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Acculturaton to the global consumer culture:

Scale development and research paradigm Mark Cleveland a,⁎, Michel Laroche b aManagement and Organizational Studies Program, Social Sciences Centre, Room 2233, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5C2 bRoyal Bank Distinguished Professor of Marketing, John Molson School of Business, Concordia University (Montreal, Quebec), Canada Abstract The globalization of the marketplace and how this process is shaping the cultural characteristics of people around the world is arguably the most critical issue facing international marketing managers today. Powerful forces such as capitalism, global transport, communications, marketing and advertising, and transnational cosmopolitanism are interacting to dissolve the boundaries across national cultures and economies and in the eyes of some, accelerating the emergence of a homogeneous global consumer culture. The conventional method of using countries as the cultural unit of analysis or as a basis for market segmentation, is increasingly ill-advised, given that most of the world's countries are already multicultural and growing ever more so, and even within relatively homogeneous nations, individuals vary substantially in the extent to which they identify with, adhere to, and practice cultural norms. Many researchers argue that increasing globalization is reducing the homogeneity of consumer behaviors within countries, while increasing communalities across countries. Despite the importance of and widespread sociological discourse on this topic, (1) a scarcity of studies exists that have simultaneously considered both global and local cultural influences on consumer behavior, and (2) a scale for measuring how individuals acquire and become a part of this emerging global consumer culture is lacking. This article focuses on the development and validation of a multidimensional scale for the measurement of acculturation to global consumer culture, and is part of a larger international study examining the complex interaction and contextual nature of local and global cultural influences on consumer behavior. The article concludes with a proposed research paradigm intended to model such phenomena.

Keywords:Globalization; Acculturation; Scale development; Consumer behavior 1. Introduction and rationale Among all the challenges facing organizations, the global- ization of the marketplace is perhaps the most critical.

Interactions between cultures and markets are accelerating in the global economy. In order to prepare for the many opportunities and avoid the many threats afforded by global- ization, marketing managers must make informed decisions building from valid assumptions about cultural influences—the broadest, deepest and most enduring influences on consumer behavior. Globally, the culture scene is now witnessing two opposing, yet simultaneously occurring and reinforcing move- ments: the homogenization and heterogenization of cultures.International consumer research fundamentally focuses in one of two areas: (1) understanding consumer differences from the perspective of cultural, social, economic, and other marketing environment elements; and (2) the search for common groups of consumers across countries, for international market segmenta- tion purposes. The latter focus suggests the possibility of the existence, or imminent emergence, of global consumers.

What is the impact of globalization on consumer behavior around the world? On the one hand, capitalism, global transport, communications, marketing and advertising, and transnational cosmopolitanism are interacting to dissolve the boundaries across national cultures and economies (Ger, 1999), and in the eyes of many, accelerating the emergence of a homogeneous global consumer culture. On the other hand, the“differentiating impact of globalization strengthens or reactivates national, ethnic, and communal identities; and the pattern of interrelation- ships fuels a hybridization of social life”(Ger, 1999, p. 65). Journal of Business Research xx (2006) xxx–xxx + MODEL JBR-06276; No of Pages 11 ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 519 661 2111x81464.

E-mail addresses:[email protected](M. Cleveland), [email protected](M. Laroche).

doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. Acculturaton to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research paradigm, J Bus Res (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 Rather than suppressing differences, this new global cultural system may actively promote them.Wilk (1995)argues that cross-cultural researchers must examine the“…complex interplay between local context and global content, rather than arguing for the primacy of one over the other”(p. 111).

Beyond largely anecdotal accounts and sociological discourse, the literature reflects a dearth of empirical studies that simultaneously considers local and global cultural influences on consumer behavior, particularly in cross-cultural settings. The utter absence of a scale for capturing global consumer culture (specifically, how consumers acquire global consumer culture, hence acculturation to global consumer culture, or AGCC) complicates the efforts of market researchers and practitioners to measure and accurately develop the profiles of so-called emerging global consumer segments, or to determine the extent of their existence relative to segments derived on the basis of other characteristics (e.g., demographics). The focus of this paper is on developing and validating a scale for the measurement of AGCC.

The current research is part of a larger international study examining the interaction and contextual nature of, local and global cultural influences on consumer behavior.

2. International segmentation Conventionally, marketers derive international segments based on clustering countries according to specific similarities along several pertinent aspects. However, a growing number of researchers have argued that marketers should consider both differences within countries and similarities across countries.

First, very few countries of the world are culturally homogeneous, and this number is shrinking due to increasing immigration in many nations in order to supplement low population (and/or workforce) growth.Smith (1991)estimated that at least 90% of the nations of the world are multiethnic. Second, even within relatively homogeneous countries, individuals vary in the extent to which they identify with, adhere to, and practice cultural norms.

Third, many authors have argued that increasing globalization has reduced the homogeneity of consumer behaviorswithincountries, while increasing communalities among consumersacross countries.Roth (1995)contends that“…as trading nations reduce and eliminate structural, political and economic barriers, the search for similar consumers will become more important than national differences.”(p. 166).Firat (1995)asserts that“…market segments transcend national borders, forming global alliances of consumers”(p. 114).“Country and culture are not synonymous” (Furrer et al., 2000, p. 356); behavioral differences—which are due to the life experiences of people from different cultures— would exist even if the planet did not include nation-states.

