Cycle derived from A Cycle of Revolving Research by UC Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0

1. 1. Research tools

Very often, you will want articles on your topic, and the easiest way to find articles is to use a research database – a specialized search engine for finding articles and other types of content. For example, if your topic is residential solar power, you can use a research database to look in thousands of journal titles at once and find the latest scientific and technical research articles – articles that don’t always show up in your Google searches. Depending on the database you are using, you might also find videos, images, diagrams, or e-books on your topic, too. Most databases require subscriptions for access; check with your college, public, or corporate library to see what databases they subscribe to for you to use. Whether they are subscription- based or free, research databases contain records of journal articles, documents, book chapters, and other resources and are not tied to the physical items available at any one library. Many databases provide the full-text of articles and can be searched by keyword, subject, author, or title. A few databases provide just the citations for articles, but they

usually also provide tools for you to find the full text in another database or request it through interlibrary loan. Databases are made up of records, and records contain fields, as explained below:

• Records: A record describes one information item (e.g., journal article, book chapter, image, etc.).

• Fields: These are part of the record, and they contain descriptions of specific elements of the information item such as the title, author, publication date, and subject.

• Controlled vocabulary: Look for the label subject term, subject heading or descriptor. Regardless of label, this field contains controlled vocabulary, which are designated terms or phrases for describing concepts. It’s important because it pulls together all of the items in that database about one topic. For example, imagine you are searching for information on community colleges. Different authors may call community colleges by different names: junior colleges, 2-year colleges, or technical colleges. If the controlled vocabulary term in the database you are searching is “community colleges,” then your one search will pull up all results, regardless of what term the author uses.

Databases may seem intimidating at first, but you likely use databases in everyday life. For example, do you store contact information in your phone? If so, you create a record for everyone for whom you want to store information. In each of those records, you enter descriptions into fields: first and last name, phone number, email address, and physical address. If you wanted to organize your contacts, you might put them into groups of

“work,” “family,” and “friends.” That would be your controlled vocabulary for your own database of contacts.

The image below shows a detailed record for a journal article from a common research database, Academic Search Premier. The fields and controlled vocabulary are labeled.

Figure 2. Fields and controlled vocabulary

Examples of fields and controlled vocabulary in a library database

Databases that contain resources for many subject areas are referred to as general or multidisciplinary databases. This means that they are good starting points for research because they allow you to search a large number of sources from a wide variety of disciplines. Content types in general databases often include a mix of professional publications, scholarly journals, newspapers, magazines, books, and multimedia.

Common general databases in academic settings include

• Academic Search Premier

• Academic OneFile

• JSTOR

Databases devoted to a single subject are known as subject- specific or specialized databases. Often, they search a smaller number of journals or a specific type of content.

Specialized databases can be very powerful search tools after you have selected a narrow research topic or if you already have a great deal of expertise in a particular area. They will help you find information you would not find in a general database. If you are not sure which specialized databases are available for your topic, check your library’s website for subject guides, or ask a librarian.

Specialized databases may also focus on offering one specific content type like streaming films, music, images, statistics, or data sets.

Table 4. Examples of specialized databases and their subject focus

Database Subject Focus PsycInfo Psychology BioOne Life Sciences MEDLINE Medicine/health ARTstor Fine arts images

A library catalog is a database that contains all of the items located in a library as well as all of the items to which the library offers access, either in physical or online format. It allows you to search for items by title, author, subject, and keyword. Like research databases, library catalogs use controlled vocabulary to allow for powerful searching using specific terms or phrases.

If you locate a physical item in a catalog, you will need the call number to find the item in the library. A call number is

like a street address for a book; it tells you exactly where the book is on the shelf. Most academic libraries will use the Library of Congress classification system, and the call numbers start with letters, followed by a mix of numbers and letters. In addition to helping you find a book, call numbers group items about a given topic together in a physical place. The image below shows an example of the location of a call number in a library catalog.

Figure 3. A call number in an online library catalog display Example of a call number in a library catalog

Along with physical items, most libraries also provide access to scholarly e-books, streaming films, and e-journals via their catalogs. For students and faculty, these resources are usually available from any computer, meaning you do not have to go to the library and retrieve items from the shelf.

In the course of your research you will almost certainly find yourself in a situation where you have a citation for a journal article or book that your institution’s library doesn’t have. There is a wealth of knowledge contained in the resources of academic and public libraries throughout the

United States. Single libraries cannot hope to collect all of the resources available on a topic. Fortunately, libraries are happy to share their resources and they do this through consortia membership and interlibrary loan (ILL). Library consortia are groups of libraries that have special agreements with one another to loan materials to one another’s users. Both academic and public libraries belong to consortia.

Central Oregon Community College (COCC) belongs to a consortium of 37 academic libraries in the Pacific Northwest called the Orbis Cascade Alliance, which sponsors a shared lending program called Summit. When you search the COCC Library Catalog, your results will include items from other Summit institutions, which you can request and have delivered to the COCC campus of your choice.

Interlibrary loan (ILL) allows you to borrow books, articles and other information resources regardless of where they are located. If you find an article when searching a database that COCC doesn’t have full text access to, you can request it through the interlibrary loan program. If you cannot get a book or DVD from COCC or another Summit library, you could also request it through interlibrary loan. Interlibrary loan services are available at both academic and public libraries.

Another important source of information is the government. Official United States government websites end in .gov and provide a wealth of credible information, including

statistics, technical reports, economic data, scientific and medical research, and, of course, legislative information. Unlike research databases, government information is typically freely available without a subscription.

USA.gov is a search engine for government information and is a good place to begin your search, though specialized search tools are also available for many topics. State governments also have their own websites and search tools that you might find helpful if your topic has a state- specific angle. If you get lost in searching government information, ask a librarian for help. They usually have special training and knowledge in navigating government information.

Table 5. Examples of specialized government sources and their subject focus

Subject Focus

PubMed Central Medicine/health

ERIC Education

Congress.gov Legislation and the legislative process

People are a valuable, though often overlooked, source. This might be particularly appropriate if you are working on an emerging topic or a topic with local connections.

For personal interviews, there are specific steps you can take to obtain better results. Do some background work on

the topic before contacting the person you hope to interview. The more familiarity you have with your topic and its terminology, the easier it will be to ask focused questions. Focused questions are important for effective research. Asking general questions because you think the specifics might be too detailed rarely leads to the best information. Acknowledge the time and effort someone is taking to answer your questions, but also realize that people who are passionate about subjects enjoy sharing what they know. Take the opportunity to ask experts about additional resources they would recommend.

For a successful, productive interview, review this list of Interview Tips before conducting your interview.

Research Tools derived from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

1. 1. Search strategies

Now that you know more about the research tools available to you, it’s time to consider how to construct searches that will allow you to find the most relevant, useful results as efficiently as possible.

The single most important search strategy is to choose effective search terms. This may seem obvious, but it is too often overlooked, with deleterious consequences. When deciding what terms to use in a search, break down your topic into its main concepts. Do not enter an entire sentence or a full question. The best thing to do is to use the key concepts involved with your topic. In addition, think of synonyms or related terms for each concept. If you do this, you will have more flexibility when searching in case your first search term does not produce any or enough results.

This may sound strange, since if you are looking for information using a Web search engine, you usually get too many results. Databases, however, contain fewer items than the entire web, and having alternative search terms may lead you to useful sources. Even in a search engine like Google, having terms you can combine thoughtfully will yield better results.

