Can anyone do my discussion1 wk.1 US?

9 The Second World War Photori Images/SuperStock Encouraged to fill in for men during the war, many women worked critical jobs in factories and mills. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 269 1/9/15 9:33 AM American Lives: Rosie the Riveter: Margarita Salazar McSweyn Pre-Test 1. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which removed Japanese aliens and American citizens of Japanese descent from their homes on the West Coast of the United States. T/F 2. The most important strategic successes in Europe for the Allies came from ground attacks like D-Day and not through the air. T/F 3. Allied leaders signed the peace treaty ending World War II at the Yalta Conference in February, 1945. T/F 4. A labor shortage during the war led to millions of women working in factories. T/F 5. The purpose of the Manhattan Project was to develop a fleet of silent fighter jets. T/F Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe how U.S. foreign policy shifted in response to the crisis in Europe. • Understand the events that led the United States to enter World War II. • Explain the ways that various groups, including women, African Americans, and Japanese Americans, experienced the war differently. • Understand the strategies that the Allied Powers used to conduct the war in Europe and the Pacific. • Explain the measures put in place at the war’s end to reduce the likelihood of future conflict. American Lives: Rosie the Riveter: Margarita Salazar McSweyn Margarita “Margie” Salazar was 25 years old when the United States entered World War II. The following year she left her traditionally female occupation for a job at a Lockheed assembly plant in Los Angeles, becoming one of more than 4 million women who left their occupations and homes to fill industrial jobs tied to wartime production. Women like Salazar were exem - plified by Rosie the Riveter , a character popularized by a government advertising campaign. They worked in defense industries as welders, riveters, aircraft assemblers, and in other male- dominated occupations. For the first time they enjoyed higher wages and the ability to step out - side the occupations and experiences society had proscribed as women’s sphere. For the dura - tion of the war, women were encouraged to take on new roles to aid the nation’s war effort.

Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

Salazar was born in New Mexico July 20, 1916, and her large family moved to Los Angeles when she was an infant. She spent most of her youth in a largely Mexican American neighborhood, where social activities revolved around the church and a Mexican social club. She attended Sul - livan Beauty College and worked as a beauty operator (beautician) until the war broke out. Courtesy Everett Collection This World War II poster depicting Rosie the Riveter encouraged American women to show their strength and patriotism by working for the war effort. Margarita Salazar McSweyn was one of the many women inspired by Rosie the Riveter. Seeing advertisements in English and in Spanish for women to work at the Lockheed airplane assembly plant, Salazar thought the job would allow her to do her part for the war effort, and she relished the higher wages the job offered. Aiming to protect the wage rates for returning veterans, labor unions advocated for women war workers to be paid the same rate as men. Salazar recalled, “I thought it’d be a whole new experience” (as cited in Gluck, 1987, p. 85). Wearing the required pants, sensible shoes, and hair net, Sala - zar at first filled in for a variety of assembly positions within the factory but eventually moved to the tool- dispensing shed because she found it difficult to stand for a full shift . Salazar’s patriotism extended beyond her Lockheed job. She volunteered for the Civil Defense Corps , a federally organized volunteer force that worked to mobilize the civilian population in response to poten - tial threats. The federal government strongly encour - aged Salazar’s involvement in the volunteer group as well as her work at the Lockheed plant. As a part of the nation’s total war program, it was essential that American citizens do their part to contribute to the war effort, and with so many young men entering mil - itary service, it was vital that women step in to keep the nation’s war production running smoothly . Before the war’s end, Salazar, along with many other young women, sought to leave her aircraft job for a less strenuous white-collar job. The Lockheed plant work was hard. Long days spent standing on her feet, dirty conditions, and heat made it difficult to endure, and she wanted out.

Because her labor was so vital to the war effort, she had to provide Lockheed with a doctor’s cer - tificate before she could quit. She ultimately took a position as a clerk in a beauty supply store . Had Salazar remained at the assembly plant, her job would have ended with the war. Women war workers were encouraged to return to their homes or traditionally female jobs to make room for the thousands of returning veterans in search of work. For Salazar and millions of women, their World War II experiences permanently altered their social and work lives. Her world expanded beyond the “pink-collar ghetto” of beauty work and her Mexican American neighborhood. Mar - rying a veteran in 1945, she returned to the workforce in the 1950s when her children reached school age and filled a dual role as white-collar worker and homemaker. Maintaining links to family and cultural tradition, Salazar’s war experiences showed her there were other choices, which she exercised to expand her world (Gluck, 1987). She died in 1989 . For further thought: 1. What benefits did women receive from their wartime work experiences? 2. How did women’s war work increase or change their expectations for equal treatment at work? American Lives: Rosie the Riveter: Margarita Salazar McSweyn bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 271 1/9/15 9:33 AM Section 9.1 The Road to War 9.1 The Road to War During the 1930s the United States focused inward to solve its mountain of economic prob - lems. International relations were forced to the back burner, but President Franklin D. Roosevelt did reach out in hopes of securing new trading partners. His Republican predeces - sors refused to recognize the Soviet Union, or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the single-party Communist state that emerged from the Russian Revolution. But Roosevelt, see - ing a potential market for American trade goods, exchanged ambassadors with the Soviets. It was the beginning of an uneasy alliance between the Communist Soviet Union and capitalistic United States, one that lasted only so long as both parties needed a partner and eventually eroded in the face of global conflict.