Worsley (1990)reminds us that all individuals belong to communities, which are both smaller and wider than the nation- state. AsFurrer et al. (2000)advocate,“a model of international market segmentation has to take into account differences within countries as well as similarities across countries”(p. 357). In this era of globalization, market researchers and practitioners should not utilize countries, but rather, individuals as the cultural unit of analysis or as the basis for market segmentation. This will be the approach followed in the current research.3. Culture, consumption, and culture change More than any other factor, culture is the prime determinant of consumers' attitudes, behaviors and lifestyles, and therefore, the needs that consumers satisfy through the acquisition and use of goods and services. Culture by definition, is very abstract and complex, and consequently, few have agreed on a common definition for the concept. However, among the many existing definitions of culture, several common threads are identifiable:

culture is a learned, transmitted, and shared phenomenon.

Anthropologists envision culture“…as a construct at once pervasive, compelling, and elusive, from which a person's sense of reality, identity, and being emerge”(Peñaloza and Gilly, 1999, p. 86). From a social phenomenon standpoint, culture is an amalgamation of individual processes (including individual expressions of identity and affiliation:Roosens, 1995).Hofstede (1984)defined culture as“…the collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one group from another”(p. 201). The transmission of culture does not occur genetically; therefore, any human being that is in the right place at the right time can technically acquire culture.

Most contemporary researchers agree that ethnicity arises from the notion that certain individuals belong to or identify with certain cultural groups. According toMarkus and Kitayama (1991),“the self or identity is critical because it is the psychological locus of cultural effects…it functions as a mediating, orienting, and interpretive frameworkthat will systematically bias how members of a given socio-cultural group will think, feel, and act”(inDe Mooij, 2004, p. 94). Ethnic identity is adaptive and malleable; a product of affiliations to the past and of adjustment to present circumstances (Costa and Bamossy, 1995). Indeed, as remarked by Usunier (2000),“culture is much more a process than a distinctive whole”(p. 5). While identity formation is“…intimately bound up with the social context within which the person grows up and matures”(Epstein, 1978, p. 144), as political or economic conditions, and/or social situations change, so also do the identifying aspects of ethnicity (Costa and Bamossy, 1995).

Cultures are neither pure nor timeless; rather cultures constantly evolve due to either internal dynamics or external forces (Venkatesh, 1995). Across different times and places, some cultures change more quickly than others, and some cultures are more open or resistant to change. Once largely a consequence of wars and colonization, culture change today results from immigration, international trade and finance, global media and technological flows, and business travel and tourism. While history records many exchanges and instances of global cultural flows, never before have these occurred with the“…sheer speed, scale, and volume” (Appadurai, 1990, p. 301) of the present time.

Acculturation refers to the process in which individuals learn and adopt the norms and values of a culture different than the one in which they grew up. In the past, most theorists conceptualized acculturation as a bipolar, unidimensional process: as the individual progressively acquires the cultural traits of another culture, s/he gradually loses part, or the entire, heritage of their culture of origin (i.e., assimilation). The assumption underlying the latter is that the“…strengthening of one requires a weakening of the other; that is, a strong ethnic 2M. Cleveland, M. Laroche / Journal of Business Research xx (2006) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. Acculturaton to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research paradigm, J Bus Res (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 identity is not possible among those who become involved in the mainstream society, and acculturation is inevitably accom- panied by a weakening of ethnic identity”(Phinney, 1990, p. 501). However, reflecting the growing acceptance of the idea of multiculturalism and other notions of cultural pluralism, today, many researchers invoke more complex models of acculturation than that assimilation suggests.

Taking the view that acculturation is a multifaceted phenomenon,Berry (1980, 1997)and others (e.g.,Mendoza and Martinez, 1981; Laroche et al., 1997; Phinney, 1990) advocate the use of bidirectional models that would include multidimensional measures to assess the acculturating indivi- dual's adjustment to the alternate culture, based on the influence of both cultures, that is, the home (i.e., the degree to which the individual retains his/her culture of origin and/or identification) and the host (i.e., the degree to which the individual adapts to or acquires the alternate culture, in this case, global consumer culture). The emerging consensus is that bidirectional accultur- ation models yield a more accurate depiction of an individual's adaptation to the environment. From this perspective and unlike assimilation models of culture change, the acquisition of alternative culture values and behaviors need not necessarily entail the shedding of original culture values and behaviors.

Beyond degrees of assimilation, bidirectional models allow individuals to identify with more than one culture (e.g., bicultural competence), as well as the possibility to alternate between two cultures, depending on the social context.

Berry (1997, p. 9)states that all cultural groups and their members face two underlying issues concerning how to acculturate,“…cultural maintenance (to what extent are cultural identity and characteristics considered to be important, and their maintenance strived for); and contact and participation (to what extent should they become involved in other cultural groups, or remain primarily among themselves).”Taking both issues concurrently, four distinct acculturation strategies result, as Ta b l e 1shows.Mendoza and Martinez (1981)propose a similar, yet different typology of acculturation strategies; their typology includes the following four patterns: (1) cultural resistance (i.e., actively or passively resisting the acquisition of alternative culture norms and behaviors, while maintaining native customs), (2) cultural shift (whereby alternative cultural norms are substituted for native customs), (3) cultural incorporation (i.e., customs are adapted from both native and alternative cultures), and (4) cultural transmutation (whereby a unique subcultural entity is created from an alternation of native and alternative cultural norms).

Mendoza and Martinez's (1981)framework explicitly considers the contextual nature of acculturation strategies: individuals“…may display cultural resistance on one set of cultural activities, cultural incorporation on a second set, and culture shift and transmutation on a third and fourth”(Mendoza, 1989,p.374).

