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Thi s analysis was also supported by the conceptual examination of their translation. The findings have shown that compounds and id ̣āfa , in terms of figurative sense, are semantically similar, but are syntactically different. In terms of translation, results s how that they pose a metaphorical and cultural threat to the Arab translator, who might be tempted to translate them literally in case s/he fails to understand the hidden meaning. Producing accurate translation equivalents for these items cannot be achieve d without knowing their metaphorical senses and the ability to provide natural and acceptable equivalents in the target language. Keywords: Exocentric Compounds, id ̣āfa , Metaphor, Metonomy, Translation Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 217 Introduction One of the most noticeable prob lems of translation, in English and Arabic, is the non -literal lexical words that cannot be rendered word for word. These lexical items are ready -made and must be understood metaphorically in order to produce an accurate translation in the target language. However, the Arab translator might not be aware of the hidden non -literal, and sometimes cultural, meaning that affects his/her translation. The paper examines specific lexical items that capture this problem in Arabic and English phraseology, which are t he English compounds and Arabic id ̣āfa . It dedicates a section on their linguistic behaviour in terms of their semantic and syntactic structures then focuses on the difficulties of their translation in the two languages. 1. English Compounds Compoundin g, as Plag (2003, p. 132) argues, is "the most productive type of word - formation process in English, >and ذ … is perhaps also the most controversial one in terms of its linguistic analysis.". He basically defines compounds as a "combination of two words to f orm a new word" (2003, p. 133) and then elaborates more precisely by noting that a compound is "a word that consists of two elements, the first of which is either a root, a word or a phrase, the second of which is either a root or a word." (Plag, 2003, p. 135). Regarding the structure of compounds, Ball (1939, p. 68) points out that compounds are either hyphenated like cold -blooded or is a solid compound, like bridesmaid . Plag states that the left -hand member modifies the right -hand member in English comp ounds. For instance, the compound film society can be interpreted as a kind of a society that is concerned with films. Other examples include knee -deep and parks commissioner where the former refers to the deepness of water, while the latter is interpreted as a commissioner occupied with parks. The structure these compounds exhibit is called a modifier -head structure, which means that the head in these compounds is modified by the other member of the compound. (2003, p. 135). In addition, Plag elaborates on compound heads by pointing out the right -hand head rule, which explains how compounds function. The rule basically states that most of the syntactic and semantic information the compound inherits are from the head. Thus, a compound is a verb if the head is a verb like in deep -fry , a compound is a noun if the head is a noun like beer bottle or a compound has a feminine gender if the head has a feminine gender like head waitress (2003, p. 135). Plag also states that if the compound is pluralised then the h ead is pluralised and not the non -head. For example, park commissioners is the plural of park commissioner and not parks commissioner . Moreover, Plag states that there are different compounding patterns in English and it is the same in many languages, but he solidly emphasises the fact that words from all word classes do not combine freely to form compounds. According to Plag, compounding patterns can be established according to the nature of their heads, which means that compounds may have nominal heads, verbal heads, and adjectival heads. Still, Plag claims that there are occasions where classifying compounds based on the syntactic category of their heads may not be as clear as it should be because there are several words in English which belong to more t han one category. For example, walk can be a verb and a noun; blind can be an adjective, a verb and a noun. Plag (2003, p. 142) then categorises compounds into four major categories: Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 218 1-Nominal compounds (N): e.g. N. film society e.g. V. pickpocket e.g. Adj . greenhouse e.g. Prep. afterbirth. 2-Verbal compounds (V) e.g. N. brainwash e.g. V. stir -fry e.g. Adj. blackmail e.g. Prep. downgrade 3-Adjectival compounds (A) e.g. N. knee -deep e.g. V ࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿ e.g. Adj. light -green e.g. Prep. inbuilt 4-Prepositional compounds (P) e.g. N. ࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿ e.g. V. breakdown e.g. Adj. ࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿࣿ e.g. Prep. Into Munat notes that that compounds belong to a word class and can be identified by their head constituent, while nominal compounds are ‘part of the word class known as nouns, serving to identify objects, people, or concepts’ (2002, p. 148). These nominal compounds, as Plag points out, fall into three subclasses and are: nominal compounds involving a noun as a non - head, nominal compounds involving a verb as a verb -head and nominal compounds involving an adjective as a non -head. In English, nominal compounds are the most common type of compounds and most are right -headed. Still, nominal compounds, as Plag (2003, p. 145) maintains are not easy to analyse, e.g. laser printer, letterhead, bookcover, redneck , loudmouth, greybeard, pickpocket, cut -throat, and spoilsport. The compounds laser printer , letterhead , and bookcover are examples of nominal compounds denoting a subclass of the referents of the head: a laser printer is a kind of printer, a bookcover is a kind of a cover and a letterhead is the head or top of the letter. Plag states that "the semantic head of these compounds is inside the compound, which is the r eason why these compounds are called endocentric compounds." (2003, p. 145). On the other hand, the compounds redneck , loudmouth , greyhound , pickpocket , cut -throat , and spoilsport are not endocentric compounds but rather exocentric compounds, which, accord ing to Plag, mean that their semantic head is outside the literal meaning of the compound. These compounds refer to persons since redneck is a kind of a person and not a kind of neck. Similarly, loudmouth and spoilsport denote types of persons and not a ki nd of a mouth or sport, as the former refers to a kind of person and the latter to a person who spoils other people's good time. The adjectival type of compound, as Plag (2003, p. 152) notes, can have nouns or adjectives as non -heads. The non -heads in adjectival compounds can function as a modifier or as an argument for the head. Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 219 Plag argues that compounds such as blood -red , dog -lean , and knee -deep can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the semantics of the members of the compound and on the relationship between them. Blood -red means red like blood, dog -lean means lean as a dog and knee -deep means deep to the height of the knees. The interpretation here involves a comparison and quite often the first element functions as an intensifier in t hese compounds. (2003, p. 152). On the other hand, the first element in compounds like sugar -free , structure -dependent , and girl -crazy functions as an argument position for the adjective and appears next to a preposition when interpreted by the reader. Fo r instance, there is free of sugar , dependent on structure and crazy for girls . In the case of the verbal compounds, the following sets illustrate the three types of verbal compounds: 1-Noun as non -head e.g. proof -read, chain -smoke, ghost -write 2-Adje ctive as non -head e.g. deep -fry , shortcut, blindfold 3-Verb as non -head e.g. stir -fry, dry -clean , freeze -dry Plag argues that the best way to analyse verbal compounds is through back -formation or conversion process. Therefore, the compounds in (1) a re back -formations from nominal compounds such as proof -reading or ghost -writer . On the other hand, the compounds in (2) are involved with conversion as in to take a shortcut or to blindfold . However, Plag also argues that the compounds in (3) are the pro duct of neither back -formation nor conversion since they refer to events that involve two events joined together. For example stir -fry means to stir and fry simultaneously. Even though Plag demonstrates the nature of compounds and the various types of co mpounds, he does not elaborate on the relationship between the two (or three) elements of the compound. On the other hand, Warren's study (1978) sheds light on this relationship and determines the nature of the semantic relationship of the two components o f the compound. Warren's study does focus only on noun -noun compounds. 1.2. Warren's Semantic Patterns of Noun -Noun Compounds Warren points out that there are four types of semantic classes for these compounds. The first type expresses the constitution a nd resemblance class, the second class expresses belonging to, the third class displays location and the fourth class expresses purpose and activity as follows. 1.2.1. Constitution and Resemblance In this type, Warren (1978: 82) includes two classes of c ompounds. The first includes the Source -Result compounds, which Warren defines as "compounds in which what is indicated by one member is that which wholly constitutes what is indicated by the other member." (1978, p.

82). Also, Warren subdivides source -res ult compounds into the Material -Artefact, Matter -Shape, Parts -Whole and Non -Material Substance -Whole. Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 220 The second class of compounds in the constitution and resemblance is the Copula compound. They are defined as compounds "in which both members can be said to be two alternative "names" for the same referent." (Warren, 1978, p. 82). Similarly, this class of compounds is subdivided into the Attributive, Subsumptive and Adjective -Like Modifier. 1-Source -Result compounds The first subdivision of the Source -Re sults compounds is Material Artefact. Warren points out that the source noun indicates that the source "must have the feature + Material for a compound to fit in this group." (1978, p. 82). Examples of this compound category are paper sack , leather belt , silver bowl and tin cup . In addition, the result noun must have "the feature + Man -made and + Concrete." (Warren, 1978, p. 83). For example, there are rubber boots , cornbread , steel roof and brick wall . These compounds permit a prepositional paraphrase whic h involves of, for instance, bowl of silver and door of metal . Further, Warren argues that the Material -Artefact compounds are not problematic since it is possible to describe their semantic nature. The second subdivision of Source -Result compounds is Ma tter -Shape compounds. The result noun here suggests the shape or form of the substance which is indicated by the source - noun. The result noun may be the result of main activity such as gold leaf , land site or land plot , or the shape is natural for the sou rce -noun to occur like raindrop , airwave or silicone fluid . (Warren, 1978, p. 85). Next subdivision is the Parts -Whole compounds. In this type of compound, A represents the parts or the whole of B. The source -noun, as Warren states, is necessarily countab le like student group , two -storey mansion , 34 -hour week or National Symphony Orchestra League . Moreover, the result -noun is a noun that indicates a plural quantity like class , group or team . The result -noun may also indicate a whole of the subcomponent as indicated by the source -noun like two -part bridge or four -lane freeway . (1978, p. 88) The fourth subdivision is the Non -Material Substances -Whole compounds. Warren states that the Source -noun and the Result -noun in this kind of compound indicate an abstra ct entity with an abstract connection between them like tax -exemption , divorce case or family -community . In addition, Warren divides the Non -Material Substances -Whole into two subgroups; the Tennis - Match compounds and the Subject Matter -Whole compounds. R egarding the Tennis -Match compounds, Warren points out that "A and B are combined in these combinations to express an abstract Source -Result relation, A representing the non -material Substance, sometimes implying Cause which constitutes B, the Whole or the Outcome." (1978, p. 92). Examples of this compound are tennis match , sandwich snacks and base -ball game . Regarding Subject -Matter - Whole compounds, in this compound, A implies information about B which is the Whole of A.