During the Depression years, much of Roosevelt’s foreign policy focused on interests in the Western Hemisphere. In another effort to shore up trade and end the nation’s economic mal - aise, Roosevelt promoted the Good Neighbor Policy , which ended the pattern of American intervention in Latin American affairs. The policy asserted that the United States recognized the sovereignty of Latin American countries. The longtime occupation of the Dominican Republic came to an end, and a new treaty with Cuba dissolved the Platt Amendment that had granted the United States the right to intervene in that nation’s affairs (Pike, 1995). The relax - ation of concerns about Latin American affairs lasted until the onset of the Cold War, when protection of the region once again became a grave concern.

Fascism and New World Leaders As the United States struggled to redefine foreign relations and establish new trading partners, European nations similarly reevaluated their place in the world. Two important European nations, Germany and Italy, witnessed the emergence of totalitarian or Fascist governments.

Fascism was the result of radical right-wing ideologies whose proponents saw it as a viable conservative response to threats to the economic and social order. Fascism thus became a violent middle-class attempt to suppress working-class aspirations. It proposed a social unity that eliminated political parties and trade organizations. If, from the perspective of national unity, an individual or group was considered counterproductive, it was eliminated (Curtis, 2003). The tenets of fascism were thus diametrically opposed to those of democracy, and this was one reason the United States came to see the Fascist movement as a threat.

Championing the Fascist state were new leaders who took control in Italy and Germany.

Benito Mussolini organized the Fascist Party movement in Italy and came to power in 1922.

His party promoted a national regime that promised to improve Italian culture and society, harkening back to its roots in ancient Rome. Mussolini’s charismatic personality led many to believe that he offered the best route to save the Italian nation in a time of struggle. In order to succeed, he urged Italians to strive for a “true Italian” ideal that required citizens to abandon individualism and to see themselves as a component of the state. Italians flocked to his movement, and his cult-like status helped to inspire other would-be Fascist leaders (Haugen, 2007).

In Japan the growth of ultranationalism in the early 20th century supported the rise of milita - rism, seeing that nation’s military gain important government influence. Officers of the army bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 272 1/9/15 9:33 AM Section 9.1 The Road to War and navy occupied the nation’s highest offices, including prime minister. In 1931 conflict with neighboring China over economic and political treaties resulted in a Japanese invasion of that nation’s Manchuria region. Facing international criticism, Japanese militarists abandoned international cooperation and withdrew Japan from the League of Nations in 1933.

After years of conflict, by 1937 Japan was at war with China. Occupying the coastal region, Japanese military personnel wreaked havoc on the civilian population, outraging the United States and other nations by murdering and raping thousands during the capture of the Chi - nese capital at Nanking (Payne, 1995). In 1933 another Fascist government appeared in Europe with the rise to power of Adolf Hitler as the leader of the National Socialists, or the Nazi Party , in Germany. His ascen - dency stemmed from a weakened democratic government that was unable to pay German war debts from World War I. At the conclusion of that conflict in 1919, under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was ordered to pay more substantial reparations than other members of the Central Powers, including some $33 billion to cover damages to civilians and property, and it was forbidden from rebuilding its military. The economic consequences meant German citizens suffered severely, including through the years of the Great Depression. Hitler presented a way to regain national pride and resurrect the struggling German econ - omy, and he capitalized on these needs to attain political power. Similar to Social Darwinism, he proposed Nazism, arguing that White people, especially Aryans from Europe, formed a master race. Under his leadership the Nazis employed a particularly radical interpretation of eugenics, the notion of improving the genetic quality of the human race, to degrade other races and unite Germans. His ideas sought to link White Germans of all classes together, creat - ing a racialized nationalism.

Hitler was appointed chancellor in 1933 and effectively intimidated his opposition and the German Parliament into giving him absolute powers. As a dictator, he used his police force to persecute Jews, Roma, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled, and other minor - ity groups because he believed that the German race was superior and he did not want to “dilute” or “weaken” his nation with outsiders he considered “inferior.” He blatantly violated the Versailles treaty and began a process of rearming the nation. Europe and the United States ignored his actions through the first several years of his dictatorship, believing that little would come of his reign. These leaders of Italy, Germany, and Japan pushed the world to war over the course of the 1930s (Carr, 1985). SuperStock Benito Mussolini (left) and Adolf Hitler (right) led the fascist movement in Europe. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 273 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.1 The Road to War Appeasement and the Road to War Several key events pushed the world along the path to war. Territorial expansion and interna - tional aggression were early factors in the rising belligerency. In 1935 Mussolini’s army moved into Africa, conquering Ethiopia. One year later, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland (western Germany), in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles, which specified the region was to remain unfortified. In 1936, in the midst of the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), Hitler and Mussolini sent support to Gen. Francisco Franco, who eventually emerged as the victor. Franco went on to head a new Fascist regime in Spain and closely allied with Germany and Italy.

Unrest also proliferated in Asia throughout the 1930s. China and Japan formally went to war with one another in 1937, following Japan’s invasion of Manchuria. Japan formed an alliance with Nazi Germany, and eventually Italy, initially aimed at forging an alliance against attack from the Communist Soviet Union. The group became known as the Axis Powers . This alli - ance provided important support for each growing power, as they invaded and controlled significant parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe (LaFeber, Polenberg, & Woloch, 2008).