4. Acculturation to global consumer culture Consumer acculturation is a subset of acculturation, focusing on how individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, and behaviors that are appropriate to consumer culture (Peñaloza, 1989). As with acculturation in general, consumer acculturation occurs along two—often conflicting—dimensions, that of the original and mainstream cultures. To varying degrees, the competing pull of both cultures affect individuals. From a consumption perspective, in certain situations, this results in the direct adoption (without modification) of the alternative (foreign or global) behavior (e.g., elite consumers in Third-World countries, global teens). In other situations, this result involves mixing of alternative behavior with local elements (e.g., the practice of dousing French- fries with vinegar in Québec), or hyper-identification with the culture of origin (e.g., Mexican immigrants in the U.S. consuming greater quantities of foodstuffs associated with Mexico, than do Mexicans in their home country). In still other situations, this entails outright rejection of consumption behavior (e.g., North Korea). From a research standpoint, while some studies have documented monotonic relationships between acculturation and consumption (i.e., analogous to assimilation), most others have not, lending credence to the bidirectional acculturation models articulated by Berry and others.Globally, generalizations of increasing homogeneity or increasing heterogeneity are insufficient to describe the dynamics of intercultural contact; consumer change can and does occur simultaneously in both directions (Peñaloza, 1994), resulting in greater similarities and differences than can be accounted for by a single continuum of culture change. Echoing this view,Oswald (1999)states,“In consumer culture, ethnicity can be bought, sold, and worn like a loose garment”(p. 304).

Furthermore,Arnett (2002)argues that the primary psychological influence of globalization is on identity and that today, many people develop bicultural identities,“…combining their local identity with an identity linked to the global culture”(p. 774).

Globalization is a continuing and complex process, moving at different speeds in different parts of the world and in different sections of the population. Robertson has coined two definitions of globalization: the“…crystallization of the world as a single place”(p. 38), and,“…the emergence of the global human condition”(p. 23, inRobertson, 1992). Global consumer culture is a“cultural entity not associated with a single country, but rather a larger group generally recognized as international and transcend- ing individual national cultures”(Alden et al., 1999, p. 80). Global consumer segments (Dawar et al., 1996; Hassan and Katsanis, 1991) are those segments that“…associate similar meanings with certain places, people and things”(Alden et al., 1999,p.75).

Those“…individuals around the world whose cultural, social, and other differences are becoming less important as influences on their consumer behavior”(Keillor et al., 2001,p.2),andthose“… segments of people who regard a product category in essentially the same way, regardless of their country of residence”(Domzal and Kernan, 1993,p.17). Table 1 Berry's acculturation strategies Issue 1: Is it considered to be of value to maintain one's identity and characteristics?

Issue 2: Is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships with larger society?Ye s N o Yes Integration Assimilation No Separation/ segregationMarginalization3 M. Cleveland, M. Laroche / Journal of Business Research xx (2006) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. Acculturaton to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research paradigm, J Bus Res (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 Simply stated, acculturation to global consumer culture (hereafter AGCC) considers how individuals acquire the knowledge, skills and behaviors that are characteristic of a nascent and deterritorialized global consumer culture. An exhaustive review of the relevant social sciences literatures delineated six distinct drivers (that is, dimensions) of AGCC, as described in the ensuing sections.

4.1. Cosmopolitanism (COS) The term cosmopolitan loosely describes just about any person that moves about in the word, but beyond that and more specifically, the expression refers to a specific set of qualities held by certain individuals, including a willingness to engage with the other (i.e., different cultures), and a level of competence towards alien culture(s). Cosmopolitans are those people who“…provide points of entry into other territorial cultures”(Hannerz, 1992, p. 251). The term also depicts“…those intellectuals who are at home in the cultures of other peoples as well as their own” (Konrad, 1984, p. 209). Cosmopolitans want to immerse themselves in other cultures, and have the necessary skills to do so. Cosmopolitans are to be distinguished from tourists: while the latter are more akin to spectators than participants in a host culture, the former“…want to be able to sneak backstage rather than being confined to the frontstage areas”(Hannerz, 1990, pp. 241–242). Finally,Hannerz (1992)claims that cosmopoli- tanism is more a matter of degree and situational in nature rather than constituting an absolute trait, and due to the culture-shaping power of the media, a person can be cosmopolitan without ever having left his/her country of origin (Hannerz, 1990).

4.2. Exposure to marketing activities of MNC's (EXM) This dimension encapsulates the individual's degree of exposure to the marketing and advertising activities of multinational or global corporations. The efforts of marketers, more than ever before, cross national borders.Peñaloza and Gilly (1999)argue that marketers“…have a culture, with values including initiative, consummating exchanges, competing, making money, financial accountability, and a willingness to serve that are evident in their words and deeds,”and as culture change agents, marketers“…pass their cultural values onto consumers through market transactions…”(p. 101). Indeed, in discussing the core drivers behind the spreading global culture, Ger and Belk (1996)assert that“…the most direct influence of this proliferation and homogenization is no doubt the marketing and advertising activity of multinational firms”(p. 281).

4.3. Exposure to/use of the English language (ELU) This dimension reflects the extent of a person's exposure to and use of the English language for various communications.

Language (spoken and/or written) serves as a fundamental form of communication, and language is an indispensable component of all cultures. Beyond the language's dominance with respect to the Internet, popular culture (e.g., Hollywood movies, MTV, syndicated television), and other forms of media, English hasmade major inroads around the globe. Having consolidated a formidable hold as the linguistic medium for the sciences, English also has“…clearly become the lingua franca for communication in multinational business, diplomacy, international institutions, tourism, and aviation”(Huntington, 1996, p. 39). Rooted in Anglo-American cultures, English has come to represent something more:“as the primary language of international busi- ness, the mass media, and now, the Internet…English has come to signal modernism and internationalism to many consumers” (Alden et al., 1999, p. 77). English is used extensively on packaging and in other forms of product advertising, even in countries where few are fluent in the language (e.g., Japan), to convey symbolic forms of meaning (Alden et al., 1999), and to appeal to international segments (De Mooij, 2004).

