Topic 6: Gender Empowerment and Family in a global context... (perception/acts of gender equity, double shift, home-host dichotomy); 2. Topic 7a: Understanding Migration and Incorporation (push-pul

Chicano Indianism: a historical account of racial

repression in the United States

MARTHA MENCHACA-University of Texas, Austin

In this article I propose to describe forms of racial repression experienced by people of

Mexican origin living under the legal system of the United States. I also propose to document

cases in which people of Mexican descent were compelled to argue in court that they should

be treated as Caucasians in order to gain the legal rights of full citizens. Focusing on citizenship and racial legislation from 1848 to 1947, I will argue that the U.S. legal system accorded

privilege to whites and, conversely, legitimated the inferior treatment of racial minorities.

Because Mexican-origin people were of mestizo descent (Spanish and Indian ancestry), they were placed in an ambiguous legal position. Their Indian ancestry linked them to people of

color, subjecting them to heightened racial discrimination, while their Spanish ancestry linked

them to whites, protecting them from the full impact of the racial laws of the period.

My fundamental aim is not to argue that Mexican-origin people are unaware of their

indigenous past or that they have no indigenous historical consciousness. Rather, it is to show

that they are among the dark-skinned peoples who historically have been discriminated against

by this country's legal system. In embarking on this exploratory venture, I found it necessary to

examine documents in which information about the racial repression of Mexican-origin people could be obtained. As primary sources, I consulted federal and state supreme court records and

19th-century citizenship legislation. These legal discourses illustrate more than a century of

arguments used to justify racial discrimination in the United States.

My historical inquiry will begin with a review of Mexicans'" legal status after the Mexican-

American War of 1846-48. I will focus on the conflicting racial laws of the governments of

Mexico and the United States with respect to the political rights of mestizos and Indians,

describing the dissolution of the Mexican racial caste system and considering the Treaty of

Guadalupe Hidalgo to demonstrate how the citizenship laws of Mexico and the United States

conflicted and how resolution of the binational conflict adversely affected Mexican people. I

will then review the major political events that influenced the Mexicans' racial status from the

late 19th to the mid-20th century, including an analysis of how segregationist laws affected

Mexicans and how U.S. citizenship legislation conferred unequal political rights on them.

This article offers a historical analysis of the racial repression experienced by

people ofMexican origin in the U.S. legalsystem from 1848 to 1947. Using records

of court cases and citizenship legislation, it demonstrates that from the 19th to the

mid-20th century federal and state racial laws accorded particular legal statuses to

Mexicans on the basis of their racial appearance, and it concludes that Mexicans

of predominantly Indian descent were more severely discriminated against than

Mexicans who were classified as white. [racism, segregation, Chicanos, American

Indians, Mexican origin, race, prejudice, citizenship}

American Ethnologist 20(3):583-603. Copyright ? 1993, American Anthropological Association.

Chicano Indianism 583

U.S. violation of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Through annexation, conquest, and purchase, the United States acquired Mexico's northern

frontier between 1845 and 1854 (Weber 1982). The four border states of California, Arizona,

New Mexico, and Texas contained numerous small and large settlements of Mexican residents.

Mexico also lost parts of its northern frontier that today include Nevada, Utah, parts of Colorado,

and small sections of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming; these areas contained no Mexican

settlements and remained under the control of indigenous peoples. At the termination of the

Mexican-American War, the American states had the power to determine citizenship eligibility

requirements, a power given to them by the Constitution of the United States (U.S. Const. art.

IV, sec. 2, cited in Hyman and Wiecek 1982:517-531). As a consequence, the states were able

to bar American Indians and all other racial minority groups from obtaining full citizenship

privileges (Feagin 1989). The states proposed that only "free whites" (for example, whites who

were not indentured servants or criminals) had all the desirable characteristics to receive such

privileges (Hull 1985:11, 12; Kansas 1941:79, 80, 85; Konvitz 1946:318).2 Because most

political privileges could be acquired only by a citizen, individuals who did not qualify for

citizenship received limited civil rights.3 When the United States acquired Mexico's northern frontier, the mestizo ancestry of the

conquered Mexicans placed them in an ambiguous social and legal position (Tate 1969). In the

U.S. government bureaucracy, it became unclear whether Mexicans were to be accorded the

citizenship rights of white citizens or were to be treated as Indian inhabitants. Most government officials argued that Mexicans of predominantly Indian descent should be extended the same

legal status as the detribalized American Indians (People v. De La Guerra 1870; United States

v. Joseph 1876; United States v. Lucero 1869; United States v. Santistevan 1874). Mexicans, on

the other hand, argued that under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and international laws, the

U.S. government agreed to extend all Mexican citizens-regardless of their race-the political

rights enjoyed by white citizens. These rights were accorded to them on the basis of the

international principle guaranteeing inhabitants of ceded territories the nationality of the

successor state unless other provisions are made in the treaty of peace (Kansas 1941).

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was exchanged and ratified in Queretaro, Mexico, on May

30, 1848, officially ending the Mexican-American War. It stipulated the political rights of the

inhabitants of the ceded territories (including the Indians), set the U.S.-Mexico border, and

brought several binational agreements on economic relations to closure. However, Anglo-

American legislators violated the treaty and refused to extend Mexicans full political rights. The

legislators were able to disenfranchise many Mexicans by arguing that such people were of

Indian descent and therefore could not claim the political privileges of white citizens.

conflicting racial laws in the conquered territories

In 1848, with the end of the Mexican-American War, the United States politically disenfran-

chised all Indians of the Southwest by rescinding Mexico's racial laws in the newly conquered

territories. Since 181 2, Mexico had given Indians the right to claim citizenship and full political

rights (Knight 1990; Morner 1967; United States v. Lucero 1869; Weber 1982). Mexico also no

longer practiced a legally based racial caste system. Thus, new racial restriction policies

instituted in the conquered territories came to threaten the civil rights of the Mexicans because

under U.S. laws, Indians and "half-breeds" were not considered citizens (Kansas 1941;

Naturalization Act of 1790, ch. 3, sec. 1; see In re Camille 1880).

The eradication of Mexico's racial caste system had begun in the late 1 700s when the Spanish

crown resolved that generations of miscegenation had thoroughly blurred racial distinctions

(Knight 1990; Morner 1967). In 1812, the legal basis of the racial ranking order was finally

584 american ethnologist

abolished. The racial caste system, which for two centuries had distinguished individuals on

the basis of race, became nonfunctional for political and social purposes. Its gradual breakdown

resulted from the growth of the mestizo population and the political power obtained by

upper-class mestizos. By the turn of the 19th century, the mestizos had become the majority

and were heavily represented in the upper classes.

Before the breakdown of the racial caste system, Mexico's population had been divided

among Spaniards, "castas," and Indians (Lafaye 1974; Morner 1967; Vigi 1 984). Distinguishing

the population on the basis of parental origin had been an adequate legal method of according

economic privilege and social prestige to the Spaniards. The Spaniards included both peninsu-

lares, individuals who had been born in Spain and were of full European descent, and criollos,

who were also of full European descent but had been born in the New World. As miscegenation

increased among the Spanish elite, the criollo category eventually came to be redefined. The

castas were mestizos and other persons of mixed blood. The Indian category included only

people of full indigenous descent.

Of the various racial groups, the Spaniards enjoyed the highest social prestige and were

accorded the most extensive legal and economic privileges. The legal system did not make

distinctions between peninsulares and criollos. Nevertheless, the Spanish crown instituted

policies requiring that high-level positions in the government and the Catholic church be

assigned to peninsulares (Haring 1963), on the rationale that only peninsulares were fervently

loyal to the Spanish crown. Exceptions were made when a new colony was established in the

Americas and when a peninsular was unwilling to accept the appointment. It was required,

however, that a criollo taking such an appointment be a son of peninsulares. Peninsulares were

appointed to positions such as viceroy, governor, captain-general, archbishop, and bishop, whereas criollos were appointed to less prestigious positions, such as royal exchequer (treasurer,

comptroller) and judge, and, after 1618, to mid-level administrative positions in the church (as

priests or directors of schools).

The social and economic mobility of the rest of the population was seriously limited by the

legal statuses ascribed to their ancestral groups. In theory, Indians were economically more

privileged than mestizos because they held title to large parcels of communal land protected

by the Spanish crown and the Catholic church (Haring 1963; Morner 1967). However,

regardless of their landed property, the Indians were accorded little social prestige in Mexican

society and were legally confined to subservient social and economic roles regulated by the

Spanish elite. Most Indians were placed in encomiendas and repartimientos (Indian communi-

ties where land and labor were controlled by Spanish missionaries or government officials),

Indian pueblos, or haciendas and were held in a perpetual state of tutelage. The mestizos

enjoyed a higher social prestige than the Indians but were considered inferior to the Spaniards.