In 1938 Hitler continued his military conquests in Europe by uniting Ger - many with Austria; then he took the Sudetenland, the northern and west - ern areas of Czechoslovakia, which was populated heavily with German speakers. This raised great concerns throughout Europe, most notably in France and Britain, that Germany was out to grab substantial amounts of European territory as it had during World War I.

Instead of forcing Germany to return the territory, Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement , making politi - cal or material concessions in order to avoid war or conflict. After German occupation of the Sudetenland, France and Britain negotiated a formal prom - ise with Hitler in the Munich Agreement that he would not seek additional territory. Signed at the end of September 1938, the agreement left Hitler angry and the Czechoslovakians dismayed because they had not been party to the dis - cussion. But British prime minister Neville Chamberlain was strongly in favor of this approach (Judt, 1998).

Between 1937 and 1939 Britain, with France in agreement, continued to support appease - ment in order to avoid conflict with the Germans. The United States watched the international events from afar. The League of Nations, which was supposed to maintain collective security, failed to stop the buildup of a German empire and fighting force. Historians have long debated Associated Press In an attempt to avoid further conflict in Europe, France and Britain entered into the Munich Agreement with Germany. This agreement stated that Hitler would not invade additional territories. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 274 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.1 The Road to War the effects of appeasement. Some argue that the wait-and-see attitude of the policy allowed Hitler and the other Axis Powers to increase their military strength and shore up national support. On the other hand, other scholars argue that there was little else Chamberlain could do, especially with the United States unwilling to get involved (MacDonald, 1981).

Barely a year after signing the Munich Agreement, Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslova - kia, while Mussolini attacked Albania. Both Fascist regimes were heading eastward across Europe. Hitler also signed a nonaggression pact with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, previously his sworn enemy. Declaring that the two nations would not attack each other for a period of 10 years, it also included a secret provision that outlined how the Soviets and Germans would divide Eastern Europe in the future and ensured that Hitler could invade Poland with - out opposition from Stalin.

Seeing no prospects for peace, Britain and France abandoned the policy of appeasement and promised Poland support if Germany launched a full attack. Germany invaded Poland on Sep - tember 1, 1939, just days after signing the pact with the Soviets. Britain and France declared war on Germany just 2 days later, officially beginning World War II.

Over the following year, Germany waged blitzkrieg , or “lightning war,” throughout Europe. Employing mass numbers of troops, tanks, and armaments supported by air strikes, the Ger - man fighting force moved quickly and effectively to surprise and destroy unprepared or ill- equipped regions in Europe. It was remarkably effective, as Hitler’s armies overran Denmark, Norway, Belgium, and Netherlands, all between April and May 1940. One month later, German soldiers raised a Nazi flag over Paris, and on June 22, 1940, France surrendered.

The blitzkrieg emerged as a German tactic only in fits and starts (Jackson, 2003). But given its success during the early stages of the war, it became part of the official German war strategy, and the country’s military commanders consciously used it for the first time in a campaign against the Soviet Union.

While the blitzkrieg concentrated on continental Europe, German forces also targeted Britain in a series of bombing raids known as the Battle of Britain. Aiming to gain superiority over the British Royal Air Force (RAF), the attacks began on July 10, 1940, and lasted 3 1⁄2 months. Germans first tar - geted British ships, shipping installa - tions, and airfields, but bombing raids eventually moved across the nation and included the city of London, which was substantially damaged. © Galerie Bilderwelt/Bridgeman Images German bombers such as the one shown here became a common sight during the 3-month-long Battle of Britain. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 275 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.1 The Road to War The British fought back, with RAF planes shooting numerous German flyers from the skies.

Especially in cities, RAF radar and a successful air raid warning system allowed civilians to take cover, significantly reducing casualties. Nevertheless, as many as 40,000 civilians died.

The full campaign persisted until the end of October, with the RAF significantly reducing the German air force, or Luftwaffe, but some raids continued into the next spring.

American Isolationism and Neutrality Amidst the challenges of the Great Depression, most Americans, like their leaders, paid little attention to Japanese aggressions and the rise of fascism in Germany and Italy. At the close of World War I (see Chapter 6), the United States chose not to join the League of Nations, and in the decades since that war’s end, many Americans came to believe that U.S. involvement in the war had been a mistake.

One reason some questioned U.S. actions was the belief that arms manufacturers seeking profit had guided the nation into war. A Senate committee operating between 1934 and 1936 investigated these allegations and produced the Nye Report, uncovering the potential profit motives behind U.S. involvement. The public was also shocked to learn that during its neutral period from 1915 to 1917, the United States loaned Britain and its allies nearly $2.3 billion, thereby having a vested interest in ensuring a British victory. These revelations helped spark isolationist sentiment among the U.S. public.

Congressional actions during the 1930s reflected this desire to remain free of foreign dis - putes and conflict. A high tariff on imported goods, enacted in 1930 and remaining through - out the decade, insulated consumers from foreign markets. A series of Neutrality Acts issued in 1935 and 1937 forbade American travel on belligerents’ ships and outlawed the sale of arms or any war-related implements to countries at war (Doenecke & Stoler, 2005). Con - gress hoped that these measures would allow Americans freedom of the seas and help avoid involvement in European conflicts.