4.4. Social interactions, including travel, migration, and contacts with foreigners (SIN) Mass migration facilitates the diffusion of global culture (Appadurai, 1990). Because of relaxing barriers, and increasing access to low-cost and speedy transport, mass migration is a hallmark of today's world, resulting in increasing numbers of direct and indirect contacts with peoples of different cultures.

This occurs not only through business and pleasure travel, but also among immigrant workers moving in and out of their cultures, relatives visiting family members in other countries, international students, government officials, as well as the largely undocumented flow of remittances and personal goods of such individuals, which diffuse technologies, tastes, and customs to even the most far-flung areas of the planet (Wilk, 1998). Tourism, whatFirat (1995)calls“…that voyeuristic experience in modern society,”(p. 113) is believed to be the largest single industry in the world. Ever cheaper, faster, and with more connections to more places than ever before, travel is no longer the exclusive domain of the wealthy; rather travel is now a mainstream activity.

4.5. Global/foreign mass media exposure (GMM) According toHirschman (1988)television is“…a particu- larly fertile source of texts pertinent to the ideology of consumption”(p. 345). Worldwide access to television and other forms of mass media has helped to create a global culture of consumption. European, Asian, and especially, American television shows and films are increasingly available around the globe. According toGer and Belk (1996),“…a broader array of countries have reason to be propelled toward a consumer culture by the globalization of mass media and the export of other forms of popular culture”(pp. 278–279). Indeed,Hannerz (1992) argues that popular culture and media usage are, for many people in the Third World, just as essential as they are for those in the Western world. For example,Walker (1996)concluded that worldwide access to television has lead to the creation of a global culture of consumption, which he referred to as a“global mall”(p. 42). Similarly,Appadurai (1990),Alden et al. (1999) and others have stated that the content of mass media, primarily American in origin, plays a major role“…in the creation, 4M. Cleveland, M. Laroche / Journal of Business Research xx (2006) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. Acculturaton to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research paradigm, J Bus Res (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 learning, and sharing”(Alden et al., 1999, p. 75) of con- sumption symbols (including, for example, product categories, brands, and consumption activities).

4.6. Openness to and desire to emulate global consumer culture (OPE) A person need not be a cosmopolitan, or even hold the traits of cosmopolitans to be interested in global consumer culture (e.g., members of the global teen segment:Hassan and Katsanis, 1991).

Globalization may not imply the creation of a common culture where everyone holds the same beliefs and values; however, globalization does create a single forum wherein all individuals pursue their goals in a manner involving some degree of comparison with others, andRobertson (1995)suggests that individuals selectively appropriate ideas from this global forum.

Several researchers posit that individuals who admire the lifestyles of other countries are likely to desire ownership of consumption symbols (i.e., goods) from other countries. For example, in his analysis of the global teenage lifestyle in Asian societies,We e ( 1 9 9 9 )concludes that“each generation now has its own global culture shaped by the familiar Western themes and values brought through the mass media and sold alongside the lifestyles urged upon the young consumers as part of the process of selling goods and services”(p. 369).

5. Method In order to compare cultures, variables and constructs need definitions that permit the researcher to discover how these groups are different or similar from each other. AsDe Mooij (2004) recently states,“the usefulness of culture as an explanatory variable depends on our ability to‘unpackage’the cultural concept. To do so, the etic approach must be used, and cultural values must be arrayed along interpretable dimensions”(p. 27).

Although the etic approach risks overlooking aspects that are unique to a specific culture, this tactic allows for some form of common metric, and consequently the etic approach is the most practical and most commonly used method in cross-cultural research (Luna and Gupta, 2001).

Following the rigorous guidelines articulated byNunnally (1967),Gerbing and Anderson (1988), and in particular, Churchill's (1979)stepwise procedure, a comprehensive scale for measuring AGCC was developed. The first step—specifying the domain of the construct, which yielded the six a priori dimensions of AGCC described earlier—was accomplished via an exhaustive review of the literature in several relevant fields, including marketing, economics, strategy, organizational behavior, international business, psychology, sociology, and anthropology.

This literature review also served as the starting point for step 2, namely, the generation of a large pool of items designed to capture the six emerging dimensions of AGCC. The resulting list was enlarged by a literature review of insightful qualitative studies (e.g., Arnett, 2002; Oswald, 1999; Ger and Belk, 1996; Belk, 1996; Thompson and Tambyah, 1999; Wilk, 1995, 1998; Hirschman, 1988), which then was further augmented by analyses of the verbal protocols resulting from (1) a series of one-on-one semi-structureddepth interviews with four informants, and (2) two focus group sessions, each with four individuals (see Appendix A for examples of the questions posed during the qualitative studies). The researchers transcribed verbatim the audiotaped interviews and focus group sessions. Finally, following exposure to comprehen- sive definitions for each AGCC dimension, 25 marketing faculty and PhD students completed paper-based expert opinion surveys, asking respondents to suggest possible measures. Together, these techniques yielded a grand total of 326 items, broken down as follows: COS (13 items from literature review, 6 from qualitative sessions, and 40 from expert opinion surveys), OPE (23 + 6 + 31), GMM (16 + 5 + 23), SIN (12 + 2 + 31), EXM (15 + 6 + 40), and ELU (16 + 2 + 39). The authors, using judgment and the opinions of other faculty members to eliminate redundancies, ambiguous, and otherwise problematic items (e.g., those using complex vocabu- lary, double-barreled statements, those that might provoke socially desirable responses etc.), carefully reviewed and truncated this list.