Figure 4. Keyword brainstorming for the topic of violence in high schools

Example of keyword brainstorming

Image credit: The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg B CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

Once you have identified the concepts you want to search and have carefully chosen your keywords, think about how you will enter them into the search box of your selected search tool. Try the techniques below in both research databases and web search engines.

Boolean operators are a search technique that will help you

• focus your search, particularly when your topic contains multiple search terms

• connect various pieces of information to find exactly what you are looking for

There are three Boolean operators: AND, OR, and NOT. You capitalize Boolean operators to distinguish them from the words and, or, and not (words which most search engines ignore). It is also important to note that you should spell out AND rather than substituting commas, ampersands, or plus signs. Usually you should spell out NOT as well, except in Google, where you must use the minus sign (-).

Use AND in a search to

• narrow your results

• tell the database that ALL search terms must be present in the resulting records

Example: cloning AND humans AND ethics

The purple triangle where all circles intersect in the middle of the Venn diagram below represents the result set for this search. It is a small set created by a combination of all three search words.

Figure 5. Example of search terms connected by AND Diagram showing how Boolean AND

works

Image credit: Database Search Tips: Boolean Operators by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

Use OR in a search to accomplish the following:

• connect two or more similar concepts (synonyms)

• broaden your results, telling the database that any one of your search terms can be present in the resulting records

Example: (cloning OR genetics OR reproduction)

All three circles represent the result set for this search. It is a big set because the OR operator includes all of those search terms.

Figure 6. Example of search terms connected by OR

Example of search terms connected by the Boolean OR operator

Image credit: Database Search Tips: Boolean Operators by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

Use NOT in a search to

• exclude words from your search

• narrow your search, telling the database to ignore concepts that may be implied by your search terms

Example: cloning NOT sheep

The purple part of the circle below represents your results for this search, because you’ve used NOT to exclude a subset of results that are about sheep (represented by the gray circle).

Figure 7. Example of search using NOT

Example of search terms excluded from a search using the term NOT

You can combine the different Boolean operators into one search. The important thing to know when combining operators is to use parentheses around the terms connected with OR. This ensures that the database interprets your search query correctly.

Example: ethics AND (cloning OR genetics OR reproduction)

The shaded area of the diagram below represents the results set for the above search.

Figure 8. Example of complex Boolean search that connects terms with AND and OR

An example of a complex search using multiple Boolean operators

Web and research databases usually treat your search terms as separate words, meaning they look for each word appearing in a document, regardless of its location around the other words in your search term. Sometimes you may want to system to instead search for a specific phrase (a set of words that collectively describe your topic).

To do this, put the phrase in quotation marks, as in “community college.”

With phrase searches, you will typically get fewer results than searching for the words individually, which makes it an effective way to focus your search.

Truncation, also called stemming, is a technique that allows you to search for multiple variations of a root word at once.

Most databases have a truncation symbol. The * is the most commonly used symbol, but !, ?, and # are also used. If you are not sure, check the help files.

To use truncation, enter the root of your word and end it with the truncation symbol.

Example: genetic* searches for genetic, genetics, genetically

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Search Strategies: Develop Effective Keywords derived from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

• Search Strategies: Advanced Search Techniques

derived from Database Search Tips: Boolean Operators by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

1. 1. Evaluate sources

Information sources vary in quality, and before you use a source in your academic assignments or work projects, you must evaluate them for quality. You want your own work to be of high quality, credible, and accurate, and you can only achieve that by having sources possess those same qualities.

Watch this video on evaluating sources for an overview of what credibility is, why it’s important, and some of the criteria to look for when evaluating a source.

Evaluating Sources Video Image Link

Video credit: Evaluating Sources for Credibility by NCSU Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

There are five basic criteria for evaluating information. While it may seem like a lot to think about at first, after a little practice, you will find that you can evaluate sources quickly.

Here are the five basic criteria, with key questions and indicators to help you evaluate your source:

• Authority

  • Key Question: Is the person, organization, or institution responsible for the intellectual content of the information knowledgeable in that subject?

  • Indicators of authority: formal academic degrees, years of professional experience, active and substantial involvement in a particular area

• Accuracy

  • Key Question: How free from error is this piece of information?

  • Indicators of accuracy: correct and verifiable citations, information is verifiable in other sources from different authors/organizations, author is authority on subject

• Objectivity

  • Key Question: How objective is this piece of information?

  • Indicators of objectivity: multiple points of view are acknowledged and discussed logically and clearly, statements are supported with documentation from a variety of reliable sources, purpose is clearly stated

• Currency

  • Key Question: When was the item of information published or produced?

  • Indicators of currency: publication date, assignment restrictions (e.g., you can only use articles from the last 5 years), your

topic and how quickly information changes in your field (e.g., technology or health topics will require very recent information to reflect rapidly changing areas of expertise)

• Audience

  • Key Question: Who is this information written for or this product developed for?

  • Indicators of audience: language, style, tone, bibliographies

When evaluating and selecting sources for an assignment or work project, compare your sources to one another in light of your topic. Imagine, for example, you are writing a paper about bicycle commuting. You have three sources about bicycle safety. One is written for children; one is for adult recreational bicyclers; and one is for traffic engineers. Your topic is specifically about building urban and suburban infrastructure to encourage bicycling, so the source written for traffic engineers is clearly more appropriate for your topic than the other two. Even if the other two are high-quality sources, they are not the most relevant sources for your specific topic.

Until you have practiced evaluating many sources, it can be a little difficult to find the indicators, especially in web sources.

Table 6. Locations where you might find indicators of quality in different types of sources

If you are

looking for In books see indications the…

of…

In journals see the…

In websites see the…

Title page,

Periodical covers,

URL, About

Forward, Preface, Editorial Staff, Us,

Authority

Afterward, Dust Jackets, Bibliography

Title page, Forward, Preface, Afterward,

Letters to the Editor, Abstract, Bibliography

Periodical

Publications, Appearance

URL, About Us, Home

Accuracy

Periodical covers, covers, Text,

page,

Dust Jackets, Text, Bibliography

Bibliography

Abstracts,

Awards, Text

About Us,

Forward, Preface, Text,

Site Map,

Objectivity Afterward, Text,

Bibliorgraphy

Title page,

Bibliography, Editorials, Letters to the Editor

Title page,

Text, Disclaimers, Membership/ Registration Home page,

Currency

copyright page,

Bibliography

Bibliorgraphy,

Abstracts

Letters to the

Copyright,

What’s New Home page, About,

Audience Forward, Preface, editor,

Mission,

Afterward

Editorial, Appearance

Disclaimer, Members only

When you have located and evaluated information for your paper, report, or project, you will use it to complete your work. A later chapter of this text will cover how to use it correctly and ethically.

Evaluate Sources derived from Evaluating Information by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

1. Citations and Plagiarism

Like most writers, technical writers need to demonstrate their credibility, objectivity, and thoroughness by referencing quality source material. Technical writers reveal and share source information both to give credit to the writers of that material and also to demonstrate they have done thorough research. Because this text was designed for an academic course in technical writing, this chapter describes conventions of academic citations you will use in producing a report. That said, the information will easily transfer to other professional and academic writing tasks.

This chapter was derived from the following sources.

• Citations: A derivative from Citations by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0 and Citing Sources: Overview by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

• Plagiarism: A derivative from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US and Plagiarism by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY- NC-SA 4.0 and Plagiarism: Avoid it at all costs! by UCD Library, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

1. 1. Citations

Citations are the way in which you give credit to others for their work and avoid committing plagiarism. They are also the way in which you join the professional or scholarly conversation on a given topic.