For example, drainage problem impli es that drainage constitutes a problem. A similar example is language problem which implies that people do not understand other languages which of course is a problem. (1978, p. 93). 2-Copula compounds According to Warren, these compounds "consist of noun s that are alternative names for the same referent." (1978, p. 98), and she divides them into Attributive, Subsumptive and Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 221 Adjective -like Comment -Noun. Regarding Attributive Copula compounds, Warren states that if A indicates status, age, sex, or race of B , then B is animate as in baby brother , veteran salesman , free -lance investigator or Baptist teetotaler . However, if A indicates the function or sometimes the kind of B, then B is inanimate like nursery school , market place , or ransom money or gala concert . In the case of Subsumptive Copula compounds, Warren argues that compounds with an animate B like hound dog , codfish or bossman are few. Compounds with an inanimate B are greater where which A represents B's function such as study room or hotel building or the subspecies of B like guerilla war or maple trees (1978, p. 101). As for Adjective -like Comment compounds, as the name says, Warren points out that adjectives are part of these compounds.

The Comment -Noun here "suggests properties rather than entities , which is shown by the fact that synonyms of the comment -noun are often adjectives and not nouns." (1978, p. 101). For example, there are chief store , fellow student , key issue and favourite painting . 1.2.2. Belonging To In this second type of Warren's compound classes, three divisions occur: Whole -Part, Part -Whole and Size -Whole. 1-Whole -Part In this type of compound A indicates the whole of B which is the part of A, which is illustrated in four subdivisions. The first subdivision is Object -Part comp ounds. A here is concrete and so is B, however A is inanimate. There are examples of this compound where A is a building, room, plant, area or a body and B is a part of a body like prison door , hotel porch , garlic clove , lobby floor or eyelid or ghetto wal l. (Warren, 1978, p. 126). The second subdivision is Group -Member compounds. A here is a group of people, organisation, or community and B is a member of this group like family man or union member . In addition, B may have a function as a member of a subuni t like school board . The third subdivision is Object -Geometrical Outline compounds. B here may be the top or base of A like roof top , cigarette butts , or may be the width or height of A like heart girth or water level , or the centre of A like nerve cent re, or may be the front or side of A like pool -side or water front , or may be the corner of A like street corner or loophole . (1978, p. 131). The fourth subdivision is the Residual Cases. B here is not part of A in the same sense as in the previous divisio ns. However, it is linked or is belonging to A like bank customers or TV audience where B is animate. It may also be inanimate in examples like telephone number or household chore . (1978, p. 133). 2-Part -Whole This second class of belonging to compounds h as three subtypes of compounds under it. The first type is the OBJ -Place where B indicates the place or container of the occurring entities like flower garden or featherbed . B may also indicate the time of A in OBJ -Time type compounds like golf season or springtime . (1978, p. 146). The third type of the Part -Whole is the Part -OBJ where it is the reverse of Whole -Part compounds. B here may indicate the feature of A as in high -speed buses or top -quality hand -gun , or it may be the possessor and defined by the possession like gunman or horseman . (1987, p. 148). Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 222 3-Size -Whole The third type of belonging to compounds has five subtypes of compounds under it. A may refer to the physical size of B like 19 -foot female or half -mile track . It may also indicate the duration of B as in 4-year contract , a ten -hour day or a full -time student (1978, p. 153). Warren also states that it may indicate a currency as in $200 dinner or it may indicate the power size as in 20 -megaton bomb . Finally it may indicate the position on a value scale like low -class crook . (1978, p. 155). 1.2.3 Location This is the third type of Warren's compound classes and it has four classes: Goal -Object, Place -Object, Time -Object and Origin -Object. In Goal -Object, A indicates the place the aim of B is directed toward, which represents its goal. For example, moon rocket or downhill trend . (1978, p. 163). The second compound class is the Place -Object where A represents the place of B and may indicate a concrete place -concrete, inanimate entity like ghet to street , home offices and island base . It may indicate a concrete place -animate entity like farm people , hospital nurse and classmate and may also indicate a concrete place -abstract entity like school dance and workshop session . In addition, A may repres ent an abstract -place -concrete entity like school friend and World Series hero . Finally, A may represent an abstract place -abstract entity like law degree and showbiz career . (1978, p. 174). The third compound class is Time -Object where A represents a pe riod or a point of time. A here may indicate a time -animate entity like weekend guests and afternoon clerk , and it may represent a time -concrete, inanimate entity like night club , Sunday paper and Friday mail . (1978, p. 179). B may, just like A, represent a time or an event resulting from a human activity like Thursday evening or summer music festival . The fourth compound class in the Location compounds is Origin -Object, which includes two main groups; one is the Place of Origin -Object, and the other is the Causer Result group. The former group may indicate a place of origin with an animate entity where B is animate and A is the background like Harlem boy and Hollywood girls . A also may represent the place of origin of an inanimate entity which is B as in hospital bill , welfare check and government funds . (1978, p. 184). The second group of Origin -Object is the Causer Result compound. A here is not the place of origin, but rather the causer of B. A may be inanimate like bullet hole , hay fever and poll fig ures or animate like student newspaper , Nobel prize and Christian Dior shoes . (1978, p. 186). 1.2.4 Purpose and Activity The fourth and last type of Warren's compound classes expresses purpose and activity whereas in purpose -class B as Warren points o ut it "may be an object, an event or an animate being, is defined by the indication of its purpose." (1978, p. 197). Warren uses the two linguistic terms Goal and Instrumental in this class to deal with the semantic roles. B as an instrument may be a conta iner for the goal of containing A as in mail box , beer bottle, and salad plates . B may also be a place for fixing or putting A like drink tray and flag -stick . In addition, B may be a vehicle for transporting A as in sewer pipe and laundry truck . (1978, p. 201). Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 223 Furthermore, B may be defined by A in which A indicates the intended place for B as in tablecloth , bedside table, or table spoon . Also, A may be used to indicate the event or social activity of B like sports car , evening gown or emergency telephone . However, other compounds in this class have A as the Goal or event to define B which is the time of the event as in dinnertime and labour day . (1978, p. 204). Moreover, A may be the Goal that is achieved by the Instrumental/Causer, which is B as in car ke y and teaspoon . Finally, B may be an object intended for use by a body part, which is the Causer A, such as football, hand grenade and mouthpiece . (1978, p. 208). In the activity class, B may refer to a single animate being, a group of people or an organ isation. In the case of a single human being, it may refer to one with a specific reference like probation officer , Foreign Secretary, or Mortgage banker . In the case of a group of people reference, we may have compounds like Bible Society and Foreign Rela tions committee , while in the case of organisational reference, we may have compounds like fire department , power company and personnel office . (1978, p. 212). The above classes demonstrate that the constituents of the compound have a semantic relationshi p that then affects the compound. However, Warren's pattern of nominal compounding has not been without criticism. Benczes (2006, p. 34) argues that this pattern covers the endocentric compounds and does not pay attention to the metaphorical exocentric one s. According to Benczes, the only way to interpret and understand these compounds is by analysing conceptual metaphor and metonomy. She states that metaphor is "based upon two entities that resemble one another." (2006, p. 48), while metonomy is when "we a re using one entity or thing to provide mental access to another thing that is related to it in some way." (2006, p. 51). Moreover, Benczes points out that conceptual metaphor and metonomy act upon compounds on either one or both of the compound constitu ents (modifier and profile determinant). For example, the compound heartland is an example of a metaphor -based modifier, which means the central part of a land or country, where heart is a metaphor for the central location of the land. Thus, the modifier s pecifies the location of land . (2006, p. 91). In addition, Benczes includes jailbird , which means a person serving a prison sentence, as an example of a metaphor -based profile determinant. Benczes argues that in order to interpret this compound we have t o understand the concept of the two inputs involved: the source domain 'imprisoned person' and the target domain 'caged bird'. The compound here illustrates the imprisoned person as an image of a caged bird, and, therefore, links the two domains yielding a blend of the two concepts manifested in the compound. (2006, p. 97). Furthermore, Benczes shows that there are occasions where both the modifier and the profile determinant are metaphorical. For example flame sandwich, which means a note consisting of a negative comment between two positive comments, is an example of compounds with three concepts. The first is a 'sandwich' domain, the second is a 'line of comment' domain, and the third is 'argument/fire' domain. Benczes indicates that the negative comment is situated between the positive ones which are metaphorically similar to the filling of a sandwich situated between two slices of bread. The second domain is illustrated by the following: the slices of bread are the positive ones while the sandwich filli ng is the negative one and the third domain is Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 224 understood by linking argument to flame metaphorically. The reason for choosing flame instead of fire is because, as Benczes logically argues, there is an element of suddenness with in flame and it is not as b ig as fire which is followed by a positive comment (2006, p. 105). In addition, Benczes argues that metonomy also plays a part in yielding creative compounding. For example, phone neck , mouse wrist and Nintendo thumb are compounds with metonomy in both co nstituents. These examples denote the pain caused by using the aforementioned gadgets; therefore, phone neck is metonymical for the pain felt in the neck caused by the holding of the phone for a long period of time. The same interpretation applies to the o ther compounds (2006, p. 156). Indeed, the creative compounds that Benczes demonstrates are metaphorical and metonymical, which means that the only way to interpret them is that we have to understand the source and the target domains involved along with their conceptual blending. Therefore, any text that includes these compounds will puzzle translators since they carry non -literal meanings. The two studies of Warren and Benczes focused on the semantic content of compounds. Warren’s study focused on the semantic classes of nominal compounds based on the purpose, location, constitution, and belonging and provided examples for all types. This study is one of the most important studies in compounding because of the detailed classification of nominal compound s and the semantic relationship between the components. However, Warren’s semantic focus was on endocentric compounds, which can be understood by interpreting the literal meaning of the components of the compound. Indeed, all the examples provided by Warre n were understood by rendering the compound word for word. Yet, Warren did not cover the exocentric compounds, the ones that cannot be understood by interpreting the components of the compound.

On the other hand, the study of Benczes shows that the literal interpretation of compounds is not always applicable because of the metaphorical meaning of the exocentric compounds. In fact, the analysis of the conceptual metaphor and metonomy is the only way to interpret the meaning of the exocentric compounds, as sh own in her examples. Both studies are significant because they refer to the semantic content of compounds, with each study focusing on a type of compounds (endocentric/exocentric) and indicate the meaning they have. The difference between the two studies i s that Warren’s study refers to the endocentric compounds only, whereas both the endocentric and exocentric compounds are included in Benczes’s study. Foreign language learners can benefit from both studies, but relying on the classification of Warren is n ot enough for the understanding of the English compounds. 2. Arabic Id ̣āfa Like English, Arabic includes a two item combination in its linguistic repertoire. Emery (1988, p. 34) states that the components of this item in Arabic are referred to as words ঝ੶ধملك or as a root. However, Emery also argues that roots in Arabic cannot form compounds since they cannot occur independently. Likewise, Ryding (2005, p. 205) notes that "in Arabic, two nouns may be linked together in a relationship where the second nou n determines the first by identifying, limiting, or defining it; thus the two nouns function as one phrase or syntactic unit".