FollowingChurchill's (1979)paradigm, steps 3 and 4 consist of collecting data on the initial pool of items, with the objective of purifying that list, accomplished via factor and reliability analyses (Study 1). Steps 5 and 6 consist of assessing the reliability of the refined list with new data (and further purification), while step 7 is concerned with assessing the validity of the construct (Study 2).

The ensuing sections elaborate on these steps.

6. Study 1: initial pool of items for measuring AGCC 6.1. Survey description The 8-page questionnaire consisted of five parts. The first part contained a battery of 86 measures designed to capture various values, attitudes, opinions, and interests (serving as surrogate measures for several components of AGCC), followed by 33 measures relating to respondents' exposure to various media, and media preferences. The second part comprised of 19 measures corresponding to various experiences and opinions regarding travelling, applicable only to those respondents who had visited another country. The third section contained 21 measures corresponding to various usages of the English language and communications (applicable only to those respondents who spoke at least one additional language). Part 4 enclosed 23 measures relating various attitudes and opinions associated with globalization in general, and Global/American media and consumption activities in particular. All answers to the questions posed in parts one through four (totaling 182 items) were expressed on seven-point Likert scales (anchored by 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). The fifth and final part of the survey captured various demographic and cultural affiliation variables, including linguistic heritage, languages spoken, place of birth and parents' places of birth, sex, age, family size, employment status, and educational attainment. A signed cover letter accompanying the survey briefly described the nature of the study, and included instructions for completing the questionnaire. The measuring instrument was pre-tested to assess ease of use and comprehension of the instrument and individual measuring items, which resulted in a few superficial changes made to the questionnaire. 5 M. Cleveland, M. Laroche / Journal of Business Research xx (2006) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. Acculturaton to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research paradigm, J Bus Res (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 Table 2 AGCC items retained from study 2 Factor (α), itemLoading (EFA) a Path (λ i)b χ2 (df) ,p, CFI, RMSEA 1. (COS) Cosmopolitanism (0.906) (A10) I am interested in learning more about people who live in other countries. .806 0.78χ 2 (27) = 74.74,p= 0.00, CFI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.07 (A33) I like to learn about other ways of life. .754 0.80 (A1) I enjoy being with people from other countries to learn about their unique views and approaches..753 0.68 (A29) I like to try restaurants that offer food that is different from that in my own culture..724 0.55 (A28) I enjoy exchanging ideas with people from other cultures or countries. .715 0.81 (A16) I like to observe people of other cultures, to see what I can learn from them. .713 0.78 (A20) I find people from other cultures stimulating. .683 0.72 (A9) I enjoy trying foreign food. .663∅ (A35) When travelling, I like to immerse myself in the culture of the people I am visiting..615 0.67 (A47) Coming into contact with people of other cultures has greatly benefited me. .592 0.67 (A39) When it comes to trying new things, I am very open. .507∅ 2. (EXM) Exposure to marketing activities of MNC's (0.885) (A12) When I am watching TV, I often see advertising for products that are from outside of my country.−.763 0.69χ 2 (35) = 95.17,p= 0.00, CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.07 (A25) Ads for foreign or global products are everywhere.−.762 0.68 (A41) In my city, there are many billboards, and advertising signs for foreign and global products.−.750 0.76 (A2) It is quite common to see ads for foreign or global products in local media.−.697 0.61 (A17) When I read a newspaper, I come across many advertisements for foreign or global products.−.683 0.70 (A52) The magazines that I read are full of ads for foreign or global products.−.652 0.73 (A63) When I am watching Television, it seems that the number of advertisements for foreign brands is quite high, when compared to the number of advertisements for local brands.−.639 0.54 (A32) I often watch TV programming with advertisements from outside my country.−.622 0.63 (A34) When shopping, I am often exposed to foreign or global brands.−.588 0.65 (A61) Many of the V commercials I see are placed by multinational companies.−.585 0.59 3. (ELU) English language usage/exposure (0.848) (A31) I feel very comfortable speaking in English.−.871 0.85χ 2 (9) = 94.75,p= 0.00, CFI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.16 (A19) I often speak English with family or friends.−.813 0.77 (A7) I speak English regularly.−.759 0.76 (A24) Many of my favorite shows on TV are in English.−.659 0.67 (A40) My parents and I never communicate in English. (reversed)−.654∅ (A54) Many of the textbooks and articles that I read are in English.−.619 0.64 (A57) I prefer to watch English language television than any other language I may speak.−.530 0.55 (A23) The songs I listen to are almost all in English.−.482∅ 4. (SIN) Social interactions (primarily travel) (0.743) (A42) While vacationing, I would prefer to stay in my home country, rather than visit another country. (reversed).805 0.53χ 2 (9) = 49.67,p= 0.00, CFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.11 (A37) I prefer spending my vacations outside of the country that I live in. .764 0.66 (A13) Visiting foreign countries is one of my favorite things. .593 0.79 (A56) I often think about going to different countries and doing some traveling..571 0.68 (A27) I have thus far visited two or more other countries. .451 0.47 (A51) I feel at home in other countries. .370 0.44 5. (GMM) Global mass media exposure (0.843) (A22) I enjoy watching Hollywood films at the theatre. .700∅χ 2 (5) = 36.16,p= 0.00, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.13 (A60) I enjoy watching Hollywood movies that are in English. .699 0.59 (A6) Some of my favourite actors/actresses are from Hollywood. .683∅ (A43) I enjoy listening to music that is popular in the United States. .642 0.73 (A50) In general, I do not like American Television. (reversed) .627 0.66 (A18) I like to read magazines that contain information about popular Western celebrities..622∅ (A30) I enjoy reading American magazines. .594 0.65 (A8) I often watch American television programs. .510 0.73 (A58) I like the way that Americans dress. .446∅ 6M. Cleveland, M. Laroche / Journal of Business Research xx (2006) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. Acculturaton to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research paradigm, J Bus Res (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 6.2. The sample Data for this study (n= 162, with 15 discarded due to incompleteness) was collected from respondents in Montreal.