They were also often ostracized by the Indians and the Spaniards, and they did notenjoy certain

legal privileges accorded to those groups. For example, most mestizos were barred by royal decree from obtaining high- and mid-level positions in the royal and ecclesiastical governments

(Haring 1963; Morner 1967). Moreover, the Spanish crown did not reserve land for the mestizos

as it did for the Indians. For the most part, the only economic recourse most mestizos had was

to enter the labor market or migrate toward Mexico's northern and southern frontiers. Each

migrant who was the head of a household was awarded 150 acres and exempted from taxation

for a period of approximately ten years (Le6n-Portilla 1972; Rubel 1966; Weber 1982). After

1680, mestizos were occasionally allowed to become parish priests in Mexico's frontier

settlements or in sparsely populated areas.

By the late 1 700s, the rigid racial order had relaxed owing to changes in the interracial sexual

and cohabitation practices of the Spanish elite (Bonifaz de Novello 1975; Morner 1967). It had

become common for upper-class Spanish males to take mestizo or Indian women as concubines

and afterward legitimate their offspring. In such cases the racial status ofthe child became criollo

Chicano Indianism 585

and not mestizo. These criollos had the racial status of Spaniards but were not accorded the

corresponding legal privileges. They were barred from positions reserved for the Spaniards of

full European descent, and they suffered certain sanctions for marrying peninsular women. By the early 1800s, large numbers of criollos, mestizos, and Indians were becoming increasingly defiant of bounded social roles and were trespassing their borders with deliberate speed. Criollos

attempted to pass for peninsulares in order to obtain more social privileges. Indians often passed for mestizos in order to obtain wage labor in the urban centers, mestizos passed for Indians as

a means of acquiring the land titles of the Indians (Bonifaz de Novello 1975; Morner 1967),

and mestizos who had amassed great fortunes tried to improve their social standing by passing for criollos. The blurring of the racial distinctions made it difficult for the Spanish crown to

enforce the laws and the prescribed social norms, in particular because the majority of the

population was indistinguishably mestizo.

The final blow to the racial order came about through the political defection of the masses.

By the early 1800s, movements to liberate Mexico from Spanish colonial rule had erupted

throughout the country, and as a consequence the Spanish crown attempted to avert revolu-

tionary action by instituting the 1812 Spanish Constitution of Cadiz. The new constitution legally abolished the casta system and the racial laws. Theoretically, the constitution conferred on

Spaniards, mestizos, and Indians the same political rights regardless of racial origin. The laws

of Cadiz, however, were unable to avert the national independence movements. In 1821, the

masses won the Mexican War for Independence and instituted a provisional constitution (the

Plan de Iguala) reaffirming the racial philosophy of the Constitution of Cadiz. After the War of

Independence, race could no longer be legally used to prevent Indians and mestizos from

exercising citizenship rights. For example, it became common for mestizos and full-blooded

Indians to be elected to the presidency. All subsequent Mexican constitutions ratified the spirit and language of the Constitution of Cadiz.

In northern Mexico, the frontier experienced the same legislative changes as the interior.

Indians were considered Mexican citizens and were accorded full political rights. In New

Mexico, southern Arizona, and California the acculturated Indians and the secularized mission

Indians actively exercised those rights (Spicer 1962; Weber 1982). In New Mexico numerous

Pueblo Indians were elected to town and county political offices, and in California acculturated

American Indians often held high-ranking posts in the military (Heizer and Almquist 1971;

UnitedStates v. Ritchie 1854; UnitedStates v. Vallejo 1861). Of course the new laws had limited

effects on the majority of the American Indians, because Mexico held title to territories inhabited

by unconquered indigenous populations. The majority of the Shoshone, Navajo, Apache, and

Comanche Indians had not been conquered by the Mexican state. And the new legislation did

not eradicate the Mexican elites' attitudes of racial and economic superiority toward the

American Indians and mestizos.

When Mexico ceded its northern territory to the United States, then, it had already abolished

all racial restrictions on citizenship. The Indians had theoretically been incorporated as Mexican

citizens. In practice, of course, this legislation had not abolished racial prejudice and discrimi-

nation in Mexico, and the Indians continued to be stigmatized as uneducated people. However,

the mestizo racial category had taken on a new social meaning. Because most of the population

was mestizo, being mestizo had become a source of pride rather than a stigma. The European

race continued to hold high social prestige in Mexico, but the masses no longer considered it

the only prestigious racial group (Knight 1990; Vigil 1984). In the legal domain, race could no

longer be used as a civil rights barrier.

The racial policies of the United States, however, were less liberal than Mexico's. The United

States at that time conferred full citizenship rights on "free whites" only. Thus, the states'

constitutional right to deny Indians U.S. citizenship introduced the ideological and legal

foundation for limiting the Mexican people's political rights. Moreover, government officials

586 american ethnologist

often used the Mexicans' indigenous heritage to undermine the civil rights language of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Article VIII of the treaty stated that the United States agreed to extend

U.S. citizenship to all Mexican citizens, regardless of ancestry, who remained in the ceded

territories. If individuals did not want U.S. citizenship, they had to so indicate within one year; otherwise they would become citizens automatically (cited in Tate 1969). Under Article IX the

United States further agreed that Mexicans who chose to become U.S. citizens would have all

the attendant rights. Article IX stipulated that "Mexicans who, in the territories aforesaid, shall

not preserve the character of citizens of the Mexican Republic ... shall be incorporated into

the Union of the United States, and be admitted at the proper time ... to the enjoyment of all

the rights of citizens of the United States" (cited in Tate 1969:20).

Regardless of the treaty, however, the U.S. government refused to ratify the racial equality laws of Mexico. When the annexed southwestern territories joined the Union, their state

constitutions did not extend to American Indians the political rights guaranteed by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Mexican constitution. And soon after the enactment of the treaty,

controversy arose over the citizenship status of the Mexicans. The exclusionary Indian citizen-

ship laws, endorsed by the southwestern legislators, became the legal basis for limiting the

political rights of the Mexicans. Government representatives commonly argued that the

language of the treaty and the U.S. Constitution was unclear as to whether Mexicans of Indian

descent should be treated as American Indians or should be extended the privileges of whites

(Surace 1982; United States v. Joseph 1876; United States v. Lucero 1869; United States v.

Ritchie 1854; United States v. Santistevan 1874).

Ironically, the political privileges that the Spanish and Mexican governments had previously

given people in the Southwest were abolished by the U.S. racial laws. The Mexican mestizos

and Indians entered a new racial caste-like order in which their civil rights were limited. Given

the nature of the U.S. racial system and its laws, the conquered Mexican population learned

that it was politically expedientto assert their Spanish ancestry; otherwise, they were susceptible to being treated as American Indians (Padil la 1979). At the same time, as this historical blueprint

suggests, it became politically expedient for American Indians to pass for Mexican mestizos if

they wished to escape the full impact of the discriminatory Indian legislation (Forbes 1973). Let

us now examine how the political disenfranchisement of the Indians affected the Mexican

population.

the denial of citizenship for American and Mexican Indians

After ratification of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, government representatives of the

annexed region began to pass new racial-restriction citizenship laws (Cal. Const. 1849, art. II,

sec. 1; New Mexico Organic Law [Act] of 1850, sec. 6, cited in First Legislative Assembly

1851:20; Organic Act of Arizona 1863, revised 1864, ch. 24, sec. 6, cited in Hoyt 1877:226;

Tex. Const. 1845, art. III, sec. 1). Most American Indians were prohibited from obtaining

citizenship, and the anti-Indian legislation adversely affected the Mexicans of partial or full

Indian descent. Unless a Mexican was predominantly white, he or she was subject to racial

harassment (Forbes 1973; Tate 1969). Those classified as Mexican Indians were not entitled to

exercise full political rights or even basic civil rights: they were not allowed to vote, practice

law, marry Anglo-American women, or run for political offices such as district judge (Konvitz

1946; Murphy 1970). They were also subject to severe human rights infringements, such as

being placed in debt peonage and being forced to live on reservations.

After the annexation of Mexico's northern frontier, the southwestern territories and states

enacted ruthless, discriminatory Indian legislation. The Anglo-American legislators were able

to enforce the laws with the help of the U.S. military and the Anglo-American settlers. It became

common policy to place American Indians on reservations, drive them out of the southwest, or

Chicano Indianism 587

exterminate them (Heizer and Almquist 1971; Lamar 1966; Newcomb 1985; Spicer 1962,

1969). With few exceptions, only former mission Indians were allowed to reside in white

settlements and to retain title to secularized mission lands or family parcels. By the mid-1 860s,

however, most mission Indians had lost their property and become vagrants and paupers. Many of the mission Indians also ended their days in debt peonage, because between 1850 and 1865

it became lawful to place in bondage Indians who were vagrants, paupers, or orphans (Heizer

and Almquist 1971; Lamar 1966). In many California towns it was also lawful to enslave them.

By the late 1870s, the process of displacing Indians from their fertile southwestern land was

practically complete. Thousands of Indians had been exterminated and the remainder placed on reservations. In Texas, indeed, this had been achieved as early as 1852 (Newcomb 1985).