For ethnic Americans, and especially recent immigrants, perspectives on world events varied.

Some Italian Americans and German Americans celebrated the growing patterns of national - ist pride in their homelands but were concerned by the rise of Fascist dictators at the heads of those movements. Vilified for their ethnicity during World War I, Germans had largely assimilated into the dominant U.S. culture by 1940, but they looked on with interest as events unfolded in Europe. More recent arrivals, Italians often found their loyalties divided. Irish Americans tended to maintain an anti-British stance (Jeffries, 1996).

For some Americans already obsessed with a fear of communism, the rise of Hitler in Germany offered a potential counterpoint to the Soviet Union. Few could have predicted the scope of the global conflict to come (see Figure 9.1). Figure 9.1: European Axis and Allied Powers World War II alliances formed around the Allies and the Axis Powers, and the United States became an important part of the Allies after Pearl Harbor. SOVIET UNION GERMANY AUSTRIA POLAND FRANCE UNITEDKINGDOM NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND SPAIN ALGERIA TUNISIA ITALY PORTUGAL TURKEY ROMANIA YUGOSLAVIA HUNGARY SLOVAKIA SWITZ. IRELAND DENMARK GREECE CYPRUS ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA EASTPRUSSIA BELGIUM NETHER- LANDS LUX. SYRIA IRAQ IRAN LEBANONPALESTINE BULGARIA ALBANIA MOROCCO SPANISHMOROCCO Black Sea Caspian Sea ATLANTIC OCEAN North Sea Mediterranean Sea Allies-aligned Axis-aligned Neutral Baltic Sea bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 276 1/9/15 9:34 AM SOVIET UNION GERMANY AUSTRIA POLAND FRANCE UNITEDKINGDOM NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND SPAIN ALGERIA TUNISIA ITALY PORTUGAL TURKEY ROMANIA YUGOSLAVIA HUNGARY SLOVAKIA SWITZ. IRELAND DENMARK GREECE CYPRUS ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA EASTPRUSSIA BELGIUM NETHER- LANDS LUX. SYRIA IRAQ IRAN LEBANONPALESTINE BULGARIA ALBANIA MOROCCO SPANISHMOROCCO Black Sea Caspian Sea ATLANTIC OCEAN North Sea Mediterranean Sea Allies-aligned Axis-aligned Neutral Baltic Sea Section 9.1 The Road to War The British fought back, with RAF planes shooting numerous German flyers from the skies.

Especially in cities, RAF radar and a successful air raid warning system allowed civilians to take cover, significantly reducing casualties. Nevertheless, as many as 40,000 civilians died.

The full campaign persisted until the end of October, with the RAF significantly reducing the German air force, or Luftwaffe, but some raids continued into the next spring.

For ethnic Americans, and especially recent immigrants, perspectives on world events varied.

For some Americans already obsessed with a fear of communism, the rise of Hitler in Germany offered a potential counterpoint to the Soviet Union. Few could have predicted the scope of the global conflict to come (see Figure 9.1). Figure 9.1: European Axis and Allied Powers World War II alliances formed around the Allies and the Axis Powers, and the United States became an important part of the Allies after Pearl Harbor. SOVIET UNION GERMANY AUSTRIA POLAND FRANCE UNITEDKINGDOM NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND SPAIN ALGERIA TUNISIA ITALY PORTUGAL TURKEY ROMANIA YUGOSLAVIA HUNGARY SLOVAKIA SWITZ. IRELAND DENMARK GREECE CYPRUS ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA EASTPRUSSIA BELGIUM NETHER- LANDS LUX. SYRIA IRAQ IRAN LEBANONPALESTINE BULGARIA ALBANIA MOROCCO SPANISHMOROCCO Black Sea Caspian Sea ATLANTIC OCEAN North Sea Mediterranean Sea Allies-aligned Axis-aligned Neutral Baltic Sea As war broke out in Asia and Europe, the United States struggled to remain isolated from it and renewed the Neutrality Acts in an attempt to avoid the escalating conflict. Although as many as 90% of Americans supported isolationism in 1937, that support declined each time Hitler took an aggressive step in Europe. Signaling a wavering of America’s neutral stance, in 1939 Congress approved the sale of arms to Britain on a “cash and carry” basis. Credit was not to be extended, and any war materials purchased had to be transported on British ships. Pop - ular opinion changed even more abruptly following the surrender of France in 1940, which left Britain to wage war against Germany alone. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 277 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.1 The Road to War Amid the turmoil abroad, the U.S. presidential election of 1940 approached. Breaking with a tradition established by George Washington, Roosevelt became the first president in history to seek a third term in office. Besides citing the nation’s economic concerns, he argued that the international situation was too delicate to risk a leadership change.

The Republican Party nominated New York businessman Wendell Wilkie to challenge Roosevelt. Wilkie’s campaign pointed out that Roosevelt failed to bring the nation out of the Depression and was walking the United States close to involvement in international conflict, but the nation was not ready for change during such tumultuous times. Although Wilkie found some support in the Midwest, Roosevelt was easily reelected with nearly 55% of the popular vote and a landslide in the Electoral College, 449 to 82.