Watch this short video to learn more about why citations are important.

Citation Video from NCSU

Video credit: Citation: A (Very) Brief Introduction by NCSU Libraries, CC: BY-NC- SA 3.0 US

Citations come in two forms: in-text citations and full citations.

There are many different citation styles. Two of the most common academic styles are American Psychological Association (APA) and Modern Language Association (MLA). For academic assignments, your instructor will usually specify which style you should use. Generally speaking, MLA is used more frequently in the humanities, while APA is used more commonly in the social sciences and sciences. However, some subjects may have their own discipline-specific citation types, such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) style for the mechanical engineering field. Whatever style you choose or are asked to use, remember to stick with it consistently throughout your report.

In-text citations are used within the text of your paper and indicate to your readers from which source listed in your works cited or bibliography you are extracting information or quotations. That way, even if you have multiple sources, it is always clear which source you are using at any given time. As with full citations, discussed below, format of in- text citations differs depending on which citation style you are using. APA uses the author-year format, while MLA uses the author-page number format. Other styles of in-text citation include footnotes or endnotes, in which continuously sequenced numbers refer the reader to a list of citations elsewhere in the document. Some examples are below.

Students should choose their study locations carefully for best results (Lei, 2015).

Students should choose their study locations carefully for best results (Lei 197).

In-text citations should always have a corresponding full citation on the works cited or references page at the end of a paper.

Full citations generally have three major parts, though the order and formatting of these parts depends on the citation style you use.

Major parts

• Information about the person or body that created it

– the author(s), editor(s), speaker(s), etc.

• Information that distinguishes the content of the specific work being cited – the title of an article, chapter, book, or presentation

• Information about the location or creation of the work – usually, where and when it was published or presented. This can include whether or not the work is part of a larger publication or series (volume and issue numbers), the number of printed pages it contains, or the web address (URL), and date it was accessed.

Below is an example of an article citation – the full citation for the in-text citation above – using MLA and APA styles. Notice the common elements that are present in both. You find the elements for a citation in the fields of a database or library catalog record or on the information item itself.

Author – Lei, Simon A.

Article Title – Variation in Study Patterns among College Students: A Review of Literature

Source Title – College Student Journal Volume and Issue – Volume 49, Issue 2 Publication Date – 2015

Page Numbers – 195-198

Lei, S. A. (2015). Variation in study patterns among college students: A review of literature. College Student Journal, 49(2), 195-198.

Lei, Simon A. “Variation in Study Patterns among College Students: A Review of Literature.” College Student Journal, vol. 49, no. 2, 2015, pp. 195-198. Academic

Search Premier. Accessed 27 May 2016.

Luckily, you do not need to memorize citation style formats. There are excellent online guides and tools that will help you cite sources correctly. Additionally, you can

always ask your instructor or a librarian for help if you have a question or a difficult source to cite.

Online guides and tools to consult:

• Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL): Invaluable for MLA, APA, and Chicago styles, this guide covers in-text citations, bibliography/works cited pages, and guidelines for citing many types of information sources.

• Citation Builder: From the University of North Carolina, the Citation Builder is an automated form for creating citations. You select the style, enter the information, and it generates a citation. It’s always a good idea to double check these citation- generator tools!

• Zotero: Developed at the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media at George Mason University, Zotero is a sophisticated research management tool. You can use it to save and organize your sources and create citations. As a more sophisticated tool, it requires a little more time and efforts to learn, but the time is worth it when you’re researching and writing a lot.

In addition to these tools, many research databases and library catalogs offer citation tools that help you create a citation for an item you’ve located using that service. Look for a button or link labeled cite or citation. Again, with these automatically-generated citations, be sure to double check it for accuracy. They aren’t always correct.

Figure 1. example of the citation button in PubMed Central, a freely available research database.

Citation in Pub Med

Citation Builder. (n.d.). University of North Carolina. Retrieved from http://library.unc.edu/citationbuilder/.

Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL). (2015). Purdue University. Retrieved from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/ owl/.

Zotero. (n.d.) Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media. Retrieved from https://www.zotero.org/about/.

Citations: A derivative from Citations by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0 and Citing Sources: Overview by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

1. 1. Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the presentation of someone else’s work as your own.

More formally stated it is the act of claiming language, ideas, opinions, theories, software code, artistic material, or anything else developed by another person without acknowledging that person as the source of the material.

In the world of cut and paste, it is incredibly easy to commit plagiarism and not even be aware of doing so. Regardless of whether it is intentional or unintentional, plagiarism is dishonest, unfair, and unethical.

There are serious consequences for both intentional and unintentional plagiarism. Ignorance is not an excuse. As a student, the consequences of plagiarism can range from the loss of credit for a course to expulsion from school. In the work world, the consequences of plagiarism can range from loss of your professional reputation to loss of your job and destruction of your career. As a student at COCC, you should be familiar with the COCC Student Rights and Responsibilities, which spells out the consequences for committing plagiarism at COCC (see the “Academic Honesty” sub-heading in Section C of the Rights and Responsibilities).

Examples of plagiarism:

• Copying and pasting from a source into your work without attribution

• Purchasing a paper online or from another student

• Turning in the same work in two different classes (self-plagiarism)

• Failing to put quotation marks around direct quotes in your work

• Copying a diagram, image, graph, or photo into your work without referencing the source

• Copying and pasting text and changing just a few words or phrases to “put it into your own words” sometimes referred to as patch writing

• Using information gained in a personal interview or conversation without citing the source

• Failing to cite sources for any information that you used in your paper

Only information considered to be universally common knowledge, such as dates of important events and widely known facts, can be used without citing the source.

Credit must always be given to others for

• their words, either quoted or paraphrased

• their artistic material

• their research findings, analysis, and conclusions

The primary way to avoid plagiarism is to cite or list the sources you used in preparing your work. Citing sources is the way you tell your audience whose works you used and to give credit to the creators of those works. It has the side benefit of providing your audience with a bibliography of relevant items on that topic.

Plagiarism: A derivative from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US and Plagiarism by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0 and Plagiarism: Avoid it at all costs! by UCD Library, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

1. Progress Reports

You write a progress report to inform a supervisor, associate, or customer about progress you’ve made on a project over a certain period of time. The project can be the design, construction, or repair of something, the study or research of a problem or question, or the gathering of information on a technical subject. You write progress reports when it takes several weeks or even months to complete a project.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Functions and Contents of Progress Reports

In the progress report, you explain any or all of the following:

• How much of the work is complete

• What part of the work is currently in progress

• What work remains to be done

• What problems or unexpected things, if any, have arisen

• How the project is going in general Progress reports have several important functions:

• Reassure recipients that you are making progress, that the project is going smoothly, and that it will be complete by the expected date.

• Provide recipients with a brief look at some of the findings or some of the work of the project.

• Give recipients a chance to evaluate your work on the project and to request changes.

• Give you a chance to discuss problems in the project and thus to forewarn recipients.

• Force you to establish a work schedule so that you’ll complete the project on time.