The Anglo Americans' blatant disregard for the Indians' right to life became an alarming warning to the Mexicans. If Mexicans were to have more political rights than Indians, they could not be

identified as Mexican Indians.

Of the annexed regions, California and Arizona enacted the most discriminatory Indian

legislation, clearly and strongly professing that all Indians, regardless of territorial origin, were

to be denied citizenship. To a large extent, California's and Arizona's exclusionary racial laws

reflected the Anglo-American political brokers' interest in limiting the rights of the Mexicans

and preventing them from having any governmental power. Both states passed laws to

disenfranchise Mexicans of Indian descent and to allow only white Mexicans full political rights. In California, the state constitution of 1849 included a racial-restriction clause allowing only whites the right to vote. The purpose of this clause was to disenfranchise Mexicans of Indian

descent, who constituted the overwhelming majority of the conquered population. The consti-

tution made it explicit that only white U.S. males and white Mexican males had the right of

suffrage; Indians and mestizos were ineligible to vote and therefore were stripped of most

political rights. The California constitution stated:

Every White male citizen of the United States, and every White male citizen of Mexico, who shall have elected to become a citizen of the United States, under the treaty of peace exchanged and ratified at Queretaro, on the 30th day of May, 1848, of the age of twenty-one years who shall have been a resident of the state six months next preceding the election, and the county or district in which he claims his vote

thirty days, shall be entitled to vote at all elections which are now or hereafter may be authorized by law. [Cal. Const. 1849, art. II, sec. 1; emphasis added]

The state legislators were aware that this racial restriction infringed the Treaty of Guadalupe

Hidalgo and international laws of territorial cession. They were, however, more concerned with

preventing Mexicans from obtaining political control of California.

The legislative debates of California's first constitutional convention of 1849 summarized the

overriding view that Mexicans were Indians and should not be given the right to vote. Mr.

Hoppe, a state legislator, proposed that itwas unwise to give the descendants of Mexican Indians

the right to vote, regardless of whether or not they were acculturated and paid taxes. He stated

in reference to Mexicans that

there are Indians by descent, as well as full-blooded Indians.... Many of the most distinguished officers of the Mexican government are Indians by descent. At the same time, it would be impolitic to permit the full-blooded Indians who held [sic] property the right to vote. Those who held property would, of course, be taxed. [cited in Heizer and Almquist 1971:102]

The legislators further argued that denying Mexicans the right to vote did not violate the Treaty

of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexicans would be allowed to become U.S. citizens and at the same

time would be denied the right to vote. Mr. Bott, one of the state legislators, proposed:

This Treaty ... is binding in every clause because it does not contradict the Constitution of the United

States, it does not prescribe who shall be our voters. If it had made citizens of Mexico directly citizens of the United States, it would not have said that they should be voters of the State of California. [cited in Heizer and Almquist 1971:101]

588 american ethnologist

Mr. Dimmick, another legislator, concurred with Mr. Bott and argued in favor of denying

Mexicans the right of suffrage: "Are we to admit them to rights superior to those which we enjoy

ourselves? Does anyone pretend to assert thatwe are under obligation to do this? Does itfollow

that the right of suffrage is one of these rights? ... It is not necessarily the right of a citizen"

(cited in Heizer and Almquist 1971:101). The final decision of the convention rested on the

premise that the legislators were obliged to give Mexicans the right to vote or else the U.S.

Congress would reject the state's constitution because it blatantly violated the Treaty of

Guadalupe Hidalgo (Heizer and Almquist 1971:100-102). Nonetheless, the legislators

concurred that neither the treaty nor the U.S. Constitution precluded them from placing

racial-restriction clauses in the language of the California constitution. They concluded that

Mexicans were to be given the right to vote only if they were "white." Ironically, the California

state legislators did not clarify what they meant by a "white Mexican" and thus left open to local

interpretation what racial criteria constituted a white, mestizo, or Indian Mexican. At the

community level, this legal ambiguity allowed Anglo Americans to discriminate against Mexicans. Each township had the power to determine whether its Mexican residents were white

and therefore to exempt them from or subject them to the state's racial laws (Padilla 1979).

When Arizona gained political independence from New Mexico in 1863, its existing territorial constitution was abandoned. Arizona legislators decided to base parts of their new

territorial constitution on California's constitution: California's citizenship and electoral eligi-

bility requirements were adopted, and only white males and white Mexican males were allowed

to vote (Organic Act of Arizona 1863, revised 1864, ch. 24, sec. 6, cited in Hoyt 1877:226). A

fundamental purpose was to disqualify American Indians, mestizos, and Mexican Indians from

the electoral process (Hoyt 1877; Tate 1969). Arizona's territorial act disenfranchised Mexican

Indians and mestizos until 1877, and the legislators passed additional racist laws against Mexican citizens. Once again Mexicans were disqualified, on the basis of race, from serving as justices of the peace and from practicing law (Murphy 1970); between 1864 and 1888 only white males were allowed to enter those professions. The Anglo-American power brokers were

apparently determined to prevent Mexican Indians and mestizos from influencing Arizona's

political structure.

The constitutions of Texas and New Mexico were less discriminatory against Indians and

theoretically extended the full rights of citizenship to most Mexicans. The Texas constitution of

1845 and the amendments of 1850 extended the right of citizenship to "free whites," Mexicans,

and a few detribalized, taxpaying Indians (Judd and Hall 1932). To acquire this right of

citizenship, however, Mexicans had to have resided in Texas prior to 1845 (Padilla 1979); any Mexican immigrants arriving in Texas after that date had to prove that they were white in order

to apply for citizenship. The detribalized American Indians were classified as citizens but were

not given the right to vote (Elk v. Wilkens 1884), and the only American Indians who were

granted citizenship (without suffrage) were those who resided in Mexican towns and had

adopted the Mexican culture. Few other than the detribalized Mexican Apaches from the San

Antonio District were eligible to be considered citizens (Weber 1982). Most likely, Mexicans

and a few American Indians were granted citizenship because they no longer posed a political threat to the Anglo power structure. By 1850, most Indians had been exterminated and Mexicans

constituted a minority population (Montejano 1987; Newcomb 1985).

Between 1850 and 1913 the citizenship laws extended to the Indians in New Mexico were

ambiguous, and governmental opinions vacillated between liberal and racist positions. The

differing attitudes toward the Indians appear to have been strongly associated with the shifts of

political power from the Mexican mestizos to the Anglo Americans. From 1850 to the

mid-1870s, a period when the Mexican mestizos retained considerable negotiating power,

relatively liberal Indian legislation was passed in New Mexico (Lamar 1966). Conversely,

Chicano Indianism 589

between the mid-1 870s and 1913, as the Anglo Americans gradually came to monopolize New

Mexico's government, attitudes toward the Indians became less sympathetic. New Mexico's first territorial constitution was drafted on May 15, 1850, and was titled the

Organic Act of New Mexico. Twenty delegates were present at the constitutional convention:

11 Mexicans and 9 Anglo Americans (Larson 1968). The Organic Act conferred full rights of

citizenship upon "free whites" and those citizens of Mexico who had become citizens of the

United States as a result of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (First Legislative Assembly 1851:20).4 Within days, confusion arose over two issues: were the Pueblo Indians part of the

conquered Mexican population that had obtained U.S. citizenship under the Treaty of

Guadalupe Hidalgo, and did they thereby acquire the right of suffrage? A month after the act

was drafted, the Cochiti Indians (part of the Pueblo Indians) sent a delegation to Santa Fe, where

it met with government officials to discuss the Cochiti's citizenship status (Larson 1968).5 The

Cochiti were assured that civilized Indians were counted as part of the conquered Mexican

population and were therefore eligible to vote. When New Mexico's first territorial election was

held, the Cochiti and other Pueblo Indians were allowed to vote.