Ryding states that this Arabic linguistic item is ণةঝ੶ৎখ id ̣āfa whereas in English, the item is referred to as a 'genitive constru ct', 'construct phrase' or 'annexation structure'. Emery notes that Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 225 id ̣āfa in Arabic also has a head ঝ੶৏م modifier ੶هيখ ঝ੶৏م type and can be divided in endocentric and exocentric id ̣āfa , which are similar to the English ones. Ryding (2005, p. 205), on th e other hand, elaborates by pointing out that the first noun ঝ੶৏ميজ has "neither the definite article nor nunation because it is in an ''annexed'' state, as determined by the second noun" while the second noun ੶੶هيখ ঝ੶੶৏ميজ is "marked either for definiteness or indefiniteness, and is always in the genitive case." (2005, p. 205). Emery points out that the construct ণةঝ੶ৎখ id ̣āfa is "a typically Arabic construction. The "idafa [sic] is primarily a structure in which two nouns or nominals are linked together in a head/modifier relation" (1988, p. 36). Moreover, Hassan (1975, III, p. 3 -29, cited in Emery) divides id ̣āfa into two types: namely, pure ণ੶৏঳م and not pure ণ੶৏঳م ঽ੶هغ , and points out that the head in the former is an inanimate underived noun and is not separ ated from the modifier, while the first element in the latter is animate and is a derived or deverbal noun and is separated from the modifier by a pronoun. This point is echoed by Al -Khateeb and Mosluh (2002, p. 95), who elaborate by pointing out that the reason pure id ̣āfa s are termed 'real' id ̣āfa is because the function of the modifier is to define or specify the head and link relation between them. Likewise, Ryding (2005, p. 221) maintains that 'unreal', 'false' or 'unpure' compounds are called 'adjective' id ̣āfa because the adjective serves as the first term where it acts as the modifier of the noun. Ryding elaborates by stating that this adjective ''may take the definite article if the phrase modifies a definite noun", which then violates the general rule of gen itive structure. This 'adjective' id ̣āfa , as Ryding (2005, p. 222) asserts, is frequent in Modern Standard Arabic because of its use to express newly coined, 'long -range' terms. Also, Ryding stresses that the first term of the adjective id ̣āfa does not have the definite article when modi fying an indefinite noun, e.g. They are called evergreen trees ণ੶مচজস জ়ঝয੶৆঒ م੶ৃদ ঢঽ੶৏ষيজ (the adjective id ̣āfa as a predicate of an equational sentence modifying an indefinite noun). Moreover, the first term of the adjective id ̣āfa , according to Ryding (2 005, p. 223), does not have the definite article when serving as the predicate of an equational sentence, in which it agrees with the noun it refers to in case, number and gender, e.g. The Earth is circular in shape ل৫েيজ ণله৓ধৃم ৌ়ਆজ . In addition, Eid (2005, p. 438) argues that pure id ̣āfa can have the meaning of the preposition ੶ة (in, at, on). For example, ়জহ੶يজ হهد੶৆ ঝ੶مফع means 'uthmān the martyr in the house'. The pure id ̣āfa can also have the meaning of the preposition ੶م 'min' (of, from). For i nstance, ট੶ه঺ مদঝশ is 'a ring of gold', or could be a definite article م੶يজ as in ণ੶مਆজ ঢ়ঝ੶৏ল meaning 'the nations' civilisation'. Furthermore, Ryding (2005, p. 206) states that there are different types of id ̣āfa. She provides examples with each type as follows: 1-Identity relationship In this type, the second noun defines or explains the 'particular identity' of the first noun. For example: Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 226 e.g. Starfish ঽ঳ডيজ ণمযن e.g. A police officer ৑ঠঝৎيজ ণ৐ঽে 2-Possessive relationship The first noun in thi s type belongs to the second noun, e.g. The leaders of the tribes لচঝডقيজ ࣾঝمعা 3-Partitive relationship Ryding states that in a partitive relationship "the annexed term (the first term) serves as a determiner to describe a part or quantity of the annexi ng term" (2005, p. 206). Ryding also notes that this should include a quantifier noun, such as 'some', 'all' or 'most', numbers and superlative constructions. e.g. Most of the seats হعঝقميজ مظعم (definite) e.g. A quarter of a Riyal ريال عঠ় (indefinite) 4-Agent relationship The second term, as Ryding notes, is the agent of the action, while the first term is the name of the action, e.g. The squeaking of the door ঞঝডيজ ঽيঽ৊ . 5-Object relationship Ryding (2005, p. 208) points out that the second term in this type of structure is the object of an action and the first term is "either the name of the action, or an active participle that refers to the doer of the action" (2005, p. 208). The following examples illustrate that the first term is a verbal noun t hat then refers to the action. e.g. The solution of the problems لكঝেميজ لল (definite) e.g. Opening fire ়ঝنيজ ৤م৐খ (indefinite) On the other hand, the following examples show that the active participle, which is the first term, denotes the doer of the action, e.g. The decision -makers ়জঽقيজ وعنঝ৊ (definite) 6-Compositional relationship Ryding (2005, p. 209) also states that the second noun in this type of strucutre expresses the nature of the first noun, e.g. Bouquets of flowers ়وهা তঝقঝঠ and A chain of mountains ৬ঝডম ণلৃلূ . 