Overall, 56% of the respondents were female. In reflection that most of the sample was composed of students (87.1%), the overwhelming majority of participants were between 20 and 29 years of age (74.8%). Many student respondents lived at home with their parents (54.7%), and most were employed, either part-time or full-time (43.5 and 24.5% of total respondents, respectively). A core objective of this research was the development of a scale to measure AGCC; one that could be applied in different cultural settings. Linguistically and culturally, the sample was diverse. In addition to English, most respondents also spoke French (87.8%); most also reported speaking at least one language other than English or French (71.4%, with 25.9% reporting speaking at least two other languages). Although 70% of respondents were born in Canada, the majority had one or both parents born outside of the country.

6.3. Results: Study 1 All scale items entered in as reported on the questionnaire (excepting a few reverse-coded items). With the Kaiser–Meyer– Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy at 0.765 and Bartlett's test of Sphericity being significant (χ 20162 = 5371.11, p= .000), the appropriateness of the ensuing factor model was ensured (Malhotra, 2004). Using the Principal Components method of extraction and Direct Obliminrotation, the 182 Likert-scale items were subjected to a series of exploratory factor analyses (EFA). After removing items with poor psychometric properties, the remaining items loading under each factor were subjected to reliability analyses. This process was repeated 20 times, after which the final factor solution emerged, retaining 64 items in a 7 factor solution (eigenvaluesN1.0) accounting for 53.5% of the total variance, with all factors exhibiting high coefficient alphaestimates. Each factor was given a descriptive label: (1) COS (cosmopolitanism, composed of 13 items,α= 0.923), (2) EXM (exposure to marketing activities of multinational firms, 12 items, α= 0.905), (3) ELU (English language usage and exposure, 8items,α= 0.780), (4) SIN (social interactions, primarily travel, 6items,α= 0.799), (5) GMM (global mass media exposure, 8 items,α= 0.829), (6) OPE (openness to and desire to emulate global consumer culture, 7 items,α= 0.755), and (7) IDT (self- identification with global consumer culture, 10 items,α=0.884).

The factor correlation matrix (Appendix B) shows that the factors are both distinct, yet related to one another.

In sum, the results from Study 1 largely corroborate the pre- viously articulated structure of the facets of AGCC. Although not a priori defined, the seventh dimension (IDT), containing several items originally assigned to OPE, EXM, and GMM, this facet appears to connote self-ascribed membership in or outright iden- tification with a global consumer culture. The purpose of the next study was to assess the factor structure and reliability of the re- fined battery of items with new data, and to purify further that list.

7. Study 2: assessing the reliability and validity of the AGCC construct scale 7.1. Survey description and sample.

The four-page questionnaire contained the 64 items retained from study one, capturing the seven emerging dimensions of AGCC, as well as the various demographic and cultural affiliation variables (identical to the first study). Data for this study (n=400, with 8 discarded due to incompleteness) was collected from respondents (primarily undergraduate and graduate students) in Montreal. Data coding and factor analyses followed the procedure described in Study 1. As was the case for the first study, the sample for the second study was linguistically and culturally diverse. The vast majority of the sample was bilingual or multilingual, with almost 83%reporting French-speaking Factor (α), itemLoading (EFA) a Path (λ i)b χ2 (df) ,p, CFI, RMSEA 6. (OPE) Openness to and desire to emulate GCC (0.686) (A36) I think people my age are basically the same around the world. For example, a 20-something in Russia is basically the same as a 20-something in the U.S., Sweden, or anywhere else..825 0.67χ 2 (2) = 4.08,p= 0.13, CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.05 (A11) I think that my lifestyle is almost the same as that of people of my age-group in other countries. .748 0.72 (A53) I think my lifestyle is almost the same as that of people of my social class in other countries. .732 0.76 (A64) I would rather live like people do in the United States. .411∅ (A45) When travelling abroad, I appreciate being able to find Western products and restaurants. .386 0.28 7. (IDT) Self-identification with global consumer culture (0.832) (A55) The way that I dress is influenced by the advertising activities of foreign or global companies. .733 0.78χ 2 (20) = 87.28,p= 0.00, CFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.09 (A38) Advertising by foreign or global brands has a strong influence on my clothing choices. .717 0.75 (A3) I pay attention to the fashions worn by people in my age-group that live in other countries. .674 0.59 (A44) I try to pattern my lifestyle, way of dressing, etc. to be a global consumer. .653 0.63 (A14) I like reading magazines about the fashion, décor, and trends in other countries. .646 0.57 (A21) I prefer to wear clothing that I think is popular in many countries around the world rather than clothing traditionally worn in my own country..634 0.56 (A62) I actively seek to buy products that are not only thought of as‘local’. .613 0.50 (A4) I identify with famous international brands. .599 0.57 aExtraction method: principal components analysis; rotation method: oblimin with kaiser normalization.bCFA Standardized Solution (EQS), all path coefficients significant atpb.05.∅denotes that item was dropped from CFA. Table 2 (continued) 7 M. Cleveland, M. Laroche / Journal of Business Research xx (2006) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. Acculturaton to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research paradigm, J Bus Res (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 abilities, and close to three-quarters reporting speaking at least one language other than English and French (with 27.3% and 5.4% reporting speaking at least two or three other languages, respectively). Slightly less than 64% of respondents were born in Canada, with the remaining individuals reporting being born in one of 45 countries. Once again, the majority of subjects had parents born outside of Canada, with close to 67% (68%) reporting that their mother (father) was born outside of Canada, distributed unevenly among 56 (64) countries.