On September 5, 1853, however, the U.S. Congress rescinded the Pueblo Indians' voting

rights (Larson 1968). Ironically, though Congress prohibited the Pueblo Indians from voting, New Mexico's territorial legislators gave them a special citizenship status that allowed them to

vote at the township level (Deavenport 1856:142). The Pueblo Indians, however, had to

demonstrate that they practiced a Mexican lifestyle (that, for example, they had a "Mexican

political village structure"). New Mexico's courts also prohibited federal Indian agents from

relocating any Pueblo Indian onto a reservation (United States v. Kolowoski 1 874; United States

v. Lucero 1869; United States v. Santistevan 1874; United States v. Varela 1874).6 The courts

reasoned that because the Pueblo Indians had adopted the Spanish culture and the Mexican

township system, they had the right to obtain special privileges not extended to other Indian

groups. In United States v. Lucero (1869), for example, the main argument offered in defense

of the Cochiti was that generations of Spanish cultural indoctrination had uplifted their race. It

was concluded that they had become a Mexicanized Indian race that had adopted the culture,

names, and traditions of their Mexican neighbors. The court offered the following opinion:

Their names, their customs, and their habits, are similar to those of the people in whose midst they reside, or in the midst of whom their pueblos are situated.... In the absence of law or decision on the subject, are we not at liberty to conclude from these facts that the laws, the decision of the courts, and the

acquiescence of the people, all recognized the pueblo Indians as citizens, as "Mexicans"? We do so conclude. [United States v. Lucero 1869:454, 456]

In short, the court decided that the Pueblo Indians of Cochiti were part of the conquered Mexican people who had obtained U.S. citizenship under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The liberal New Mexico Supreme Court rulings and territorial laws were short-lived. In 1876

the U.S. Supreme Court overturned the Pueblo Indians' right to claim U.S. citizenship under

the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Davis and Mechem 1915; United States v. Joseph 1876). It

appears that the dissolution of the Pueblo Indians' citizenship rights coincided with the growth of the Anglo-American community. In the late 1870s the Anglo-American population gradually

increased; by 1880 it had become the majority, numbering over 90,000 (Lamar 1966). And

with population growth came political power. The Pueblo Indians' right to claim citizenship faced its first serious challenge when Anthony Joseph charged that he had been discriminated

against by New Mexico's legal system. In 1874, Joseph, an Anglo-American resident of New Mexico, challenged the Pueblo Indians'

property rights and attempted to lay claim to a parcel of their land. Government officials fined

him and evicted him from the Pueblo territory. Joseph refused to pay the fine, and the dispute

was finally resolved in court. He lost the trial at the territorial level (United States v. Joseph

1874) but, unsatisfied with the court's decision, appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. In United

590 american ethnologist

States v. Joseph (1 876), he argued that the Pueblo Indians had no legal right to the land because

they were not U.S. citizens. In response, the Supreme Court offered a convoluted decision

regarding the citizenship status of the Pueblo Indians. The Court ruled that under the Treaty of

Guadalupe Hidalgo the land of the Taos Pueblo Indians was protected from homesteaders. The

Court also ruled, however, that although many Pueblo Indians practiced Mexican customs, they could not be considered U.S. citizens of Mexican descent. It concluded that because of the

topic's complexity, the final decision would have to be made in future cases when the political

rights of the Pueblo Indians were questioned. The final blow to the citizenship rights of the

Pueblo Indians came from the Supreme Court in 1884. In Elk v. Wilkens the Court ruled that

Indians-whether or not they were acculturated-were not U.S. citizens.

In New Mexico, the impact of the federal Supreme Court rulings on Indian issues was to

dismantle the Pueblo Indians' special status. For example, in 1897 the Pueblo Indians' right to

vote in town elections was rescinded (Davis and Mechem 1915). Moreover, when the New

Mexico territory gained statehood in 1912 additional discriminatory laws were passed. Under

the new state constitution (adopted January 21, 1911) the Pueblo Indians were declared to be

"like any other Indian tribe" and their tribal land was brought under U.S. jurisdiction as "Indian

country" (N.M. Const. 1911, art. XXI, sec. 8). Finally, in 1913, one year after statehood, New

Mexico's supreme court passed a ruling stipulating that the Pueblo Indians were savages and

therefore had no right to claim U.S. citizenship under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In

United States v. Sandoval (1913) the court concluded that although the cultural heritage of the

Pueblo was ambiguous, New Mexico's constitution classified them as an Indian tribe and not

as a Mexican ethnic group. The court offered the following analysis of the Pueblo Indians'

culture, concluding that they were a primitive and inferior people:

The people of the pueblos, although sedentary rather than nomadic in their inclinations, and disposed to

peace and industry, are nevertheless Indians in race, customs, and domestic government. Always ...

adhering to primitive modes of life, largely influenced by superstition and fetichism [sic], and chiefly governed according to the crude customs inherited from their ancestors, they are essentially a simple, uninformed and inferior people. [United States v. Sandoval 191 3:39]

United States v. Sandoval effectively symbolized the degeneration of the Indians' legal status

during the Anglo-American political domination of New Mexico. Moreover, the derogatory views that the state and federal courts held of the Indians reflected the general racial prejudice felt by Anglo Americans toward people of Indian descent. Larson (1968) and Lamar (1966) posit that during the 19th century the major obstruction to New Mexico's statehood was the racial

prejudice of U.S. congressmen toward a Spanish-speaking and predominantly nonwhite

population. Congress was unwilling to extend statehood to a Mexican population that did not

represent "the best blood on the American continent" (Larson 1968:303).

During the 19th century, then, racial laws in the Southwest discriminated against the

Mexican-origin population, in particular those of Indian descent. Mexicans who were of

American Indian or predominantly Mexican Indian descent were not able to exercise the full

rights of citizens. It is now necessary to further examine the legislative and judicial repression of Mexicans and Indians in order to show why Mexicans were pressured to argue in court that

they were of Caucasian descent.

citizenship by birth: racial restrictions and the 14th Amendment

Passed in 1865, the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution abolished slavery and

involuntary servitude, freeing blacks from slavery and releasing thousands of American Indians

held in indentured bondage (Feagin 1989; Heizer and Almquist 1971). The question of whether

blacks and other racial minorities should be incorporated into the nation as voting citizens then

arose. The federal government determined that if racial minorities were to be allowed to vote,

Chicano Indianism 591

a federal law rescinding the states' right to prescribe citizenship requirements had to be enacted

(Hyman and Wiecek 1982). The 14th Amendment was passed in 1868 with the intention of

legislating a uniform citizenship law and eliminating the states' right to establish citizenship

eligibility (U.S. Const. amend. XIV, sec. 1, cited in Hyman and Wiecek 1982:517-531).

Ironically, although the 14th Amendment became the paramount law of the land and people born in the United States were granted full citizenship rights, including the right to vote, the

amendment excluded the American Indians from its protection. Thus, this legislation adversely

affected the Mexicans because Anglo-Americans continued to argue that most Mexicans were

Indians and therefore should receive the same treatment (Surace 1982). Let us look at two

judicial cases in which Anglo Americans attempted to deny Mexicans and American Indians

the protection of the 14th Amendment by arguing that both populations were Indian.

Regardless of whether American Indians adopted the lifestyle of Euro-Americans, the gov- ernment refused to grant them the right to obtain citizenship under the 14th Amendment. A

case in point is John Elk, an acculturated Indian, who in 1884 was denied that right. According to the U.S. Supreme Court, Elk was technically a tribal Indian because his people had never

enacted a treaty with the United States and had not been granted U.S. citizenship. Although Elk

was a taxpayer, had terminated all relations with his reservation, and had served in the U.S.

military, he was found unfit to claim citizenship. He was also denied the right to apply for

naturalization, because Indians were ineligible: Indians could only become citizens by an act

of Congress. With the Elk v. Wilkens ruling, the government made it clear that Indians were

disqualified from applying for citizenship or naturalization. This law also applied to the

American Indians of partial Mexican descent, including many Pueblo Indians of New Mexico

(United States v. Sandoval 1913).

Throughout the late 1800s, anti-Indian feelings were projected onto Mexicans and used as a

rationale for denying them full citizenship rights (Hardy v. De Leon 1849; Kilpatrick v. Sisneros

1859; McKinney v. Saviego 1855; People v. Naglee 1850). In 1870, Pablo De La Guerra, a

district judge and a prominent citizen of Santa Barbara, was prosecuted by the state of California

for "illegally acting" as a U.S. citizen. In the state supreme court hearing, the attorneys for the

state argued that De La Guerra was not a U.S. citizen because the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had never had the power to make citizens of Mexicans or Indians. Therefore, they proposed that Mexicans who had remained in the United States after the Mexican-American War might

only obtain citizenship by naturalization. Embellishing the facts, the attorneys for the state

further argued that because the constitution prohibited Indians from applying for naturalization,

and because Mexicans were Indian, Mexicans were also ineligible to apply for naturalization.

In his defense, De La Guerra argued that he was white and was therefore exempt from

California's racial laws. The court records indicate De La Guerra testified that he "was born at

Santa Barbara in 1819, and has ever since resided at that place and is admitted to have been a

White male citizen of Mexico" (People v. De La Guerra 1870:339, emphasis added).

Although the state supreme court ruled in favor of De La Guerra, concluding that he was

white and therefore not subject to Indian jurisdiction laws, it passed a convoluted decision that

upheld California's right to limit citizenship on the basis of race. (De La Guerra was also judged

to be a U.S. citizen because the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had conferred that privilege upon

him.) The court ruled that although De La Guerra was entitled to the full rights of citizenship

because he was white, nonwhite Mexicans were not entitled to the same rights. The court stated

that citizenship did not guarantee Mexicans full political rights because the government had

the power to limit political privileges for certain types of Mexicans. It was implicit in the

language of the court that only white Mexicans were entitled to full political rights. Ironically,

although two years earlier the federal government had passed the 14th Amendment, which

prohibited the states from limiting the political rights of U.S. citizens on the basis of race, the

state supreme court upheld California's right to practice racial discrimination. It is unclear

592 american ethnologist

whether the court elected to ignore the 14th Amendment or decided that it did not apply to

Mexicans. The court's concluding statement affirmed California's right to discriminate against

Mexicans of Indian descent:

The elective franchise is denied to certain persons who had been entitled to its exercise under the laws

of Mexico. The possession of all political rights is not essential to citizenship. When Congress admitted

California as a State, the constituent members of the State, in their aggregate capacity, became vested

with the sovereign powers of government, "according to the principles of the Constitution." They then

had the right to prescribe the qualifications of electors, and it is no violation of the treaty that these

qualifications were such as to exclude some of the inhabitants from certain political rights. [People v. De

La Guerra 1870:343-344]

The court further proposed that Mexican Indians born in the United States were ineligible to

vote because Indians were denied that right.