7-Measurement relationship Ry ding maintains that in this type of structure, the first noun expresses "the nature of the measurement and the second (and third) the extent or the measurement itself" (2005: 209), e.g. A stone's throw ঽয঳يজ مঽم and a kilo of bananas ولهكيজ াوم . 8-Conte nts relationship In this type, Ryding simply states that the first noun denotes a container while the second noun denotes its contents, e.g. Boxes of gold টه঻يজ قيসঝن৊ . 9-Purpose relationship Here, the particular purpose or use of the first term is explained or defined by the second term, e.g. A rescue plane ঺ঝقنਈজ ঢঽচঝ৐ and Greeting cards ণছندধيজ তঝقঝ৓ঠ . Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 227 10 -Quotations or Title relationship Ryding (2005, p. 210) indicates that in this type the second term is a quotation or a title where "the w ords of the title or quotation in quotation marks are considered to be set off from the case - marking requirements of the second term of the id ̣āfa , and are inflected independently, not necessarily in the genitive" (Ryding, 2005, p. 210), e.g. The book The Thousand and One Nights ণلهيو ণلهي في঒ ঞঝধك and A lecture entitled ''The Middle East and its Challenges" জونعঠ ঢঽৎঝ঳م " দঝيহ঳দو ৑ূوਆজ ৤ঽেيজ" . As for Emery (1988, p. 37), he classifies Arabic noun and adjective id ̣āfa according to the various types of meaning relationships as follows: 1-Endocentric id ̣āfa : a. Noun Head + Noun Modifier i-'Head that is a modifier', e.g. ঽধঠو৫هله ঢঽচঝ৐ 'helicopter' ī-'Head that belongs to/comes from the modifier', e.g. مدৃيজ ী঒় 'arrowhead' īi-'Head contains/is made up of a modifier', e.g. عচঝ৏ডيজ ণنهৣূ 'cargo ship'. iv-'Head is verb -ed by modifier', e.g. ণي়ঝষঠ ণنهৣূ 'steamship' v-'Head that is like the modifier', e.g. ণهচঝ৐ ঢঽ৓ৃم 'T-square' b. Deverbal / Noun Head + Deverbal / Noun Modifier 1-'Head of the modifier (modifier being the goal), e.g. ণي঻লਆজ عنঝ৊ 'shoemaker' ī-'Head + modifier' (modifier being location, time), e.g. ণ੶ظقهيজ م੶لল 'daydream' or ণ੶ع়িميজ ل੶مঝع 'farm worker' īi-'Head that is a modifier+s), e.g. ণدমজوميজ ৬وস 'confrontati on states' iv-'Head that is Modifier+ed), e.g. مেيজ রمم঒ 'smelling salts' v-'Head at / on / where something is modifier -ed', e.g. عডেধيজ ণ৓قن 'saturation point' 2-Exocentric id ̣āfa Emery argues that exocentric id ̣āfa are not ''apparently produ ctive in MSA" (1988, p. 38). He uses a couple of examples from Classical Arabic, such as وঐ ੶ঠখ 'jackal' and ীজঽ੶মਆজ তজ঺ 'rattlesnake'. Most importantly, Arabic id ̣āfa have their own contexts as al -Hagawi (2005, p. 172) argues. Al -Hagawi demonstrates that the modifier of the Arabic id ̣āfa appears after an adverb of time or place. For instance, there is ঽ੶دظيজ ل੶ডق 'before noon', রঝড੶োيজ ঻੶نم 'since morning', يঽ੶োقيজ ه੶ঠ 'between the two castles', or ঝ੶مধমਈজ ৬م੶শ 'during the meeting'. In all these examp les, the modifier comes after the adverbs of time and place. Thus, the modifiers are ঽ੶دظيজ , রঝড੶োيজ , يঽ੶োقيজ , and ঝ੶مধমਈজ . Also, the modifiers come after numbers such as ঽد੶৆঒ ণধ੶ূ 'six months', হ੶نম ف੶ي঒ 'a thousand soldiers', িমو੶م ঩੶يঝপ 'third news(flash )' or ়روস و੶هلم 'million dollars'. Another context is after the superlative adjectives as in 'the smallest creature', 'best case/condition' or 'the greatest explorer'. Clearly, the modifier in these id ̣āfa is ৤و੶لষم ঽر੶৊঒ 'the smallest creature', ৬ঝ੶ল ل੶৏ة঒ 'best condition' and هৣ੶েধ৫ميজ م੶ظع঒ 'the greatest explorer'. Finally, modifiers may come after dependent words, as in জঽ੶৐ਆজ ع੶همম 'all parties', ه੶োষেيজ م੶ك 'both persons' or ীঝ੶نيজ ل੶ك 'all the people'. As shown in these examples, the modifiers are ঽ৐ਆজ জ , ীঝنيজ and هোষেيজ . 3. Translating English Compounds and Arabic Id ̣āfa Based on the above discussion, compounds and id ̣āfa are some of the most creative linguistic entities in English and in Arabic. They make languages economical since two words or Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 228 con cepts can be introduced as one linguistic item. Compounds and id ̣āfa share certain characteristics, such as having a head and a modifier as components of their compounds and having endocentric and exocentric types. Most Arabic endocentric id ̣āfa can be tra nslated into English with ease. For instance, রঝডোيজ ়ঝ৓ق has a literal meaning and is translated 'morning train'. Other similar examples are ণ੶ূ়হميজ ࣾঝ੶نة 'school yard' and ণ੶ূ়হميজ و੶ملعم 'school teachers'. The same concept applies when translating Englis h endocentric compounds into Arabic. For example, TV audience and bank customers are translated as াঝৣلধيজ জوহهঝেم , and ' كنডيজ ࣾممع ', respectively. However, translating compounds that do have an idiomatic meaning can be difficult for translators. For ex amples, translating exocentric compounds like jailbird can be quite puzzling since the word has no literal meaning and the intended meaning is complex due to the blending of two concepts. (Benczes, 2006, p. 97). This compound is an example of a metaphor -ba sed profile determinant and means 'either a person serving a prison sentence or is an ex -convict ' and can only be understood by the two concepts involved (see above). The Arab translator cannot understand this compound unless s/he blends the two concepts successfully to produce the equivalent وয੶ৃم و঒ وয੶ূ ভيঽ੶শ . Another puzzling example is the compound flame sandwich which is 'a note consisting of a negative comment between two positive ones'. Benczes (2006, p.