7.2. Results: Study 2 7.2.1. Exploratory factor analyses (EFA) The KMO measure (0.877) and Bartlett's test (χ 20162 = 12681.40, p= .000) provide strong evidence of the appropriateness of the data for factor analysis. Three items were reverse-coded. For the second study, the iterative process (following that of Study 1) was repeated 8 times, after which the final seven-factor EFA solution (eigenvaluesN1.0) emerged, accounting for 52.4% of the total variance (Ta b l e 2), and containing a total of 57 items. Closely mirroring the findings of the first study, the seven factors were (1) COS (composed of 11 items,α= 0.906), (2) EXM (10 items, α= 0.885), (3) ELU (8 items,α= 0.848), (4) SIN (6 items, α= 0.743), (5) GMM (9 items,α= 0.843), (6) OPE (5 items, α= 0.686), and (7) IDT (8 items,α= 0.832). The factor correlation matrix (Appendix B) again shows that the factors are distinct yet relatedtooneanother.

7.2.2. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) FollowingGerbing and Anderson's (1988)recommendation for unidimensional scale development, the psychometric proper- ties of the items in Study 2 were then subjected to the morerigorous CFA procedure, using the maximum likelihood fitting process in EQS. Dropping eight of the original 57 EFA items due to poor fit properties, the models were respecified.Ta b l e 2 presents the summary statistics for these models. Several statistics were used to evaluate the goodness of fit of each factor model, including the comparative fit index (CFI), the root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), and the adjusted chi-square test (χ 2/ degrees of freedom). As perHu and Bentler's (1999)criteria, the fit of each of the tested models was acceptable.

8. Discussion With respect to cultural adaptation,Horenczyck (1997) maintains that immigrants distinguish“…between their various spheres of acculturation and that they choose to which to as- similate more than to others”(p. 36). From an identity perspective,Stayman and Deshpandé (1989)argue that ethnic identification can itself be situationally dependent, that is, particularly salient or felt only under certain conditions. In fact, the emerging consensus among researchers is that ethnic identification and acculturation are both multidimensional (i.e., representing higher-order concepts: seeLaroche et al., 1997), selective and/or strategic (e.g.,Horenczyck, 1997; Keefe and Padilla, 1987), and contextual (e.g.,Oswald, 1999; Mendoza, 1989; Stayman and Deshpandé, 1989), in that the acquisition of new cultural characteristics and the maintenance or loss of traditional ones varies from trait to trait and from situation to situation. In light of this, researchers are abandoning single-trait and objective measures of ethnic identity and acculturation in favor of multifaceted and subjective cultural indicators (Venka- tesh, 1995). The growing literature on acculturation documents measures for capturing the various facets of ethnic identity and Fig. 1. A proposed research paradigm: the dynamic influence of AGCC and EID on consumption. 8M. Cleveland, M. Laroche / Journal of Business Research xx (2006) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. Acculturaton to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research paradigm, J Bus Res (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 acculturation, however these studies have focused on culture change occurring within the narrow context of immigrants adapting to the alternative host cultures, and not from the broader perspective of how deterritorialized and global cultural flows impact cultures and consumers around the world. This research offers measures that enable researchers to capture acculturation to this global consumer culture, which embed the various drivers of this complex phenomenon. This AGCC scale has components that reflect personal traits and qualities that are associated with an outward, worldly orientation (COS), individuals' degree of outright identification with the global consumer culture (IDT), internal dispositions that are amenable to global culture influences (OPE), acquired skills such as language (ELU) and experiences (SIN) that foster the exchange of information from the global arena, as well as external agents that include both the media (GMM) and the message (EXM).

9. Global and local cultural influences: a research paradigm Evoking the nature of the bidirectional models of culture change articulated earlier in this paper, and in line with selective and contextual notions of cultural maintenance and adaptation, Yoon et al., (1996)assert that individuals can be cosmopolitan (global) in one domain, but local in another. In order to assess clearly the role of global cultural forces on consumer behavior, researchers must therefore simultaneously consider local cultural influences. As put byGer and Belk (1996),“The dialectic of globalization–localization cannot be understood unless we begin with how the local experiences that dialectic” (p. 295); in other words, how these global and local cultural forces“…are constantly felt in the lives of those trying to get from one day to the next”(Friedman, 1994, p. 193). The current research was largely motivated by a desire to build a comprehensive model linking both global (i.e., AGCC) and local (i.e., ethnic identification or affiliation: EID) culture influences to an array of consumption behaviors (Fig. 1), as a basis for international market segmentation and strategy decisions. Given that consumer goods serve both as repositories of cultural meaning and vehicles for culture change, consump- tion is a thoroughly cultural phenomenon (McCracken, 1990; Belk, 1996; Wilk, 1998; Oswald, 1999), reflecting a strategy or set of strategies for the establishment, maintenance, or alteration of identity. Therefore, the role of culture will take on different forms according to the specific consumer behavior context, for example, the consumption of various product categories.