New Mexico and Arizona took similar discriminatory actions. Despite the 14th Amendment,

the Arizona legislators continued to deny nonwhite Mexicans the right of suffrage as well as to

prevent them from serving as lawyers or justices of the peace (Murphy 1970). In New Mexico,

although the Mexican mestizos retained considerable control of the territorial government

during the 1870s, there is evidence that the Anglo Americans attempted to disenfranchise

Mexicans by accusing them of being traitors. Mexican judges, in particular, came under

overwhelming attack (Carter v. Territory of New Mexico 1859; Quintana v. Thompkins 1853).

Throughout the late 19th century, state governments prevented "American-born" racial

minorities from exercising their citizenship rights (Kansas 1941). Anglo Americans argued that

the spirit of the 14th Amendment applied only to blacks and whites and that therefore Asians,

American Indians, Mexicans, and "half-breeds" were not entitled to its protection (Hull 1985;

Konvitz 1946; Padilla 1979). As large numbers of American racial minorities began to challenge

the states' interpretations of the 14th Amendment, their cases began to appear before the states'

supreme courts. The federal Supreme Court was then pressured to offer a final and uniform

decision on two citizenship questions: were nonblack racial minorities who had been born in

the United States citizens; and if they were, should they be entitled to full political rights? In

1897 the case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark reached the federal Supreme Court, and the

racial questions were resolved. The Supreme Court ruled that a child born in the United States

acquired citizenship by virtue of the 14th Amendment and that race and national origin could

not be used to deny a person the rights of citizenship.7 The Court also ruled that the Civil Rights

Act of 1866 (ch. 31, sec. 1-6) guaranteed all persons born in the United States (and not subject

to any foreign power), regardless of racial background, full and equal benefit of the laws enjoyed

by white citizens. Ironically, the Court exempted the majority of the American Indians, the

rationale being that the spirit and language of the 14th Amendment were based on the principles

of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which exempted most American Indians.

Following the Wong Kim Ark decision, Mexicans born in the United States were in theory

indisputably guaranteed the full legal rights of citizenship. However, because most Indians were

denied the 14th Amendment's protection, Mexicans remained a vulnerable target of discrimi-

nation. Mexicans born in the United States were entitled to full political privileges, but at the

community level they were subject to the Anglo Americans' interpretations of the 14th

Amendment. There are abundant historical records demonstrating that anti-Indian attitudes

were extended to Mexicans and that on a daily basis the two ethnic groups were often treated

alike (Spicer 1962; Surace 1982; Taylor 1934). For example, newspapers typically depicted

Mexicans as half-breeds or quarter-Indian bloods who stole cattle and assassinated Anglo

Americans (Paredes 1978; Pitt 1966). Journalists also warned the American public to be wary

of Mexicans because many "savage" Indians were attempting to pass for Mexican (Kenner 1969;

Lange and Riley 1970, 1975; Reister 1928).

Discriminatory anti-Indian attitudes also surfaced in the area of naturalization, and the

Mexican immigrant became the target. Reasoning that Mexicans were Indian, federal agencies

Chicano Indianism 593

attempted to extend to Mexicans the exclusionary naturalization laws that applied to Indians.

This was potentially damaging to the Mexican population as the era of Mexican migration began to unfold in the late 19th century. Thousands of Mexicans were entering the United States in

an attempt to escape the repressive Mexican hacienda system, while others were deciding to

settle in the Southwest as a means of reuniting families separated by the U.S.-Mexico border

(Galarza 1964; Paredes 1978). Over 8,000 Mexican immigrants entered the United States

legally between 1869 and 1900, and many more thousands of unregistered immigrants arrived

(Galarza 1964; Zambrano 1986). It is thus important to explore the racial rationales used by

Anglo Americans to prevent Mexican immigrants from obtaining U.S. citizenship.

citizenship by naturalization: Mexican immigrants

In the 19th century, Mexican immigrants who planned to participate in American electoral

politics and receive other political rights had to obtain citizenship by way of naturalization. For

Mexicans and other racial minorities the process was arduous. Racial minorities did not have

the right to apply for naturalization merely because they were immigrants (Hull 1985; Kansas

1941; Konvitz 1946). On the contrary, from 1790 to 1940 only "free white immigrants"-and, after 1870, black immigrants-were extended the privilege of naturalization (Naturalization Act

of 1790, ch. 3, sec. 1; Naturalization Act of 1795, ch. 20, stat. 2, sec. 1; Naturalization Act of

1802, ch. 28, stat. 1; Naturalization Rev. Stat. of 1870, sec. 2169). The historical failure of the

federal government to classify Mexicans as white adversely affected the Mexican immigrants who planned to apply for citizenship. If Mexican immigrants wanted to be naturalized, they had to prove that they were eligible to apply because they were white (Padilla 1979);

consequently, they also had to prove that they were not Indian, because the naturalization

eligibility requirements excluded Indians. In effect the naturalization process discouraged Mexican immigrants from asserting their indigenous heritage within the legal system. In Arizona, there is evidence that still more restrictive naturalization policies prevented Mexican immigrants from obtaining citizenship. The citizens of Apache County considered the naturalization racial

clauses to be excessively lax, and so in 1885, local government officials defied the rules of the

naturalization board and took it upon themselves to determine which types of white immigrants would be allowed to become U.S. citizens (Murphy 1970).

It is difficult to determine how many Mexican immigrants were successful in obtaining naturalization and how many were turned down on the basis of race (Hull 1985). The case of

In re Rodriguez (1897), however, delineates the type of rationale used by the naturalization

board to exclude Mexican immigrants. In 1897, Ricardo Rodriguez, a citizen of Mexico, filed

in the county court of Bexar, Texas, his intention to become a citizen of the United States. His

application was denied on the ground that he was an Indian and therefore not eligible to apply for citizenship. Rodriguez appealed, and his case was heard by the San Antonio Circuit Court.

In his defense, Rodriguez argued that although his race was Indian he no longer practiced Indian

traditions and knew nothing about that culture.

The naturalization board contested Rodriguez' right to apply for naturalization, arguing that

the federal government did not extend this privilege to nonwhites other than blacks. The board,

represented by attorney A. J. Evans, asserted that although many Mexicans were white and

qualified for naturalization, most Mexicans, like Rodriguez, were Indian and thus ineligible to

be naturalized (Naturalization Rev. Stat. of 1870, sec. 2169). Evans argued that Rodriguez was

unmistakably Indian in appearance:

I challenge the right of the applicant to become a citizen of the United States, on the ground that he is not a man or person entitled to be naturalized.... [The] applicant is a native-born person of Mexico, 38

years old, and of pure Aztec or Indian race.... The population of Mexico comprises about six million Indians of unmixed blood, nearly one-half of whom are nomadic savage tribes, .. . about 5 million whites

594 american ethnologist

or creoles... and twenty-five thousand ... mestizos, or half-breeds derived from the union of the whites and Indians.... Now it is clear... from the appearance of the applicant, that he is one of the 6,000,000 Indians of unmixed blood.... If an Indian, he cannot be naturalized. [In re Rodriguez 1897:346-347]

Evans' colleagues, Floyd McGown and T. J. McMinn, presented supporting legal cases to contest

Rodriguez' naturalization application. Offering several precedents in which racial minorities

had been denied the privilege of naturalization, they argued that the federal government had

made it very clear that only blacks and Americans of pure European descent were eligible. McGown and McMinn stated that the precedent for denying Mexican immigrants the right to

apply for naturalization had been set in 1878 by In re Ah Yup. In that case the Circuit Court of

California had ruled that the Chinese were not white and therefore were ineligible to apply for

citizenship. The attorneys argued that In re Ah Yup indisputably applied to Mexicans because

everyone knew that Chinese, Mexicans, and Indians were mongolians. That argument was their

ethnological analysis. They then stated that the decision to exclude half-breed immigrants from

citizenship had also been upheld by the government in the case of In re Camille (1880), in

which the Circuit Court of Oregon had ruled that half-breed Indians were not white and

therefore not eligible for naturalization. Using In re Camille as their precedent, the attorneys for

the board of naturalization argued that Mexican mestizos were disqualified from applying for

naturalization because the court had ruled that a person must be at least three-quarters white

to receive the privileges of a white citizen. They also appealed to a Utah Supreme Court decision

on a Hawaiian immigrant (In re Kanaka Nian 1889) as evidence that racial minorities who

inhabited conquered territories were ineligible for naturalization. Employing unsubstantiated

rhetoric, Evans and McGown asserted that inhabitants of ceded territories, such as Hawaii and

the Mexican northwest, could not apply for naturalization. Because Kanaka Nian had been born

in Hawaii and Rodriguez in Mexico, neither one was eligible. The final case used to challenge Rodriguez' right to naturalization was the U.S. Supreme Court case Elk v. Wilkens (1884). The attorneys representing the board of naturalization argued that Elk v. Wilkens clearly indicated the U.S. government had never intended to naturalize

Indians, even those who were acculturated or had terminated their tribal relations. Therefore,

they concluded Mexicans were ineligible because everyone knew that the true Mexican was

an acculturated Indian. In sum, the attorneys for the board argued on the basis of race against

extending Rodriguez the right to apply for naturalization. In supporting arguments they alleged that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo did not have naturalization powers, and they concluded

by opining that acculturation did not transform an Indian into a white person.