105) suggests that this compound has three do mains (see above). When an Arab translator encounters this compound in a text s/he will not be able to translate it mainly because of the metaphorical element involved in its meaning. The translator needs to understand that the negative comment lies in bet ween the two positive ones. Other examples that support the difficulty of rendering exocentric compounds are chain - smoker and couch -doctor . The former compound refers to an excessive smoker, who indulges in smoking one cigarette after another ( ঽ੶৆ आ শহم ). Translating such figurative compound will puzzle the Arab translator, who might not be aware of the concept of linking smoking cigarettes non - stop to a metal chain. The conceptual similarity lies in the image of connected metal rings that form a chain and the act of smoking a cigarette immediately after finishing with the previous one. Hence, back -to-back smoking draws a similar image of a chain that is linked by metal rings. Only a knowledgeable translator can link the two mental concepts in or der to provide the translation equivalent. On the other hand, couch -doctor may not harbor a deep mental conceptual framework like chain -smoker , but pose a similar threat to the Arab translator. This is because couch in couch -doctor might not, on the lexica l surface, show the meaning of the compound, which is a ‘psychiatrist’ ( نঝ੶ৃৣن ট੶هড৐ ). However, if the translator is able to link between this compound and the image of a psychiatrist, which involves him/her sitting in a couch and listening to a patient, th en s/he will be able to yield a valid translation. Other compounds might not pose a translation threat from a conceptual framework, but they tend to be challenging because of the culture -bound meaning that is attached to them. Such examples of culture -bo und compounds are dime -dropper , double -decker , and moonshine . The unified difficulty of these three compounds is their cultural input. Dime -dropper means either a snitch or an informant for the police in English and ੶৆জو و঒ ঽ੶ূ ঽ੶ডষم in Arabic . The dropping of ‘dime’ revolves around the image of a snitch who heads to the public pay phone and inserts a dime to call the police and informs them about an illegal activity that is taking place nearby. This is attached to the culture of crime informants, ex -convicts, who work for the police as the only Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 229 way to avoid going to jail. Therefore, the compound is used to refer to someone who snitches on others. Regarding double -decker , ambiguity is achieved here since this compound refers to either to a two -level bus ( هقঠঝ੶৐ و঺ ৈঝ੶ঠ ), as seen in London and Tokyo, or a two -layer sandwich ( ঢঽه৓੶৆ م੶੶঳ليজو ড੶੶যيজ ੶੶م ণ੶੶قড৐ ੶੶م ঽফكও੶੶ঠ ঢو੶੶ে঳م ). Only a translator who has an encyclopedic and cultural knowledge can render this culture -laden compound effectively. A translator who is not a ware of the ambiguity here might provide one of the two senses in an invalid context. As for moonshine , two senses are contained here; it either means ‘nonsense’ ( ل੶চঝ৐ ر م੶ك نم ), or ‘an illegally distilled alcohol ’ ( ৉आ শঽ੶م ঽ੶هغو ঽ৓قধৃم ঽمশ ). The second meaning is used in the southern states of the United States of America, such as, Texas, Alabama, Louisiana, etc. which adds cultural value to the compound. This specific cultural meaning does not conjure up a universal meaning that the Arab translator hope s to find or is aware of, which will either forces him/her to use the first sense ‘nonsense’ or opts for a literal translation. Both options will damage the intended meaning of moonshine and affects the translation of its context. Thus, cultural knowledge is a must for the translator who comes across such culture -bound compounds. Similarly, Arabic has several id ̣āfa that can be difficult to translate into English. For instance the id ̣āfa همমঽ੶ধميজ ঵ه੶৆ literally means 'sheikh of the translators', whic h does not make sense to non - native speakers, as this id ̣āfa is culture -specific. This id ̣āfa means that a person is knowledgeable and has a high status in translation. The reason the word 'sheikh' is chosen for this id ̣āfa is because 'sheikh' in Arab cult ure denotes a person of high rank or stature, and it is also honorific for people versed in religious ways or even village elders. Thus, blending the concepts of 'sheikh' and 'translator' produces this unique id ̣āfa that emphasises both high status and kno wledge in the field of translation. Other id ̣āfa that might cause some difficulty in rendering them to English are ' জঽ੶ল ੶ঠজ ' and ' ৬م੶ল ੶ঠজ '. Both are used as adjectives; however, the former has a literal meaning along with the figurative one. The former l iterally means 'a bastard son/love child', but when used figuratively, it may mean something like 'cheater', 'deceiver' or 'disloyal', depending on the context. Therefore, this id ̣āfa is definitely used when degrading a person. On the other hand, ' ੶ঠজ ৬م੶ল ' is used to praise a person and may mean something like 'trustworthy', 'helpful' or 'kind' , again, depending on the context. Other exocentric id ̣āfa cases that could pose a threat to the translator are ণع৏ডيজ হهম , ৐وঽষم ণ੶ه঳ليজ and ৬ঝড੶ৃيজ مه੶ছي . The first example when translated