Following the election, Roosevelt asked Congress for $1 billion in additional defense fund - ing. He also pledged 50 decommissioned U.S. Navy destroyers to new British prime minister Winston Churchill. At Roosevelt’s urging, Congress passed the Lend–Lease Act , which autho - rized military aid to various countries and assumed they would somehow be able to repay the costs at a later date. Although his presidential campaign had promised to keep the United States out of the foreign conflict, this military buildup and support for the Allies was in direct contradiction to the Neutrality Acts. The last of those acts, passed in 1939, had allowed the United States to provide arms to the Allies, but only on a cash and carry basis.

Under the Lend–Lease program, billions of dollars’ worth of arms were sent to Britain and China, and eventually the Soviet Union when Hitler renounced his nonaggression pact with that nation. America, in Roosevelt’s words, had become the “great arsenal of democracy.” As late as January 1941 the president still hoped to keep America out of war. But in his annual address to Congress, he outlined Four Freedoms that people all around the world should enjoy: freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear (Jones, 2009). He argued that threats to other democracies created a threat to U.S. freedom and democracy, and he broke with isolationists by arguing that the United States needed to provide support for the Allies.

Among those allies under immediate threat were the Chinese. The Japanese invasion of Indochina in September 1940 cut off arms supplies to the Chinese army and made the Asian situation critical. Roosevelt responded by freezing Japanese financial assets in the United States and halting trade, including the all-important shipment of American oil. In order to protect its assets in the Pacific, including Hawaii and the Philippines, from Japanese encroach - ment, the United States began to manage the Asia situation carefully.

Animosity against the Japanese was linked to more than that nation’s aggressive actions against the Chinese. In 1937 a Japanese attack on a U.S. naval vessel, the Panay , while it was protecting American interests and property along the Yangtze River in China increased ten - sions between the nations. Although the Japanese claimed the incident was a mistake, it served to turn U.S. public opinion against Japan.

Pearl Harbor On December 7, 1941, the Japanese responded to increasing tensions between the nations by bombing the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, aiming to destroy the U.S. Pacific Fleet bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 278 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front before the Americans could consider striking Japan. Early that Sunday morning, Mitsuo Fuchida, the flight commander of a Japanese Zero airplane, approached Pearl Harbor and radioed “Tora! Tora! Tora!” (as cited in McNeese, 2010a, p. 11), which signaled that the Japa - nese air force had successfully approached the American island undetected (the word tora means “tiger”). Over the course of the next 2 hours, hundreds of Japanese planes, including torpedo bombers, dive bombers, fighters, and horizontal bombers, targeted the U.S. Pacific Fleet headquartered there.

The surprise attack sank or destroyed 21 important ships and killed more than 2,400 Americans. Japan lost just 29 aircraft. Within hours of the bomb - ing of Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attacked U.S. holdings in the Philip - pines, marking a second assault on American military forces. Later that same day, Japan continued its assault with attacks on Guam, Midway, and Hong Kong (Lord, 2001).

By a margin of 477 to 1, Congress approved a declaration of war on Japan on December 8, 1941, formally enter - ing World War II. Only pacifist Jeanette Rankin (the only woman in the Con - gress) voted no. Three days later, on December 11, the other two Axis Pow - ers, Germany and Italy, declared war against the United States (James & Wells, 1995). U.S. isolation was laid to rest, and the nation put its energies and its military might alongside the Allied Powers of Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union.

9.2 The Home Front In the days following the attack on Pearl Harbor, many Americans feared the Axis Powers would attack the U.S. mainland. After declaring war on the United States, Hitler sent German submarines, known as U-boats, to patrol along the Atlantic coast. For months U.S. pilots tried to demolish them, but the submarines destroyed a number of American ships, threatening to disrupt the transport of war materials to Europe. By mid-1943 the U.S. Navy ended the sub - marine threat, but many still worried that the war that besieged Europe would soon overrun the United States. Fears that the Japanese might attack on the Pacific coast also persisted.

Another fear was sabotage from within. Military forces were placed on high alert, and gov - ernment buildings, defense factories, and even important bridges were placed under guard.

Machine guns were attached to the White House roof and placed on other prominent build - ings in New York and other cities. The nation turned toward mobilizing both the military and civilian forces needed to participate in the largest war in human history, though to much relief domestic threats failed to materialize (James & Wells, 1995). Library of Congress/SuperStock The battleships USS West Virginia (foreground) and USS Tennessee sit low in the water and burn after the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 279 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front Mobilizing for War World War II was not just a military effort. The war also changed the lives of every American at home. The United States had no organized civil defense system, and although some indus - tries had converted to producing weapons and other materials for the Allies, the scope of mobilization required to participate in the growing global conflict was staggering. Full coop - eration from the nation’s citizens was critical to the mobilization of industry and to the reor - ganization of many aspects of the economy and society.

Americans were urged to do their part by rationing products and commodities essential to the war effort or made scarce due to the conflict. Gasoline and rubber tires were among the first products to be rationed, with a 35-mile-per-hour speed limit imposed to conserve fuel. By mid-1942 food staples and especially sugar were subject to government ration, and government-issued ration books tracked consumers’ purchases of important commodities.