• Project a sense of professionalism to your work and your organization.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Timing and Format of Progress Reports

In a year-long project, there are customarily three progress reports, one after three, six, and nine months. Depending on the size of the progress report, the length and importance of the project, and the recipient, the progress report can take the following forms:

• Memo—A short, informal report to someone within your organization

• Letter—A short, informal report sent to someone outside your organization

• Formal report—A formal report sent to someone outside your organization

In our course, you will write a progress report in the form of a thorough memo, and you will attach an outline to that memo to give your recipient an idea of the content in your final report. (See the chapter on Outlines for more information.)

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Organizational Patterns or Sections for Progress Reports

The recipient of a progress report wants to see what you’ve accomplished on the project, what you are working on now, what you plan to work on next, and how the project is going in general. In other words, the following three sections are key in any progress memo or progress report:

• Work accomplished in the preceding period(s)

• Work currently being performed

• Work planned for the next period(s)

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Other Parts of Progress Reports

In your progress memo or report, you also need to include the following sections: (a) an introduction that reviews the purpose and scope of the project, (b) a detailed description

of your project and its history, and (c) an overall appraisal of the project to date, which usually acts as the conclusion.

• Opening paragraph introducing the purpose of the memo and a reminder about the project topic

• Summary of the project

• Specific objectives of the project

• Scope, or limits, of the project

• Research gathered

• Overall assessment or appraisal of the project at this time

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Revision Checklist for Progress Reports

As you reread and revise your progress report, watch out for problems such as the following:

• Make sure you use the right format. Remember that for our course, you will be providing your progress in a memo.

• Write a clear opening paragraph reminding your recipient of the project you are working on and that you are providing progress on that project

• Use headings to mark off the different parts of your

progress report, particularly the different parts of your summary of work done on the project.

• Use lists as appropriate.

• Provide specifics—avoid relying on vague, overly general statements about the work you’ve done on the final report project.

• Be sure and address the progress report to the real or realistic audience—not your instructor.

You will be including an outline of your report at the end of your progress memo for this class, so now move to the chapter on creating outlines.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. Outlines

Outlines are a necessary part of writing. Period. Outlines are like a road map. They give you direction; they tell you where to go. Working without an outline is like trying to get from Oregon to New York and only knowing you need to go east. This chapter provides helpful tips for creating a road map for technical reports and other documents.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Creating and using outlines

In technical writing, outlines can serve multiple purposes. One is help the writer organize ideas and evidence, and the other to communicate your plan of development clearly to the person who has the authority to move your project forward. Therefore, the various parts of your outline should make sense to you and communicate your ideas clearly to your audience.

As you begin to outline your report:

• Indicate main idea/thesis at top.

• Name and number the major sections of the report at the left margin.

  • Add details for each section underneath the major section. Write in complete sentences when presenting details.

  • Indent the details related to each section underneath the names of major sections.

• Alternate between numbers and letters to indicate different levels: I. A. 1. a. 1) a)

Take a peek at the following three-minute video which explains how helpful outlines can be in writing a technical report:

Start screen for outlines screencast

Other suggestions about creating an outline from your research:

• Develop as specific an outline as you can: it shows you what information you must gather and, as importantly, what information you can ignore.

• Use the indexes, tables of contents, and headings within chapters of books or articles from databases selectively for just the information you need.

• Divide your work into manageable, hour-long chunks (make progress rather than relying on big blocks of weekend or vacation time).

Before you begin your detailed, formal outline, you might wish to consider the following:

1. Do any preliminary reading necessary to construct a rough outline.

2. Develop a rough outline with major section headings you are considering for this report.

3. Identify your information sources, and make a bibliographic citation for each.

4. Take notes as your read determining in which sections each source material might best work.

5. Provide in-text citations as you develop your outline; doing so will help document sources thoroughly and ethically at all stages (and will make your job easier when you are drafting your report).

6. Change or add extra detail to the outline as the research process continues.

When you have completed sufficient research to develop your ideas, a formal outline can be used to develop a draft of your report. As you write and revise, you will continue filling in details, adding transitions, and providing your own acquired understanding of the subject. It isn’t uncommon to discover gaps in your early draft and have to go back and conduct more research. Keep in mind that this is a working outline and not a contract; as you continue your research, you may decide to organize the final report differently and even delete some information and add new sections.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Developing the rough outline

In the early stages of developing a formal, detailed outline, create a working outline before you begin gathering

information. The rough outline shows you which specific topics to gather information on and which ones to ignore. Think of the outline as a series of questions:

Rough outline for a report on Questions generated by the

light water nuclear reactors

1. Pressurized Water Reactors

   1. Major

outline

What are the main differences? What are the main components? What are

Components the materials? Design?

1. 1. Basic

Operations

Dimensions? How many are in operation? Where Who designed them?

1. Boiling Water Reactors

   1. Major

How do they differ from PWRs? What are the main components? What are the

Components materials? Design?

1. 1. Basic

Operation

Dimensions? Designers? Where used? How many?

1. Safety Measures

   1. Pressurized Water Reactors

   2. Boiling

Water Reactors

1. 1. Role of the Nuclear Regulatory

What are the chief dangers? What are the dangers and safety measures associated with PWRs? What are the dangers and safety measures associated with BWRs? How does the NRC regulate nuclear power plants? What standards does it enforce?

How?

Commission

1. Economic Aspects of Light Water Reactors

What are the construction, operation, maintenance, and fuel costs? What about the

1. 1. Construction availability of fuel? How do

Costs

1. 1. Operation and

these costs compare to output? How do the PWR and the BWR compare in

Maintenance terms of costs and output?

Costs

1. 1. Operating Capacity

How much electricity can a LWR generate at full capacity?

Figure 1. Viewing an outline as a series of questions

Keep in mind that this rough outline is in its early stage. The formal outline you will ultimately create and submit will be much more developed, containing specific details and information from your anticipated sections of your report.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. Creating and Integrating Graphics

Technical writers integrate graphics, also referred to as visuals, to complement text in a report. Visuals can take a number of forms— tables, charts, photographs, drawings, to name a few— but their purpose rarely varies: graphics should help to clarify information presented in the report. They also provide an additional benefit: they help to break up a text-heavy report, thereby making the report more visually appealing.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Deciding which graphics to include

As you review your research and begin to think about possible visuals to include in your report, the first step is to consider which graphics are most appropriate given the data you wish to convey. The table below provides some general guidelines on the kind of graphic most suitable given the type of information.

Numbers, percentages, categories Tables, charts Processes Flow charts

Geographic data Maps Chronological or prioritized lists Numbered lists Non-chronological lists Bulleted lists

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Other considerations: audience

When creating graphics, it is very important to keep your audience in mind. This relates not just to the content you share but also how that content appears on the page. Are you aware, for instance, that the same color has different meanings across various cultures? Take a look at the graphic below and notice how the color red means something very different across culture. Similar differences exist across cultures with other colors, as well, so be aware that the choices you make in colors for your graphics may communicate ideas you do not actually intend.

Figure 1: Meanings of the color red around the world

Map showing different meanings of the color red around the world

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Other considerations: placement and context

As you develop visuals for your report, you will want to also consider where they should be placed and what information you will need to provide in the body of your report to adequately prepare your readers for the message within that graphic. Minimally, consider the following:

• Introduce the information appearing in a graphic in clear sentences in the paragraph preceding the visual. That is also a good place to provide the source material for the information in the graphic, if applicable.

• Give the visual a name, even if that is simply “Table 1” or “Figure 1” for easy reference.

• Make sure the information within the graphic is clear and easy to understand.

• Provide source information at the bottom of the graphic.