The dissenting opinion was offered by T. M. Paschal in defense of Rodriguez. Paschal's

opinion clearly supported Rodriguez, yet it had a racist tone and indicated an intolerant attitude

toward cultural diversity. Paschal argued that Rodriguez was an undesirable candidate for

naturalization and should be denied that right based on the fact that he was an Indian and an

ignorant Mexican who was unable to read or write Spanish or English. Paschal asserted,

however, that the federal laws of the land had to be upheld by the district courts and Mexican

immigrants had to be given the right to apply for citizenship. He argued that when the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was ratified the United States agreed to extend Mexican citizens the

same political privileges enjoyed by whites. Therefore, Paschal proposed, if the U.S. govern- ment had agreed to treat the Mexicans of the ceded territory as "white," then the same treatment

had to be extended to Mexican immigrants, irrespective of race. Paschal concluded that

although Rodriguez was an Indian, the racial precedents set by the In re Ah Yup, In re Camille, In re Kanaka Nian, and Elk v. Wilkens cases did not apply to Mexicans, for the U.S. government had agreed to extend them the privileges of whites. Naturalizing Rodriguez, he argued, would

not violate the racial clauses of the naturalization laws. To provide further evidence that

Rodriguez was eligible, Paschal asked Rodriguez to testify in his own behalf and prove to the

Chicano Indianism 595

court that he no longer identified himself as Indian. What follows are the counsel's questions

and Rodriguez' replies:

Q. Do you not believe that you belong to the original Aztec race in Mexico? A. No, Sir. Q. Where did your race come from? Spain? A. No, Sir. Q. Does your family claim any religion? What religion do they profess? A. Catholic religion.

Paschal then said, "The supporting affidavits show upon their face that the applicant is

'attached to the principles of the constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good

order and happiness of the same'" (In re Rodriguez 1897:338). District Judge Maxey concurred

with Paschal's defense. Maxey concluded that Rodriguez was eligible for naturalization based

on international laws of territorial cession and on his having proven that he was no longer an

Indian.

Interestingly, Elizabeth Hull (1985) argues that although a large number of Mexican immi-

grants were naturalized in the early 20th century, it was not until 1940 that the U.S. government

changed the language of the naturalization laws and without a doubt conferred that privilege

on Mexican Indians. According to Hull, it was only with passage of the Nationality Act of 1940

that the U.S. governmentformally allowed indigenous immigrants from the Western hemisphere

to obtain naturalization rights, and only with several revisions of the act that it allowed all

"nonwhite immigrants" to obtain citizenship. Chinese were granted that privilege in 1943,

Japanese in 1945, Pilipinos and East Indians in 1946, and all other races in 1952 (Hull 1985;

Konvitz 1946).

de jure racial segregation

In the late 1800s, when de jure segregation was enacted at the federal level, the question of

whether or not the Mexican people came under the mandate of the segregationist "Jim Crow"

laws became salient. Because the U.S. government had failed to designate a racial category for

Mexican people, their racial status in the courts remained ambiguous. The government

acknowledged that most Mexicans were partly white, but because of their Indian ancestry it

failed to classify them as Caucasian (Padilla 1979). Classifying them as Indian, however, was

politically problematic (Heizer and Almquist 1971; Weber 1982). There is evidence indicating

that in the Southwest, dark-complexioned Mexicans were segregated from whites. I will

therefore discuss judicial cases in which nonwhite people of Mexican origin were discriminated

against by the U.S. legal system. I will also examine the Mexican people's responses. Under-

standably, Mexican litigants defended themselves in court by challenging the applicability of

the segregationist laws to their ethnic group. Their attorneys attempted to protect them by

arguing either that Mexicans were white or that they had the political right to be treated as white

citizens. To introduce this discussion, I will briefly review the first two major segregationist cases

to come before the federal Supreme Court: Robinson v. Memphis & Charleston Railroad Co.

(1883) and Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). These cases will illustrate both the rationale for passing

national segregationist laws and the rationale for including nonwhite Mexicans under those

laws.

In 1883 the landmark segregationist ruling on Robinson v. Memphis & Charleston Railroad

Co. legally allowed the exclusion of racial minorities from hotels, restaurants, parks, public

conveyances, and public amusement parks. This ruling also upheld the right of business owners

to provide segregated services for racial minorities or to refuse them services. The arguments

of subsequent segregationist laws were structured or supported by this Supreme Court decision,

596 american ethnologist

and they were not completely overturned until passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Salinas

1973).

The significance of the Robinson case was that it successfully overturned the liberal Civil

Rights Act of 1875, which had prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, religion, and

national origin. Sections 1 and 2 of the act were overturned because of their allegedly

unconstitutional implications, for the Court concluded that they advocated reverse discrimina-

tion against whites. The majority opinion was that allowing racial minorities to be in public

places forced whites to interact with them and thus violated the civil rights of white people. It

also stated that excluding nonwhites from public places was not a violation of the 13th and

14th Amendments because interacting with whites was a privilege and not a right for racial

minorities.

Thirteen years after the Robinson ruling, Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) was deliberated by the

Supreme Court. This case became the most devastating and segregationist ruling to date, as the

Court legalized all forms of social segregation, including school segregation. The ruling also

provided more specific language about who could legally be segregated. In Plessy, the Supreme

Court justices addressed the problem of racial classifications, ruling that for purposes of

segregation every state had the right to determine who was white and who was nonwhite. It

also gave each state the power to decide if any racial minority group should be segregated. That

is, although the Court did not mandate that "all racial minorities" be segregated, it supported

the states' rights to institute segregation if desired by the state legislators. The Plessy decision

served to reinforce the Mexicans' inferior political status. In other words, during the era of de

jure segregation the indigenous heritage of Mexican-origin people linked them to the people

of color, and dark-complexioned Mexicans could be racially segregated.

In Colorado and Texas, for example, people of Mexican origin were legally excluded from

public facilities reserved for whites. In Lueras v. Town of Lafayette (1937) and Terrell Wells

Swimming Pool v. Rodriguez (1944), the courts concluded that Mexicans were not white and

therefore were not entitled to use such facilities. Although the two Mexicans in these cases

argued that they were of Spanish descent, their dark skin color indicated that they were racially

mixed and thus they lost the trials (Salinas 1973). Social scientists Albert Camarillo (1984) and

Guadalupe Salinas (1973) report that similar civil rights injustices occurred in California and

Arizona during the same period.

School segregation cases serve to further illustrate discrimination against dark-complexioned

Mexican-origin people on the basis of race. Although the rationales used to segregate Mexican

students ranged from racial to social-deficit justifications (including language, intelligence

quotients, and the "infectious diseases of Mexicans"), some legislators attempted to segregate

Mexican students on the ground that most of them were nonwhite (Wollenberg 1974). Cal ifornia

provides the best examples of how the indigenous racial ancestry of the Mexican students was

used to place them under the mandate of de jure segregation. During the 1920s and 1930s,

government officials attempted to classify Mexican students as Indians; their intent was to pass

a paramount state law that would give all school boards the unquestionable right to segregate

Mexicans (Donato, Menchaca, and Valencia 1991). On January 23, 1927, the attorney general

of California offered the opinion that Mexicans could betreated as Indians and should be placed

under the mandate of de jure segregation (Hendrick 1977:56), and in 1930 he issued a similar

opinion. According to him, Mexicans were Indians and therefore should be treated as such: "It

is well known that the greater portion of the population of Mexico are Indians and when such

Indians migrate to the United States they are subject to the laws applicable generally to other

Indians" (cited in Weinberg 1977:166). Finally, in 1935 the California legislature passed

legislation officially segregating certain Mexican students on the ground that they were Indian.