Coffee came under ration after German U-boat attacks disturbed shipments from Brazil, and other foods such as butter, oils, cheese, and meat came under ration plans to reserve supplies to feed military personnel. Silk, used in crafting parachutes, became almost impossible to obtain, as did nylon for women’s stockings, and new leather shoes came under ration. Local ration boards distributed the ration books, which contained stamps exchangeable for a cer - tain commodity. For many commodities, such as coffee and sugar, consumers received equal ration coupons. For others, such as tires and automobiles, consumers had to make application and prove their need to make the purchase.

Dollar-a-Year-Men Mobilizing the economy for wartime production effectively ended the Great Depression by providing needed jobs. Roosevelt created a new agency, the War Production Board , in Janu - ary 1942 to coordinate retooling and production across multiple industries. Former Sears, Roebuck & Company executive Donald Nelson was tapped to head the agency, whose tasks included converting automobile factories to tank manufacturing and convincing industrial - ists such as Henry Ford to build more than 1,000 B-24 bombers (Eiler, 1997).

Businesses were offered incentives to participate in the war effort; the federal government funded development and production costs, and industries received a guaranteed profit on the tanks, airplanes, and arms they produced. The war greatly enhanced the power of the big businesses that drove the wartime production and also swelled the government’s involve - ment in the economy. Most government spending went to war production industries. Federal employees also grew from 1 million to 4 million during the war’s duration.

Much of the mobilization effort concentrated on securing essential wartime materials, often from the American people. This included scrap metal, with collections of cans and razor blades to forge war equipment, and women’s silk and nylon hosiery, which was used to make parachutes and rope, but one of the most important materials in the war was rubber. Used primarily for tires and tank treads, rubber was in short supply during the war because the Japanese cut off supplies from the Dutch East Indies. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 280 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front A typical rubber drive occurred in Dayton, Ohio, in May 1942. Local gas and service sta - tions supplied 75,000 pounds of old tires, and Dayton mayor Frank M. Krebs contributed his garden hose. Several schoolchildren scoured the county collecting old automobile belts and car floor mats. A local shoe repair shop turned in its supply of rubber heels for the soles of shoes (Dayton History Books Online, 2000).

Nelson drew on other experienced executives to head various segments of war produc - tion. Called dollar-a-year men because they agreed to run various agencies or industries for this token salary, many remained on the payroll of their prewar companies but over - saw conversion to war production. The number of these executives ranged from 310 in 1942 to more than 800 by the war’s end. The expert technical and business knowledge of the executives was essential to the smooth operations of wartime industries, but some questioned their motives, claiming that their real interest lay in making a personal profit (Klein, 2013).

Labor and the War If the war was good for business, it was equally good for workers. During the conflict incomes soared, especially for those engaged in work related to war production. In some cases the boost in earnings were sufficient to pull families into the middle class. Another important innovation at work was the introduction of employer-paid health insurance plans, although in some cases those benefits were provided in lieu of monetary raises.

The surge in work and the return to employment brought a massive influx of new members into labor unions, including the AFL and the CIO. In 1942 the Roosevelt administration estab - lished the National War Labor Board (NWLB), a resurrection of the organization that had managed the nation’s labor force in World War I. Composed of business executives and labor leaders, the NWLB was authorized to mediate labor disputes and establish labor policies for the duration of the conflict.

In exchange for a no-strike pledge by employees, the NWLB negotiated settlements with employers who continued to fight against unionization drives in industries such as steel and auto production. This government settlement finally brought union protection to workers in resistant segments of those industries. During the war, union membership surged to its highest level in history, with more than 15 million American workers protected by collective bargaining in 1945 (Lichtenstein, 2010).

In spite of the no-strike pledge, industries still faced a number of work stoppages. Wage stag - nation in the face of expanding profits for war industries led some workers to walk off the job.

Eventually, Roosevelt empowered the NWLB to control wages and prices, making it a power - ful part of the wartime administration and ensuring continued production (Kersten, 2006).

An important component of the workforce during the war was the migration of men and women for employment. Millions of people moved for work opportunities that developed bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 281 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front during the war. War industries located production in urban areas, such as Detroit, where auto plants retooled to manufacture vehicles, airplanes, and armaments.

Among those migrating for work were African Americans from southern states. An estimated 60,000 African Americans moved to Detroit between 1940 and 1946, approximately dou - bling the number of African Americans in that city’s workforce. In Chicago, another city with important wartime industries, a similar influx of 60,000 African Americans swelled the work - force between the attack on Pearl Harbor and mid-1944 (Atleson, 1998). Rural White men also funneled into wartime industries, but in fewer numbers because many were drafted or joined the military and because increasing demands on the farm economy allowed many to be exempted from the draft so long as they worked in farming.

Women at Work and War Women also participated in the migration. Massive numbers of women worked in industries from which they were previously excluded because of their gender. Rosie the Riveter symbol - ized this new, hardworking, industrial American woman. She was fictional but represented the ideal government worker, including being loyal, efficient, and patriotic. Despite the tough - ness she displayed, the sight of a feminine, pretty woman taking on industrial work inspired many young women who were eager to help out in the war effort.