• Write some follow-up text after the graphic. This might be an interpetation or a final comment about the implications of the information in the visual.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Samples

Let’s take a look at some samples.

The first example below is a pie chart created with information the writer obtained from an interview. Notice that the writer provides a name for the visual, includes introductory sentences to provide context for the graphic, lists source information at the bottom of the chart, and finally, includes some closing remarks to tie it all together.

Not all gardeners will experience success with growing vegetables in Central Oregon, and the town of Sisters is especially challenging because of the varied temperatures all year long and the chance of frost or even freezing temperatures during any month of the year. Central Oregon and Sisters resident, Jane Doe, had the greatest success with the following vegetables in the year 2015 as noted in the pie chart below.

Table 1: Vegetables grown in 2015

Chart showing percentage of crop yields in a home garden in centr were 59% of the harvest, carrots 23%, tomatoes 10% and lettuce 7

Source: Interview with Master Gardener, Jane Doe, 2 May 2016.

It is important to note that depending on the hardiness zone of the city, some vegetables may do better than others. Doe also commented that she protected her tomatoes either inside a green house or under a hoop house.

Below you will find another visual of the same information from the pie chart. It is provided to give you another way of visualizing the same information.

Figure 1: Vegetables grown in 2015

Bar chart showing crop production in a garden in central Oregon.

Source: Interview with Master Gardener, Jane Doe, 2 May 2016.

Finally, here is a simple table conveying information about plant hardiness zones for growers in Central Oregon.

Notice again that the table isn’t simply inserted and left on its own for readers to interpret; the writer introduces the table with prefatory remarks and also provides follow-up commentary after the table.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture publishes a Plant Hardiness Zone Map which growers and gardeners use to help determine which plants, including vegetables and trees, will be most successful at a particular location. The table below shows the hardiness zone for four cities in Central Oregon and includes the annual minimum

winter temperature—important information to keep in mind when determining not only which vegetables to plant but how long the growing season may be.

Table 1: Hardiness Zones in Central Oregon

Hardiness Zone

Winter Temperature Range

Sisters 6a -10 to-5

Source information: “United States Department of Agriculture.” USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. 2012. Web. 05 May 2016.

Before purchasing any plants or vegetables for your own garden, make sure you look at the hardiness number on the label to be sure that item will grow successfully in your climate zone.

Now that you have had a chance to learn about strategies for creating effective graphics and have examined some strong examples, let’s look at a few that could use some revision. As you look at the following visuals, note the possible strengths and weaknesses of each one. Consider what advice you might give the writer on how to improve these graphics.

Examples of visuals that could use revision.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Guidelines for graphics: a final review

Keep the following in mind as you consider possible visual enhancements to your report:

• Use graphics to supplement or clarify information provided within the body of your report.

• Make sure your graphics are appropriate to your audience, subject matter, and purpose.

• Discuss graphics in nearby text preceding the graphic. Don’t just insert a graphic in your report unexplained. Orient readers to the graphic; explain its basic meaning, easily done in introductory and follow-up sentences before and after your graphic.

• Intersperse graphics and text on the same page. Don’t put graphics on pages by themselves; ideally, no visual should take up more than one- third of any page in your report.

• Use figure numbers and titles for graphics. Additionally, include identifying detail within the graphics such as illustration labels, axis labels, keys, and so on.

• Make sure graphics fit within normal margins. Leave at least one blank line above and below

graphics.

• Place graphics as near to the point in the text where they are relevant as is reasonable. However, if a graphic does not fit properly on one page, indicate that it appears on the next page and put it at the top of the next, continuing with regular text on the preceding page. Don’t leave half a page blank just to keep a graphic near the text it is associated with.

• Cite all images that you create from any source material. You should do this in your introductory sentences before the visual as well as include a citation, if relevant, at the bottom of the visual. See samples above.

• Cite any images you use as is which you include in your report. While it is perfectly legal to borrow graphics—to trace, photocopy, scan, or extract subsets of data from them, you are obligated to accurately cite your sources for graphics just as you are for the words you borrow.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. Ethics in Technical Writing

Up to this point, you have probably been thinking about

technical writing in relation to communicating technical information clearly in an accessible format that meets the needs of its audience. These are important aspects of technical writing, to be sure, but they really only represent the surface of what you need to know. This chapter will introduce some of the ethical issues that may arise as technical writers research, write, revise, and produce a technical document.

Like other professionals, technical writers come up against ethical issues regularly and must make decisions about how to move forward with a project in the face of ethical dilemmas. Writers may encounter situations in which she must ask the following kinds of questions: What kinds of support material and sources are ethical to use? Are open web sources just as valid as academic sources for certain topics? Can email communications be used without permission? What if the writer discovers that a company falsified data about the effectiveness of its product? Should she reveal this in her report or should she take other courses of action? How much should a writer adapt to an audience without sacrificing his own views?

Ethics principles provide the basis for deciding whether “x” is ethical, but in reality, ethical issues are complicated—for example, imagine working for a large company that employs substantial numbers of people in your town, where relatively few other employment opportunities exist.

Imagine that the company disposes of its chemical waste in a way that could endanger people’s health. Imagine, further, that the company cannot afford to dispose of this waste more safely and that, if you turn them in, the company will close down, most of the town will be unemployed, and the town’s entire economy will collapse. What do you do? Is the risk of future health problems more

serious than the certainty of immediately destroying your town? Which choice is really more ethical?

On a smaller scale, if one way of presenting evidence requires some manipulation of data but seems to be the only way of keeping sales strong enough for your company to survive, what should you do? If you take the unethical route, odds are good that few (or no) people will realize you have done so, and you would not be doing anything illegal. If you take the ethical route, and sales plummet, few people will recognize the ethical issue, but most will clearly understand that you caused the sales decline.

Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College (COCC) for contributing to this chapter.

1. 1. General Principles

In day-to-day life, most people have a sort of sliding scale on what constitutes ethical behavior: they would not tell a direct lie on trivial matters if doing so would hurt someone’s feelings. For example, you might tell your best friend her new haircut looks attractive when in fact you believe that it does not. This lie, though minor, preserves your friend’s feelings and does no harm to her or anyone else. Some might consider the context before determining how to act. For example, you might not tell a stranger that he was trailing toilet paper but you would tell a friend. In a

more serious situation, a person might not choose to die to save a stranger’s life, but she might risk dying to save her children’s lives.

Ethical behavior, including ethical technical communication, involves not just telling the truth and providing accurate information, but telling the truth and providing information so that a reasonable audience knows the truth. It also means that you act to prevent actual harm, with set criteria for what kinds and degrees of harm are more serious than others (for example, someone’s life outweighs financial damage to your company; your company’s success outweighs your own irritation). As a guideline, ask yourself what would happen if your action (or non-action) became public. If you would go to prison, lose your friends, lose your job, or even just feel really embarrassed, the action is probably unethical.

Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College (COCC) for contributing to this chapter.

1. 1. Presentation of information

How a writer presents information in a document can affect a reader’s understanding of the relative weight or seriousness of that information. For example, hiding some crucial bit of information in the middle of a long paragraph deep in a long document seriously de-emphasizes the

information. On the other hand, putting a minor point in a prominent spot (say the first item in a bulleted list in a report’s executive summary) tells your reader that it is crucial.