Though the school code exempted white Mexicans, it clearly applied to Mexicans of Indian

Chicano Indianism 597

descent. Without explicitly mentioning Mexicans, the code prescribed that schools segregate

Mexicans of Indian descent who were not American Indians:

The governing board of the school district shall have power to establish separate schools for Indian children, excepting children of Indians who are wards of the United States government and children of all other Indians who are descendants of the original American Indians of the United States, and for children of Chinese, Japanese, or Mongolian parentage. [cited in Hendrick 1977:57]

The ambiguous school code made Mexican students the principal target of discrimination and

released American Indians from mandated school segregation (Donato, Menchaca, and

Valencia 1991; Gonzalez 1990). Dark-complexioned Mexican students could be classified as

Indians and the segregationist educational codes applied to them. California school boards now

had the legal right to use race as a rationale to segregate certain Mexicans.8

During the early 1930s, the two states with the largest concentrations of Mexicans practiced

school segregation on a large scale. In Texas by 1930, 90 percent of the schools teaching

Mexican students were racially segregated (Rangel and Alcala 1972). In California by 1931, 85

percent of the Mexican students were in segregated schools or classrooms (Hendrick 1977).

However, the rationales for segregating Mexican students varied, as schools could not use race

to segregate white Mexican students. The case of Independent School District v. Salvatierra

(1930) illustrates this point. In 1930 the Mexican community of Del Rio, Texas, won a partial

victory when it proved in court that the Del Rio Independent School District had unlawfully

segregated white Mexican students (Rangel and Alcala 1972). The attorneys for the school board

justified the segregationist actions by arguing that the Texas legislature, the U.S. Constitution,

and federal statutes allowed government agencies to segregate Mexican students when it was

necessary. They also argued that the district had primarily segregated nonwhite Mexican

students. The judge ruled that because half the Mexican population in Del Rio was Spanish and

belonged to the white race, not all of the Mexican students were subject to the mandates of de

jure segregation. However, the judge also ruled that the Del Rio school board would not be

asked to rescind its actions. First, the school board had not acted with malice when it segregated

the Mexican students of Spanish descent. The judge proposed that this error resulted from the

failure of the Texas courts to determine whether all Mexicans belonged to the same race.

Second, because federal statutes on treaties had recently allowed government agencies to

reverse treaty agreements, the school board had the right to segregate any Mexican student who

did not speak English (Independent School District v. Salvatierra 1930:794). The judge con-

cluded that because a large number of the Mexican students were white, it would be unjust to

segregate Mexicans arbitrarily. White Mexican students, therefore, could be segregated only if

they did not speak English.

Educational historian Gilbert Gonzalez (1990) proposes that the Independent School District

case set the legal precedent cautioning school boards in the Southwest not to use race as the

only justification for segregating Mexican students. After the Del Rio incident other rationales

were often used to legitimate school segregation, but they were only smokescreens for racism.

A case in point is Roberto Alvarez v. Lemon Grove School District(1931 ), in which a California

school board used language as a justification for segregating Mexican students (see Alvarez

1986; Gonzalez 1990). In this case, however, the court ruled in favor of the Mexican community

and ordered the desegregation of the Mexican students (Alvarez 1986), arguing that separate

facilities for Mexican students were not conducive to their Americanization. Americanization

symbolically meant the right to be acculturated into the Anglo-Saxon society (Gonzalez 1990).

In 1947 the era of de jure segregation in the schools finally came to an end for the Mexican

community of the Southwest. The Mendez v. Westminster case (1946, 1947) ended de jure

segregation in California and provided the legal foundation for overturning the school segrega-

tion of Mexican students throughout the Southwest. In that case, Judge Paul McCormick ruled

that the school board had segregated Mexicans on the basis of their "Latinized" appearance

598 american ethnologist

and had gerrymandered the school district in order to ensurethat Mexican students would attend

schools apart from whites (Wollenberg 1974). He decided that neither Plessy nor the 1935

educational code of California applied to Mexican students because there was no federal law

stipulating that all Mexicans were Indian (Gonzalez 1990). He also concluded that the

segregation of Mexican students was illegal because the 14th Amendment and the Treaty of

Guadalupe Hidalgo had guaranteed Mexicans equal rights in the United States. The Westmin-

ster school board appealed the ruling, but the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco

upheld the decision on April 14, 1947 (Gonzalez 1990). Although the Mendez case helped to

end de jure segregation in the schools, the segregation of Mexican students remained wide-

spread. In 1968 nearly 50 percent of Mexican-origin students attended segregated schools, and

in 1980 about 70 percent of Latino students (two-thirds of whom were of Mexican origin) were

enrolled in schools with minority enrollments of 50 percent or more (Donato, Menchaca, and

Valencia 1991).

conclusion

I have described some of the racial repression experienced by people of Mexican origin in

the United States, intending not to document all forms of racial discrimination but rather to

examine how the legal system was used to deny Mexican-origin people their political rights.

As part of my analysis, I have also examined the circumstances that strongly influenced some

Mexican-origin people to assert their Caucasian ancestry in court in order to obtain their full

rights of citizenship. Court and legislative records from 1848 to 1947, I argue, reveal that the skin color of

Mexican-origin people strongly influenced whether they were to be treated by the legal system

as white or as non-white. During the 19th century, Mexican-origin individuals who were

predominantly of Indian descent were subject to heightened racial discrimination. They were,

for example, not allowed to become naturalized citizens if they were immigrants, to vote in the

states of California and Arizona, to practice law in the state of Arizona, or to be exempted from

segregationist legislation. The segregationist laws continued to affect darker-skinned Mexicans

into the mid-20th century. Furthermore, 19th- and early-20th-century legal records indicate

that although New Mexican state officials attempted to confer full citizenship privileges on

"Mexicanized American Indians," the federal government rescinded their actions. In the legal

domain, the federal government failed to acknowledge the existence of people who practiced

both Mexican and American Indian traditions; these individuals experienced greater racial

discrimination than the rest of the Mexican population. The legal records also indicate that

under the law Mexican-origin people of predominantly Caucasian ancestry were ostensibly

allowed to exercise the full political rights of citizens. However, the question of whether they

could actually exercise those political rights is beyond the scope of this article. In the state of

Texas, for example, there is evidence that local governments found alternative legal methods

of discriminating against Mexicans who were identified as white. In the Independent School

District v. Salvatierra court case, it was determined that "white Mexican students" could be

legally segregated if they did not speak English. I also argue that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo played three major roles in protecting the

Mexican-origin population. In 1898, as a result of the treaty, the Naturalization Act of 1 790

became inapplicable to Mexican immigrants (Kansas 1941); unlike other racial minorities,

Mexican immigrants were exempted from the act and allowed to apply for naturalization. In

the 19th century, the treaty also served to protect the political rights of someMexicans, albeit

only those of predominantly Caucasian ancestry; in the states of California and Arizona, "white

Mexican males" were given the right of suffrage because the state legislators concluded that the

treaty gave certain types of Mexicans full political rights. And in the 20th century, the treaty

Chicano Indianism 599

was used to help dismantle de jure school segregation for the Mexican-origin students of the

Southwest. In Mendez v. Westminster (1946, 1947) McCormick ruled that the treaty and the

14th Amendment prohibited the unequal treatment of the Mexican population (Wollenberg

1974). Mendez was used in subsequent school desegregation cases and became the legal foundation for ending the era of de jure school segregation. In sum, this analysis outlines a history of racial repression and discrimination against members

of the Mexican-origin community in the United States. Government officials used the people's

indigenous ancestry to deny them equal citizenship rights and to keep them in a politically

subordinate position. The legal case studies in particular demonstrate that Indianism was used

to construct an image of Mexican-origin people as inferior and therefore deserving of separate

and unequal treatment. With respect to future scholarship on the racial history of the Chicano

people, I trust that this exploration has demonstrated the value of using legislative and judicial

records as evidence that this American minority group has experienced severe racial discrimi-

nation in the United States.

notes

1. The terms Mexican and Chicano refer to people of Mexican origin who reside in the United States. Mexican is used in reference to those individuals who lived in the 19th and early 20th century, and Chicano to those living in the contemporary period. 2. For extended discussions of the racial terms white and Caucasian, refer to the court cases In re Camille (1 880), In re Ah Yup (1878), and United States v. Thind (1922). In all of these cases the courts stated that the term white had historically referred only to Caucasians. White women were considered part of the "free white" population, but they were not allowed to vote or run for political office. 3. Refer to Konvitz (1946) and Kansas (1941) for extended discussions of civil rights offenses committed

against nonwhites. Among these offenses were denying people the right to vote or run for political office,

prohibiting nonwhite men from marrying white women (in most states), and restricting various occupations to white citizens. 4. The Mexican delegates to the first constitutional convention also voted against legalizing slavery in New Mexico (Larson 1968). 5. In northern New Mexico during the Spanish and Mexican periods, the relationship between the small-scale mestizo farmers and the American Indians of the Rio Arriba was one of both conflict and cohesion. The mestizos in the Rio Arriba region retained their social distance from the Indians, yet ironically, they developed economic and kinship alliances with them; it became common for the mestizos to trade with and even marry the Indians (Kutsche 1979; Swadesh 1974). The relationship between the Spanish elite and the Indians in Rio Abajo (also in northern New Mexico), however, is better described as one of conflict and mutual exploitation. The Indians often raided the farms of the Spanish elite, stealing livestock and crops. In turn, the Spanish elite attempted to place Indians in a state of semislavery. 6. The government of New Mexico reconsidered the Pueblo Indians' political rights on February 16,

1859, in a heated debate on the issue of extending suffrage to acculturated Pueblo Indians. Many legislators favored extending voting rights to the Pueblo Indians. Transcripts of the assembly debate are rare-most had disappeared by 1877 (Davis and Mechem 1915). 7. In United States v. Wong Kim Ark, Justice C. J. Fuller offered the dissenting opinion and argued that the U.S. government should have the right to deny any race the right of citizenship for whatever reason. Fuller stated: "I am of opinion that the President and Senate by treaty, and the Congress by naturalization, ... have the power... to prescribe that all persons of a particular race, or their children, cannot become

citizens" (United States v. Wong Kim Ark 1897:732). 8. Refer to Donato, Menchaca, and Valencia 1991 for a comprehensive history of the school segregation of Mexican students in the 20th century.

references cited

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Alvarez, Roberto, Jr. 1986 The Lemon Grove Incident: The Nation's First Successful Desegregation Court Case. Journal of San Diego History 32(2):116-135.