The reality of wartime work was anything but glamorous. Ethel Jerred of Ottumwa, Iowa, applied for a job in a local meatpacking plant while her husband was at war. The plant offered her a choice: a traditional women’s position that paid 59 cents an hour, or 72 or more cents for a job in the men’s departments of kill and cut, fresh meat packing, or meat wrapping. She took a job on the men’s floor and recalled, “My first check was sixty-two dollars, and I thought I was wealthy. That was the most money I’d ever made in one week” (as cited in Stromquist, 1993, p. 127).

Most women war workers were like Margarita Salazar McSweyn and Ethel Jerred. They were patriotic Americans who sought both to improve their eco - nomic status and serve their country.

Many resented the loss of their higher wages at the conflict’s conclusion, when they were expected to return to lower paying “women’s work.” Those who continued to work after the war usually did so out of economic need.

Many sought positions using their war - time training, but women were almost universally excluded from skilled indus - trial trades after 1946. The postwar jobs available to women tended to be in cleri - cal or sales work and paid on average 43% to 52% less than industrial work (Kesselman, 1990). Underwood Photo Archives/SuperStock Women who worked in industrial jobs usually performed by men were paid as much as 50% more than those who remained in clerical or sales positions, and many hoped to hang on to those higher paying positions after the war. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 282 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front Women also served in the military as nurses and pilots, and in other noncombat military positions. For the duration of the conflict, as many as 400,000 women served in military or associated positions. Among the women’s units were nurse corps of the army and navy, the Women’s Army Corps (WAC), and navy corps known as WAVES. The marines and coast guard also had women’s reserve units. Another group, Women Airforce Service Pilots flew impor - tant noncombat missions but were not formally enlisted in the military (Cole, 1995). Outside the military, women also held important positions with the American Red Cross and Civil Air Patrol.

African American women were among those enlisting in the WACs, and more than 6,200 served. They received separate training and lived in segregated housing but served in many of the same roles as White women. Female African American officers trained alongside their White counterparts, and by late 1943 training programs for other specialist positions were also integrated, but housing remained segregated. The army nurse corps also saw more than 500 African American women serve in both the U.S. and European theater. The navy retained a ban on African American women’s enlistment until late 1944, but by the end of the conflict African American women also served in the WAVES and the navy nurse corps (Honey, 1999).

The involvement of women in the military during World War II formed a major turning point in female military service. Their enlistments were “for the duration” plus 6 months to help ease the transition of returning veterans at the war’s end. Mary Hamilton of Mannington, West Virginia, enlisted as a nurse in the WAC soon after finishing her nurse training in 1945.

Sent to the European theater, in Germany she tended to the needs of servicemen and service - women returning from the field. She remained in service in Europe for a year beyond the war’s conclusion.

Although some were hesitant to accept women in military roles, women’s willingness to vol - unteer helped ease pressure on the dwindling numbers of men available for the draft. Women served bravely in almost every noncombat role by the end of the war.

The Draft In September 1940, more than a year before the United States entered the war, Congress enacted the first peacetime draft. German aggression and growing victories in Europe and the Luftwaffe’s continued air bombing of Great Britain made preparations for the nation’s defense wise, even if the United States managed to remain neutral. Within a month of its enactment, 16 million men aged 21 to 35 registered for the Selective Service. Seeking only 900,000 recruits in the first round of drafts, Selective Service officials imposed qualifica - tions on military service. African Americans were initially excluded from the marines and army air corps. On the advice of psychiatrists, homosexuals were also disqualified. Eventually 2.5 million African Americans did register for the draft and were subject to conscription into segregated units.

Once the United States entered the war, the military became less concerned with disqualifying large groups of Americans. Between 1939 and 1945 more than 17 million men and women served in the armed services. Of the men serving, 61% were draftees. White men formed the largest number of service members, but other groups made important contributions. More bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 283 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front than 901,000 African Americans and significant numbers of Mexican Americans, women, Chinese Americans, Japanese Americans, and Native Americans also served (see Table 9.1) (Berube, 2010).

Table 9.1: Male military service divided by ethnicity Ethnicity Number of soldiers Hawaiian 1,320 Filipino American 11,506 Chinese American 13,311 Native American 20,000 Japanese American 33,000 Puerto Rican* 51,438 African American 901,896 *Other Latino numbers cannot be discerned since they were not counted separately by ethnicity or segregated in units.

Source: National WWII Museum, n.d.

Patriotic Dilemmas and Military Service Americans of various ethnic groups contributed importantly to the Allied war effort, even when that service came in racially segregated units. Some ethnic minorities were drafted, but many volunteered for service in the military or in programs that aided the war effort. Most faced further discrimination and were initially assigned to menial tasks instead of combat roles. Some, such as Japanese Americans, faced a true patriotic dilemma when thousands of their fellow citizens as well as recent immigrants were interned for fear they were disloyal.

African American Military Service African American military participation was limited to 10% of military enrollment, but their eventual enlistment of just over 900,000 was a bit short of that number. The African Ameri - cans who served in the war were segregated into African American units led by White offi - cers. African American soldiers were also more likely to be in service branches, such as the quartermaster, engineer, and transportation corps.

African Americans joined for patriotic reasons, but also used the war to press for equal rights.