A classic example of unethical technical writing is the memo report NASA engineers wrote about the problem with O ring seals on the space shuttle Challenger (the link provides further links to a wide range of information, including ethics analyses; the first link is the overview for what happened). The unethical feature was that the crucial information about the O rings (O rings provide a seal) was buried in a middle paragraph, while information approving the launch was in prominent beginning and ending spots. Presumably, the engineers were trying to present a full report, including safe components in the Challenger, but the memo’s audience—non-technical managers—mistakenly believed the O ring problem to be inconsequential, even if it happened. The position of information in this document did not help them understand that the problem could be fatal. Possibly the engineers were just poor writers; possibly they did not consider their audience; or possibly they did not want to look bad and therefore emphasized all the things that were right with the Challenger. (Incidentally, the O rings had worked fine for several launches.)

Ethical writing, then, involves being ethical, of course, but also presenting information so that your target audience will understand the relative importance of information and understand whether some technical fact is a good thing or a bad thing.

Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College (COCC) for contributing to this chapter.

1. 1. Typical Ethics Issues in Technical Writing

There are a few issues that may come up when researching a topic for the business or technical world that a writer must consider. Let’s look at a few.

In a technical report that contains research, a writer might discover conflicting data which does not support the projects’ goal. For example, your small company continues to have problems with employee morale. Research shows bringing in an outside expert, someone who is unfamiliar with the company and the stakeholders, has the potential to impact the greatest change. You discover, however, that to bring in such an expert is cost prohibitive. You struggle with whether to leave this information out of your report, thereby encouraging your employer to pursue and action that is really not feasible.

Imagine you are researching a report for a parents’ group that wants to change the policy in the local school district requiring all students to be vaccinated. You collect a handful of sources that support the group’s goal, but then you discover medical evidence that indicates vaccines do more good than potential harm in society. Since you are employed by this parents’ group, should you leave out the medical evidence, or do you have a responsibility to include all research, even some that might sabotage the groups’ goal.

Visuals can be useful for communicating data and information efficiently for a reader. They provide data in a concentrated form, often illustrating key facts, statistics or information from the text of the report. When writers present information visually, however, they have to be careful not to misrepresent or misreport the complete picture.

The visual below shows two perspectives of information in a pie chart. The data in each is identical but the pie chart on the left presents information in a misleading way (see Fig. 1). What do you notice, however, about how that information is conveyed to the reader?

Fig. 1 – Misleading and regular pie charts

Pie Charts

Imagine that these pie charts represented donations received by four candidates for city council. The candidate represented by the green slice labeled “Item C,” might think that she had received more donations than the candidate represented in the blue “Item A” slice. In fact, if we look at the same data in a differently oriented chart, we can see that Item C represents less than half of the donations than those for Item A. Thus, a simple change in perspective can change the impact of an image.

Similarly, take a look at the bar graphs in figure 2 below. What do you notice about their presentation?

Fig. 2 – Misleading and regular bar graphs Two Bar Charts

If the bar graph above were to represent sales figures for a company, the representation on the left would look like good news: dramatically increased sales over a five-year period. However, a closer look at the numbers shows that the graph shows only a narrow range of numbers in a limited perspective (9100 to 9800). The bar graph on the right, on the other hand, shows the complete picture by presenting numbers from 0-1200 on the vertical axis, and we see that the sales figures, have in fact been relatively stable for the past five years.

Presenting data in graphical form can be especially challenging. Keep in mind the importance of providing

appropriate context and perspective as you prepare your graphics.

Thorough research requires that a writer integrates information from a variety of reliable sources. These sources should demonstrate that the writer has examined the topic from as many angles as possible. This includes scholarly and professional research, not just from a single database or journal, for instance, but from a variety. Using a variety of sources helps the writer avoid potential bias that can occur from relying on only a few experts. If you were writing a report on the real estate market in Central Oregon, you would not collect data from only one broker’s office. While this office might have access to broader data on the real estate market, as a writer you run the risk of looking biased if you only chose materials from this one source. Collecting information from multiple brokers would demonstrate thorough and unbiased research.

You might notice that most of these ethics violations could easily happen accidentally. Directly lying is unlikely to be accidental, but even in that case, the writer could persuade her/himself that the lie achieved some “greater good” and was therefore necessary.

Even more common is an ethics violation resulting from

the person who is designing the information seeing it as evidence for whatever s/he understands as true and honestly not recognizing the bias in how s/he has presented that information.

Most ethics violations in technical writing are (probably) unintentional, BUT they are still ethics violations. That means a technical writer must consciously identify his/her biases and check to see if a bias has influenced any presentation: whether in charts and graphs, or in discussions of the evidence, or in source use (or, of course, in putting the crucial O ring information where the launch decision makers would realize it was important).

For example, scholarly research is theoretically intended to find evidence either that the new researcher’s ideas are valid (and important) or evidence that those ideas are partial, trivial, or simply wrong. In practice, though, most folks are primarily looking for support. “Hey, I have this great new idea that will solve world hunger, cure cancer, and make mascara really waterproof. Now I just need some evidence to prove I am right!”

In fact, if you can easily find 94 high-quality sources that confirm you are correct, you might want to consider whether your idea is worth developing. Often in technical writing, the underlying principle is already well- documented (maybe even common knowledge for your audience) and the point SHOULD be to use that underlying principle to propose a specific application.

Using a large section of your report to prove an already established principle implies that you are saying something new about the principle—which is not true. A brief mention (“Research conducted at major research universities over

the last ten years (see literature review, Smith and Tang, 2010) establishes that. . . .”) accurately reflects the status of the principle; then you would go on to apply that principle to your specific task or proposal.

Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College (COCC) for contributing to this chapter.

1. 1. Ethics and documenting sources

The chapter titled “Citation and Plagiarism” stresses the importance of documenting your sources. Documenting your sources includes showing exactly what you borrowed both where you used it and in a Works Cited, Works, or References (the different terms reflect different documentation systems, not just random preference) list at the end.

Including an item only in the source list at the end suggests you have used the source in the report, but if you have not cited this source in the text as well, you could be seen as misleading the reader. Either you are saying it is a source when in fact you did not really use anything from it, or you have simply failed to clarify in the text what are your ideas and what comes from other sources.

Documenting source use in such a way as to either mislead your reader about the source or make identifying the source

difficult is also unethical—that would include using just a URL or using an article title without identifying the journal in which it appears (in the Works Cited/References; you would not likely identify the journal name in the report’s body). Unethical source use also includes falsifying the nature of the source, such as omitting the number of pages in the Works Cited entry to make a brief note seem to be a full article.

Unethical source use includes suppressing information about how you have used a source, such as not making clear that graphical information in your report was already a graph in your source, as opposed to a graph you created on the basis of information in the source.

Note that many problems in documenting sources occur because the writer is missing the point of source use:

• you must clearly distinguish between your ideas and borrowed material,

• and you must use borrowed material primarily as evidence for your own, directly stated ideas.

If you blend source material together with your ideas (including as “your ideas” your analysis or application of borrowed materials), you will indeed find that showing exactly what is borrowed versus what is yours is impossible. That is because you cannot ethically blend your ideas together with source material. Any time you find you cannot apply documentation principles, consider whether you are using the source(s) unethically. Students often argue that they cannot separate their ideas from borrowed ideas because they would then have to document the whole paper—if that is true, the paper is most certainly not making “fair use” of the sources.

Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College (COCC) for contributing to this chapter.