To this end, an international study involving a survey of consumers (N= 1752) in 8 countries (Canada, Mexico, Chile, India, South Korea, Greece, Hungary, and Sweden), is currently underway. Conceptualizing the main cultural constructs (AGCC and EID) as multidimensional, AGCC is composed of the seven dimensions revealed in this article. Borrowing and/or adapting from the existing body of research, the operationalization of ethnic identification incorporated multiple indicators for each of seven a priori dimensions: (1) local language use, (2) local media-usage, (3) local interpersonal relationships, (4) self- identification and pride, (5) desire to maintain own culture, (6) local customs, habits and values, and (7) family structure and sexroles. Given the widespread documentation and application of Hofstede's (Hofstede and Bond, 1988) cultural dimensions (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, mascu- linity, and long-term orientation), they have been incorporated in the model, in order to predict general patterns of culture change for each country sample, and to help establish a profile and better understanding of global culture consumers. Two well-estab- lished marketing concepts, materialism (Belk, 1985)and consumer ethnocentrism (Shimp and Sharma, 1987) have also been included in the model, each conceptualized as partially mediating the relationship between the cultural constructs and consumption behaviors. Materialism has long been associated with the increasing homogeneity-of-cultures hypothesis, where- as consumer ethnocentrism corresponds with the heterogeneity hypothesis. Also under examination are the potential moderating effects of various socio-demographic variables. The trait validity (i.e., convergent and discriminant validity) and the nomological validity (testing of a structural model indicating the proposed relationships between the constructs:Fig. 1) of the AGCC construct will be assessed with the data gathered from the international study, thereby completing the stepwise procedure for scale development articulated byChurchill (1979).

10. Limitations and conclusions This article makes several important and novel contributions, most notably, the development and validation of a multifaceted scale for the measurement of AGCC, and the articulation of a research paradigm for simultaneously assessing global and local cultural influences on consumption behaviors. In acknowledge- ment of the regions currently providing much of the driving energy behind globalization (Arnett, 2002), the flavor of AGCC is therefore unmistakably (and appropriately) Western. However, due to the amorphous quality of culture in general and of global consumer culture in particular, over time AGCC will take on different seasonings. In particular, as the economic center of the globe shifts from Europe and America to Asia, cultural pheno- mena rooted in Asia will increasingly be exported worldwide and integrated into the global consumer culture, even as Asian cultures themselves change because of globalization.

As with all studies, several caveats bear mentioning, the first of which being generalizability. Although the larger cross-cultural study seeks to validate the AGCC scale across an array of countries and behaviors, given the survey approach the data will be cross- sectional, and therefore correlational (as opposed to causal).

Several limitations are associated with an etic approach to scale development, such as the risk of overlooking aspects that may be unique to other cultures, including and beyond those considered in the current research. Finally, for reasons of parsimony, the ongoing research endeavor does not explicitly consider three aspects commonly used by researchers to group countries: geography, religion, and technological development. These facets may be relevant for inclusion in future explorations, as exogenous va- riables, or as control variables. In conclusion, this new paradigm for examining the complex relationship between local and global cultural influences on consumer behavior will yield many valuable insights for marketing researchers and practitioners alike. 9 M. Cleveland, M. Laroche / Journal of Business Research xx (2006) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Cleveland, M., Laroche, M. Acculturaton to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research paradigm, J Bus Res (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.006 Appendix A. Examples of questions for qualitative studies⁎ What do you think about globalization? Are multinational corporations largely responsible for the spreading of a Western culture of Consumption?

Do you believe that there is such a thing as a global consumer culture? How would you describe a Cosmopolitan?

What does the phrase“global consumer culture”mean to you? How would you describe members of this global consumer culture?What does the word‘Cosmopolitan’mean to you?

What in your view are the causes of a global consumer culture? Who or what is responsible for this spreading global consumer culture?More than ever before, people are traveling and moving about in the world. Does this help to spread global culture? How and why?

Do you think that, as time goes on, that people in different countries of the world will become more alike, more similar to each other?Do you believe that there are people who want to be seen by others as global consumers, or members of this global consumer culture?

How is global consumer culture different from local culture? From Canadian culture? From American culture? From European culture?It has been said that, around the world, teenagers and young adults are very similar. Do you agree?

How has globalization affected the life of you or your family members? In what ways are they similar?

Do you think that globalization affects people equally around the world? I am going to read a couple of statements, and ask for your comments.

What role do the media (for example, television and Hollywood movies) play in shaping people's desires?“Increasingly, consumers in almost every corner of the globe are able to eat the same foods, listen to the same music, wear the same fashions, watch the same television programs and films, drive the same cars, dine in the same restaurants, and stay in the same hotels.”(Ger and Belk, 1996, p. 276) English is increasingly being spoken around the world, not just as a first language by some, but as a second or third language by many others. Does this widespread adoption of English promote the spread of Western or American culture?“We can easily now conceive of a time when there will be only one culture and one civilization on the entire surface of the earth.”(Lévi-Strauss, 1978, p. 20).

In your view, does the rise of the Internet aid in the spread of Western culture? If you were to research global consumer culture, what types of questionsmight you ask?

Do you have any other comments that you would like to share?

⁎ Four semi-structured depth interviews and two focus group sessions (n= 4 per group).

Appendix B. AGCC construct studies factor correlation matrices a Component 1—COS 2—EXM 3—ELU 4—SIN 5—GMM 6—OPE 7—IDT S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 1—COS 1.00 1.00 2—EXM–.183–.199 1.00 1.00 3—ELU 0.38–.044–.026–.079 1.00 1.00 4—SIN .215 .342–.097–120 .069–.088 1.00 1.00 5—GMM–.077–.160–.069–.121 .180–.318 .054–.049 1.00 1.00 6—OPE–.047 .055–.091–.124 .087–.112–.045 .011 .148 .142 1.00 1.00 7—IDT .242 .217–.341–.323–.067 .063 .125 .168 .083 .161 .100 .159 1.00 1.00 aS1 = study 1 (n= 162), S2 = Study 2 (n= 392). References Alden DL, Steenkamp J-BEM, Batra R. Brand positioning through advertising in Asia, North America, and Europe: the role of global consumer culture.

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