literally mean 'of good fleshy meat', but the intended exocentric meaning is 'of massive girth' or simply 'a big man'. Such id ̣āfa might not lose most of the intended meaning when rendered literally, but it is not natural in Englis h. Still, this literal translation is not far from the figurative meaning, which might indicate the unpacked meaning to the translator. Thus, s/he can modify the translation equivalent to suit the metaphorical intention and achieve naturalness in the targe t language. In the second example, ণ੶ه঳ليজ ৐وঽ੶ষم , a literal translation of this id ̣āfa will not provide any hints to refer to the intended meaning, since the literal translation would end up as 'a coned beard'. This equivalent sounds unnatural in English, which disqualifies the impact of the translation in context. Interestingly enough, the proper translation is 'a lengthy and thin pointy beard'. This metaphor -based id ̣āfa can only be understood if the translator is aware of the feature Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 230 of the ' ৐وঽ੶ষم ', which is cone -shaped in a sense that it is pointy and lacks the 'bushy' feature of a typical beard. As for ৬ঝড੶ৃيজ مه੶ছي , it creates more problems than the other two exocentric id ̣āfa . This can be attributed to the choice of words used in the head and modifier. مه੶ছي conjures up the concepts of a 'mean' , 'vile' or 'wicked' person, and ৬ঝড੶ৃيজ means 'the hair of the moustache'. A translator who confronts such id ̣āfa will render it as 'a vile hair of the moustache', which is erroneous because it cannot be translated word for word. The metaphorical -lad en sense adds a layer of difficulty for the translator who is oblivious to the intended meaning, which is 'a contemptible or despicable person'. One might consider this id ̣āfa as culture -specific due to the fact that insults towards facial hair are a sign of a status of a person in certain parts of the Arab world. An opposite expression that denotes a positive image of a person is ণ੶منঝغ ণ੶ه঳ي (a blessed person). However, the latter is an idiom rather than a compound in Arabic, which literally means 'a winnin g beard'. The pattern here is that adjectives used for facial hair either denotes a positive or a negative image in the Arab world. Conclusion The present study discussed English compounds and Arabic id ̣āfa in terms of their contrastive analysis in orde r to provide a solid linguistic background on these two phraseological entities . The study also paid attention to their literal (endocentric) and figurative (exocentric) semantic senses for translational purposes. The examples show that exocentric English compounds and Arabic id ̣āfa are not easy to render due to their metaphor and metonymy -based meanings. In addition, cultural attachment to the intended meaning of these multi -word items adds another degree of translation difficulty to the Arab translator. Therefore, successful translation of compounds and id ̣āfa should be supported by both cultural knowledge and competence and performance in English and Arabic. About the Author:

Dr. Mohammad Bin Naser is a Lecturer in the Department of English Language and Literature, Kuwait University. He obtained his MA in Translation Studies from the University of Birmingham, England in 2005 and his Ph.D. in Translation Studies (Arabic/English) from Durham University, England in 2010. His teaching and research interests are in the area of translation studies, phraseology, and lexicography. References English references Ball, A. (1939) Compounding in the English Language . New York: The H. W. Wilson Company. Benczes, R. (2006) Creative Compounding in English: the Semantics of Metaphorical and Metonymical Noun -Noun Combinations . Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publications. Emery, P. (1988) "Compound Words in Modern Standard Arabic", Zeitschrift fur Arabische Linguistik , 19, 32 -43. Gou ws, R. (1988) ''Compounds in Dictionaries: A Semantic Perspective'' in Snell -Hornby, M. (ed) Zurelix '86 Proceedings: Papers Read at the EURALEX International Congress, University of Zurich, 9 -14 September 1986 . Tubingen, 91 -98. Munat, J. (2002) “In Search of the Nominal Compound” in Nuccorini, S. (ed) Phrases and Phraseology -Data and Descriptions . Bern: Peter Lang, 145 -161. Ar ab World English Journal (AWEJ )Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016 The Hurdle of Translating Compounds and Id ̣āfa Bin Naser Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229 -9327 231 Plag, I. (2003) Word -Formation in English . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Radik, M. (1996) ''The Treatment of Compound Words in a Langauge Planning Dictionary'' in Gellerstram, Martin, et al (eds.) EURALEX '96 Proceedings I -II: Papers Submitted to the Seventh EURALEX International Congress on Lexicography in Goteborg, Sweden. Part II. Goteborg: Goteborg University, 451 -456. Rydi ng, K. (2005) A Reference Grammar of Modern Standard Arabic . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Warren, B. (1978) Semantic Patterns of a Noun -Noun Compounds . Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. Arabic references ( . ়ঝع ࣻ وঝয঳يজ 2005 .) ঠঽعيজ ণرليজ হعজوقণه .ঽেنلي ৤وঽেيজ়জস : ঝ आ مع . ( .ীঝডع ࣻ ৃল 1975 .) ةজويজ و঳نيজ . ়ঝعميজ ়জস :ঢঽهঝقيজ .