1. 1. Ethics, Plagiarism, and Reliable Sources

Unlike personal or academic writing, technical and professional writing can be used to evaluate your job performance and can have implications that a writer may or may not have considered. Whether you are writing for colleagues within your workplace or outside vendors or customers, you will want to build a solid, well-earned favorable reputation for yourself with your writing. Your goal is to maintain and enhance your credibility, and that of your organization, at all times.

Credibility can be established through many means: using appropriate professional language, citing highly respected sources, providing reliable evidence, and using sound logic. Make sure as you start your research that you always question the credibility of the information you find. Are the sources popular or scholarly? Are they peer reviewed by experts in the field? Are the methods and arguments used based on solid reasoning and sound evidence? Is the author identifiable and does s/he have appropriate credentials? Be cautious about using sources that are not reviewed by peers or editor, or in which the information seems misleading,

biased, or even false. Be a wise information consumer in your own reading and research in order to build your own reputation as an honest, ethical writer.

Quoting the work of others in your writing is fine, provided that you credit the source fully enough that your readers can find it on their own. If you fail to take careful notes, or the sentence is present in your writing but later fails to get accurate attribution, it can have a negative impact on you and your organization. That is why it is important that when you find an element you would like to incorporate in your document, in the same moment as you copy and paste or make a note of it in your research file, you need to note the source in a complete enough form to find it again.

Giving credit where credit is due will build your credibility and enhance your document. Moreover, when your writing is authentically yours, your audience will catch your enthusiasm, and you will feel more confident in the material you produce. Just as you have a responsibility in business to be honest in selling your product of service and avoid cheating your customers, so you have a responsibility in business writing to be honest in presenting your idea, and the ideas of others, and to avoid cheating your readers with plagiarized material.

Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College (COCC) for contributing to this chapter.

1. 1. Professional ethics

Many organizations and employers have a corporate code of ethics. If you are a technical writer and you join a professional associations such as the Society of Technical Communicators you will need to be aware their codes of ethics, published online (e.g. http://www.stc.org/about-stc/ ethical-principles). If you are a technical writer researching and writing a report within a specific professional field, you will also need to be aware to that field’s codes of ethics.

For example, let’s say you are writing a report for a group of physical therapists on the latest techniques for rehabilitating knee surgery patients. You should be aware of the code of ethics for physical therapists so that you work within those principles as you research and write your report.

Look for the codes of ethics in your own discipline and begin to read and understand what will be expected of you as a professional in your field.

Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College (COCC) for contributing to this chapter.

1. Document Design

Technical reports (including handbooks and guides) have

various designs depending on the industry, profession, or organization. This chapter shows you one traditional design. If you are taking a technical writing course, ask your instructor for any design specifications she has for your documents. The same is true if you are writing a technical report in a science, business, or government context. Organizations very often have their own “stylesheets” on which all organizational document designs are based, so make sure the design presented in this chapter is acceptable.

Technical reports have specifications as do any other kind of project. Specifications for reports involve layout, organization and content, format of headings and lists, the design of the graphics, and so on. The advantage of a required structure and format for reports is that you or anyone else can expect them to be designed in a familiar way—you know what to look for and where to look for it. Reports are usually read in a hurry—people are in a hurry to get to the information they need, the key facts, the conclusions, and other essentials. A standard report format is like a familiar neighborhood.

When you analyze the design of a technical report, notice how repetitive some sections are. This duplication has to do with how people read reports. They don’t read reports straight through: they may start with the executive summary, skip around, and probably not read every page.

Your challenge is to design reports so that these readers encounter your key facts and conclusions, no matter how much of the report they read or in what order they read it.

Be sure and see the example reports.

The standard components of the typical technical report are

discussed in this chapter. The following sections guide you through each of these components, pointing out the key features. As you read and use these guidelines, remember that these are guidelines, not commandments. Different companies, professions, and organizations have their own varied guidelines for reports—you’ll need to adapt your practice to those as well the ones presented here.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Cover letter

The cover letter is either attached to the outside of the report with a paper clip or is bound within the report. It is a communication from you—the report writer—to the recipient, the person who requested the report and who may even be paying you for your expert consultation.

Essentially, it says “Here is the report that we agreed I’d complete by such-and-such a date. Briefly, it contains this and that, but does not cover this or that. Let me know if it meets your needs.” The cover letter explains the context—the events that brought the report about. It contains information about the report that does not belong in the report.

In the example of the cover letter that follows, notice the standard business-letter format. If you write an internal

report, use the memorandum format instead. In either case, the contents and organization are the same:

First paragraph. Cites the name of the report, putting it in italics. It also mentions the date of the agreement to write the report.

Middle paragraph. Focuses on the purpose of the report and gives a brief overview of the report’s contents.

Final paragraph. Encourages the reader to get in touch if there are questions, comments, or concerns. It closes with a gesture of good will, expressing hope that the reader finds the report satisfactory.

As with any other element in a report, you may have to modify the contents of this letter (or memo) for specific situations. For example, you might want to add another paragraph, listing questions you’d like readers to consider as they review the report.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Cover page

Be sure to create a cover page for your report. It’s a step

that some report writers forget. Without a label, a report is anonymous; it gets ignored.

The best way to create a cover page is to use your word- processing software to design one on a standard page with a graphic box around the label information. Not much goes on the label: the report title, your name, your organization’s name, a report tracking number, and a date. There are no standard requirements for the label, although your company or organization should have its own requirements. (An example of a report label is shown below.)

An example of a report

Transmittal letter and report cover (with cover label).

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Abstract and executive summary

Most technical reports contain at least one abstract—sometimes two, in which case the abstracts play different roles. Abstracts summarize the contents of a report, but the different types do so in different ways:

• Descriptive abstract. This type provides an overview of the purpose and contents of the report. In some report designs, the descriptive abstract is placed at the bottom of the title page, as shown in the following:

Descriptive abstract

Descriptive abstract. Traditionally, it is placed on the title page (not the

• Executive summary. Another common type is the executive summary, which also summarizes the key facts and conclusions contained in the report. Think of this as if you used a yellow highlighter to mark the key sentences in the report and then siphoned them all out onto a separate page and edited them for readability. Typically, executive summaries are one-tenth to one-twentieth the length of reports ten to fifty pages long. For longer reports, ones over fifty pages, the executive summary should not go over two pages. The point of the executive summary is to provide a summary of the report—something that can be read quickly.

If the executive summary, introduction, and transmittal letter strike you as repetitive, remember that readers don’t necessarily start at the beginning of a report and read page by page to the end. They skip around: they may scan the table of contents; they usually skim the executive summary for key facts and conclusions. They may read carefully only a section or two from the body of the report, and then skip the rest. For these reasons, reports are designed with some duplication so that readers will be sure to see the important information no matter where they dip into the report.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Table of contents

You are familiar with tables of contents (TOC) but may never have stopped to look at their design. The TOC shows readers what topics are covered in the report, how those topics are discussed (the subtopics), and on which page numbers those sections and subsections start.

In creating a TOC, you have a number of design decisions:

• Levels of headings to include. In longer reports, consider not including only the top two levels of headings. This keeps the TOC from becoming long and unwieldy. The TOC should provide an at-a- glance way of finding information in the report quickly.

• Indentation, spacing, and capitalization. Notice in the illustration below that items in each of the three levels of headings are aligned with each other. Although you can’t see it in the illustration, page numbers are right-aligned with each other. Notice also the capitalization: Main chapters or sections are all caps; first-level headings use initial caps on each main word; lower-level sections use initial caps on the first word only.

• Vertical spacing. Notice that the first-level sections have extra space above and below, which increases readability.