600 american ethnologist

Bonifaz de Novello, Maria Eugenia 1975 La Mujer Mexicana: Analysis Historico. Mexico City: Impresa Mexicana.

Camarillo, Albert 1984 Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican-Americans. San Francisco, CA: Boyd and Fraser

Publishing. Davis, Stephen, and Merritt Mechem, comps. 1915 New Mexico Statutes Annotated. Denver, CO: W. H. Courtright Publishing. Deavenport, James J., comp. 1856 Revised Statutes of the Territory of New Mexico. Santa Fe, NM: Santa Fe Weekly Gazette.

Donato, Ruben, Martha Menchaca, and Richard Valencia 1991 Segregation, Desegregation, and Integration of Chicano Students: Problems and Prospects. In Chicano School Failure and Success: Research and Policy Agendas for the 1990s. R. Valencia, ed. Pp. 27-63. New York: Falmer Press.

Feagin, Joe 1989 Racial and Ethnic Relations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. First Legislative Assembly 1851 New Mexico Organic Law [Act] of 1850. In Laws of the Territory of New Mexico. Pp. 17-24. Santa Fe, NM: James L. Collins and Co.

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Haring, Clarence H. 1963 The Spanish Empire in America. New York: Harbinger. Heizer, Robert, and Alan F. Almquist 1971 The Other Californians: Prejudice and Discrimination under Spain, Mexico, and the United States.

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Judd, Cornelius D., and Claude Y. Hall 1932 The Texas Constitution: Explained and Analyzed. Dallas, TX: Banks, Upshaw and Co. Kansas, Sidney 1941 U.S. Immigration: Exclusion and Deportation, and Citizenship of the United States of America. 2nd edition. Albany, NY: M. Bender.

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Lange, Charles H., and Carroll W. Riley 1970 The Southwestern Journals of Adolph F. Bandelier. Vol. 1:1883-1884. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 1975 The Southwestern Journals of Adolph F. Bandelier. Vol. 3:1885-1888. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.

Larson, Robert 1968 New Mexico's Quest for Statehood, 1846-1912. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.

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Le6n-Portilla, Miguel 1972 The Norteio Variety of Mexican Culture: An Ethnohistorical Approach. In Plural Society in the Southwest. E. Spicer and R. Thompson, eds. Pp. 77-101. New York: Weatherhead Foundation. Montejano, David 1987 Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Morner, Magnus 1967 Race Mixture in the History of Latin America. Boston: Little, Brown and Co. Murphy, James 1970 Laws, Courts, and Lawyers: Through theYears in Arizona. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. Newcomb, William W., Jr. 1985 The Indians of Texas. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Padilla, Fernando 1979 Early Chicano Legal Recognition, 1846-1897. Journal of Popular Culture 13:564-574. Paredes, Americo 1978 The Problem of Identity in a Changing Culture: Popular Expressions of Culture Conflict along the Lower Rio Grande Border. In Views across the Border: The United States and Mexico. S. Ross, ed. Pp. 68-94. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. Pitt, Leonard 1966 The Decline of the Californios. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Rangel, Jorge C., and Carlos M. Alcala 1972 Project Report: De Jure Segregation of Chicanos in Texas Schools. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 1:307-391. Reister, Carl Coke 1928 The Southwest Frontier, 1865-1881. Cleveland, OH: Arthur H. Clark. Rubel, Arthur 1966 Across the Tracks: Mexican Americans in a Texas City. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Salinas, Guadalupe 1973 Mexican Americans and the Desegregation of Schools in the Southwest. In Voices: Readings from El Grito. O. I. Romano-V, ed. Pp. 366-399. Berkeley, CA: Quinto Sol. Spicer, Edward 1962 Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. 1969 A Short History of the Indians of the United States. New York: D. Van Nostrand. Surace, Samuel 1982 Achievement, Discrimination, and Mexican Americans. Comparative Studies in Society and History 24:31 5-339. Swadesh, Frances Leon 1974 Los Primeros Pobladores: Hispanic Americans of the Ute Frontier. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Tate, Bill 1969 The Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty of Peace 1848 and the Gadsden Treaty with Mexico 1853. Truchas, NM: Tate Gallery and Rio Grande Sun Press.

Taylor, Paul 1934 An American-Mexican Frontier, Nueces County, Texas. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

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Weinberg, Meyer 1977 A Chance to Learn: The History of Race and Education in the United States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wollenberg, Charles 1974 Mendez v. Westminster: Race, Nationality and Segregation in California Schools. California Historical Society Quarterly 53:31 7-332. Zambrano, Arie 1986 A History of "El Buen Pastor" United Methodist Church. MS, United Methodist Church, Santa Paula, CA.

cases

Carter v. Territory of New Mexico, 1 S.Ct. Territory N.M. 31 7-346 (1 859). Elk v. Wilkens, 112 U.S. 94 (1884). Hardy v. De Leon, 5 Tex. 212-247 (1849). Independent School District v. Salvatierra, 33 S.W.2d 790-796 (Tex. Civ. App. 1930). In reAh Yup, 5 Sawy 155-160 (Fed. Cases 1878). In re Camille, 6 F. 256-259 (Oregon 1880).

602 american ethnologist

In re Kanaka Nian, 21 P. 993-994 (Utah 1889). In re Rodriguez, 81 F. 337-356 (W.D. Tex. 1897).

Kilpatrick v. Sisneros, 23 Tex. 113-138 (1859). Lueras v. Town of Lafayette, 65 P.2d 1431 (Colo. Sup. Ct. 1937).

McKinney v. Saviego, 18 U.S. (1 8 How.) 235-240 (1855). Mendez v. Westminster, 64 F. Supp. (S.D. Cal) 544-554 (1946), aff'd 161 F.2d 774-785 (9th Cir. 1947).

People v. De La Guerra, 40 Cal. 311-344 (1870).

People v. Naglee, 1 Cal. 232-254 (1850).

Plessy v. Ferguson, 1 63 U.S. 537-564 (1896). Quintana v. Thompkins, 1 S.Ct. Territory N.M. 29-33 (1853). Roberto Alvarez v. Lemon Grove School District, Superior Court of the State of California. County of San

Diego, Petition for Writ of Mandate no. 66625 (1 931). Robinson v. Memphis & Charleston Railroad Co., 109 U.S. 3-62 (1 883). Terrell Wells Swimming Pool v. Rodriguez, 182 S.W.2d 824 (Texas, 1944). United States v. Joseph, 1 S.Ct. Territory N.M. 593-602 (1 874). United States v. Joseph, 94 U.S. 614-619 (1 876). United States v. Kolowoski, 1 S.Ct. Territory N.M. 593-602 (1 874). United States v. Lucero, 1 S.Ct. Territory N.M. 423-458 (1869). United States v. Ritchie, 1 7 U.S. (1 7 How.) 525-541 (1854). United States v. Sandoval, 231 U.S. 28-49 (191 3). United States v. Santistevan, 1 S.Ct. Territory N.M. 593-602 (1874). United States v. Thind, 261 U.S. 204-215 (1922). United States v. Vallejo, 1 U.S. (1 Black) 541-565 (1861). United States v. Varela, 1 S.Ct. Territory N.M. 593-602 (1874). United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649-732 (1897).

statutes

Cal. Const. art. II, sec. 1 (1849). Civil Rights Act of 1866, ch. 31, sec. 1-6. Civil Rights Act of 1875, ch. 114, sec. 1-2. Civil Rights Act of 1964, 1 U.S.C. 287-320. Naturalization Act of 1790, ch. 3, sec. 1. Naturalization Act of 1795, ch. 20, stat. 2, sec. 1. Naturalization Act of 1802, ch. 28, stat. 1. Naturalization Rev. Stat. of 1870, sec. 2169. N.M. Const. art. XXI, sec. 8 (adopted 1911). Tex. Const. art. III, sec. 1 (1845).

submitted August 14, 1990 revised version submitted February 27, 1991 second revised version submitted September 5, 1991

accepted November 12, 1991

Chicano Indianism 603