Using the automatic TOC creator in your word processor can help you produce a clean, professional document. If you prefer to make your own, learn to use dot leader tabs in order to line up the page numbers correctly.

One final note: Make sure the words in the TOC are the same as they are in the text. As you write and revise, you might change some of the headings—don’t forget to change the TOC accordingly. See the example of a table of contents:

Example of executive summary and table of contents

Table of contents (which comes first) then the executive summary. In a if the decimal-numbering style for the table of contents and headings is

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. List of figures and tables

If your document has more than two figures or tables create a separate list of figures. The list of figures has many of the same design considerations as the table of contents.

Readers use the list of figures to quickly find the illustrations, diagrams, tables, and charts in your report.

Complications arise when you have both tables and figures. Strictly speaking, figures are illustrations, drawings, photographs, graphs, and charts. Tables are rows and columns of words and numbers; they are not considered figures.

For longer reports that contain dozens of figures and tables each, create separate lists of figures and tables. Put them together on the same page if they fit, as shown in the illustration below. You can combine the two lists under the heading, “List of Figures and Tables,” and identify the items as figure or table as is done in the illustration below.

Example of listing of figures and introduction

List of figures and tables followed by the introduction. If there are no ta technical writing course, ask your instructor if the decimal-numbering

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Introduction

An essential element of any report is its introduction—make sure you are clear on its real purpose and contents. In a technical report, the introduction prepares the reader to read the main body of the report.

See this example of an introduction:

Example of listing of figures and introduction

List of figures and tables followed by the introduction. If there are no ta technical writing course, ask your instructor if the decimal-numbering

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1. 1. Body of the report

The body of the report is of course the main text of the report, the sections between the introduction and conclusion. Illustrated below are sample pages.

In all but the shortest reports (two pages or less), use headings to mark off the different topics and subtopics covered. Headings are the titles and subtitles you see within the actual text of much professional scientific, technical, and business writing. Headings are like the parts of an outline that have been pasted into the actual pages of the document.

Headings are an important feature of professional technical writing: they alert readers to upcoming topics and subtopics, help readers find their way around in long reports and skip what they are not interested in, and break up long stretches of straight text.

Headings are also useful for writers. They keep you organized and focused on the topic. When you begin using headings, your impulse may be to slap in the headings after you’ve written the rough draft. Instead, visualize the headings before you start the rough draft, and plug them in as you write.

Your task in this chapter is to learn how to use headings and to learn the style and format of a specific design of headings. Here are a number of helpful tips:

• Make the phrasing of headings self-explanatory: instead of “Background” or “Technical Information,” make it more specific, such as “Physics of Fiber Optics.”

• Make headings indicate the range of topic coverage in the section. For example, if the section covers the design and operation of a pressurized water reactor, the heading “Pressurized Water Reactor Design” would be incomplete and misleading.

• Avoid “stacked” headings—any two consecutive headings without intervening text.

• Avoid pronoun reference to headings. For example, if you have a heading “Torque,” don’t begin the sentence following it with something like this: “This is a physics principle…..”

• When possible, omit articles from the beginning of headings. For example, “The Pressurized Water Reactor” can easily be changed to “Pressurized Water Reactor” or, better yet, “Pressurized Water Reactors.”

• Don’t use headings as lead-ins to lists or as figure titles.

• Avoid “widowed” headings: that’s where a heading occurs at the bottom of a page and the text it

introduces starts at the top of the next page. Keep at least two lines of body text with the heading, or force it to start the new page.

If you manually format each individual heading using the guidelines presented in the preceding list, you’ll find you’re doing quite a lot of repetitive work. The styles provided by Microsoft Word, OpenOffice Writer, and other software save you this work. You simply select Heading 1, Heading 2, Heading 3, and so on. You’ll notice the format and style are different from what is presented here. However, you can design your own styles for headings.

Example of body of report, with headings

Excerpt from the body of a technical report. In a technical writing cours decimal-numbering style for headings is required. Also, a different doc required—not the IEEE, which is for engineers.

In the body of a report, also use bulleted, numbered, and two-column lists where appropriate. Lists help by emphasizing key points, by making information easier to follow, and by breaking up solid walls of text. Always introduce the list so that your audience understand the purpose and context of the list. Whenever practical, provide a follow-up comment, too. Here are some additional tips:

• Use lists to highlight or emphasize text or to enumerate sequential items.

• Use a lead-in to introduce the list items and to indicate the meaning or purpose of the list (and punctuate it with a colon).

• Use consistent spacing, indentation, punctuation, and caps style for all lists in a document.

• Make list items parallel in phrasing.

• Make sure that each item in the list reads grammatically with the lead-in.

• Avoid using headings as lead-ins for lists.

• Avoid overusing lists; using too many lists destroys their effectiveness.

• Use similar types of lists consistently in similar text in the same document.

Following up a list with text helps your reader understand context for the information distilled into list form. The tips above provide a practical guide to formatting lists.

In technical report, you are likely to need drawings, diagrams, tables, and charts. These not only convey certain kinds of information more efficiently but also give your report an added look of professionalism and authority. If you’ve never put these kinds of graphics into a report, there are some relatively easy ways to do so—you don’t need to be a professional graphic artist. For strategies for adding graphics and tables to reports, see the chapter on Creating and Using Visuals. See the chapter on visuals for more help with the principles for creating visuals.

For most reports, you will need to include a final section. When you plan the final section of your report, think about the functions it can perform in relation to the rest of the report. A conclusion does not necessarily just summarize a report. Instead, use the conclusion to explain the most significant findings you made in relation to your report topic.

Appendixes are those extra sections following the conclusion. What do you put in appendixes? Anything that does not comfortably fit in the main part of the report but cannot be left out of the report altogether. The appendix is commonly used for large tables of data, big chunks of sample code, fold-out maps, background that is too basic or

too advanced for the body of the report, or large illustrations that just do not fit in the body of the report. Anything that you feel is too large for the main part of the report or that you think would be distracting and interrupt the flow of the report is a good candidate for an appendix. Notice that each one is given a letter (A, B, C, and so on).

Documenting your information sources is all about establishing, maintaining, and protecting your credibility in the profession. You must cite (“document”) borrowed information regardless of the shape or form in which you present it. Whether you directly quote it, paraphrase it, or summarize it—it’s still borrowed information. Whether it comes from a book, article, a diagram, a table, a web page, a product brochure, an expert whom you interview in person—it’s still borrowed information.

Documentation systems vary according to professionals and fields. For a technical writing class in college, you may be using either MLA or APA style. Engineers use the IEEE system, examples of which are shown throughout this chapter. Another commonly used documentation system is provided by the American Psychological Association (APA).

Page-numbering style used in traditional report design differs from contemporary report design primarily in the

former’s use of lowercase roman numerals in front matter (everything before the introduction).

• All pages in the report (within but excluding the front and back covers) are numbered; but on some pages, the numbers are not displayed.

• In the contemporary design, all pages throughout the document use arabic numerals; in the traditional design, all pages before the introduction (first page of the body of the report) use lowercase roman numerals.

• On special pages, such as the title page and page one of the introduction, page numbers are not displayed.

• Page numbers can be placed in one of several areas on the page. Usually, the best and easiest choice is to place page numbers at the bottom center of the page (remember to hide them on special pages).

• If you place page numbers at the top of the page, you must hide them on chapter or section openers where a heading or title is at the top of the page.

This chapter was derived from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0