These included military rights equal to those afforded to White soldiers and access to jobs that had formerly been for “Whites only.” Roy Wilkins, the editor of the NAACP’s Crisis maga - zine, explained the issue like this: “This is no fight merely to wear a uniform. This is a struggle for status, a struggle to take democracy off of parchment [the Constitution] and give it life” (Wilkins, 1940, p. 375). Everett Collection/SuperStock The Tuskegee Airmen were an all– African American unit that was crucial to winning the war in Europe. Here a fighter pilot and two airmen make repairs to a P-51D Mustang. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 284 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front African American officers called their goal the Double V—or double victory against fascism abroad and racism at home (James, 2013). For example, on April 12, 1945, the same day that Roosevelt died, the U.S. Army took 101 African American officers into custody for directly refusing an order from a superior officer. This was a serious charge because, if convicted, they could face the death penalty, but a compromise was eventually reached and the charges were dropped. The violation stemmed from their refusal to sign orders to accept segregated housing and rec - reational facilities. Their protest was one of the final events that pushed toward the desegregation of the U.S. military, although that did not formally occur until 1948.

Like American women in the war, African Ameri - cans also took advantage of new opportunities.

One of the best examples was the African Ameri - can pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group, the famed Tuskegee Airmen , and the same officers arrested in the segregated housing protest. In total, Tuske - gee Airmen flew 15,000 sorties and shot down more than 200 German aircraft (Moye, 2010).

However, while these men were willing to die for their country, they were not eligible for many military honors for their service. Though many deserved it, no African American received the Medal of Honor, the highest military award for bravery. President Bill Clinton corrected this error 50 years later, bestowing the medal on seven Afri - can Americans who served in the war, but just one, Vernon Baker, was still alive (Latty & Tarver, 2004).

The most highly decorated African American at the time of the conflict was Doris “Dorie” Miller, a Navy cook aboard the USS West Virginia on the morning of the attack at Pearl Harbor. For brave actions during and after the attack, he was awarded the Navy Cross in 1942.

Native Americans in Service Native Americans contributed much to the American war effort, with 20,000 serving in the military, many as volunteers. Several hundred Native American women served in WAC and WAVES units. Most famously, Native American soldiers from the Navajo tribe employed their unique language to send military messages that the Japanese could not decode. Others, both men and women, left the relative poverty of the reservation for high-paying industrial jobs in war industries. Most who left the reservation never returned.

Unlike African Americans, Native Americans were not drafted into segregated units. The war provided a chance for them to mingle with Whites of varying backgrounds and to learn job skills that would be important in the postwar era. Service also made them eligible for veter - ans’ benefits, including funding for school tuition and government-assured mortgage loans. than 901,000 African Americans and significant numbers of Mexican Americans, women, Chinese Americans, Japanese Americans, and Native Americans also served (see Table 9.1) (Berube, 2010).

Source: National WWII Museum, n.d.

African Americans joined for patriotic reasons, but also used the war to press for equal rights.

These included military rights equal to those afforded to White soldiers and access to jobs that had formerly been for “Whites only.” Roy Wilkins, the editor of the NAACP’s Crisis maga - zine, explained the issue like this: “This is no fight merely to wear a uniform. This is a struggle for status, a struggle to take democracy off of parchment [the Constitution] and give it life” (Wilkins, 1940, p. 375). Everett Collection/SuperStock The Tuskegee Airmen were an all– African American unit that was crucial to winning the war in Europe. Here a fighter pilot and two airmen make repairs to a P-51D Mustang. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 285 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front The Bracero Program As millions of men and some women entered the military, the remaining workforce was not enough to meet the growing demand for labor. The push for women to leave their homes or current jobs to work in war industries was only one way to meet the need. In June 1942 the United States entered into an agreement with Mexico to enable temporary laborers, known as braceros , to work in America. The first arrived in Stockton, California, where they worked in beet fields, but the program soon grew to include multiple states.

Braceros worked largely in agriculture and in the southwestern states, but at harvest time they traveled to the Northeast and Midwest. During the course of the war more than 200,000 Mexican workers labored on farms in 24 states. Their labor became so integral to the harvest season in many states that the United States extended the program beyond the war years and established a pattern of Latino workers coming northward to labor for part of the year while retaining ethnic and economic ties with their homeland (Calavita, 1992).

The bracero program was fraught with problems, and many migrant workers suffered at the hands of American employers. They worked exceedingly long days in the hot sun and were provided substandard housing. Under the program a portion of their pay was also deducted and sent to the Mexican government, to be given to them upon return to Mexico. In some cases workers were not paid fully for their labor. Finally, after two lawsuits, in 2008 American courts granted surviving braceros or their heirs $3,500 each to compensate for their mon - etary loss during the war.

Despite the problems with the program, the temporary legal status granted to migrant work - ers gave them a taste of American freedom and instilled a desire for the better life that seemed possible north of the border. Thousands of braceros remained beyond the expiration of their legal contract and became undocumented immigrants among a growing Latino community in the Southwest. Growing patterns of chain migration created networks of communication about higher wages and better jobs available in the United States. Many were encouraged to migrate northward even without benefit of documentation, creating increasing incidences of undocumented immigration across the southern border of the United States (Barkan, 1996).

Japanese American Internment The ethnic group most affected by the nation’s involvement in World War II was the Japanese.

The American response to the attack on Pearl Harbor raised questions about the nation’s commitment to freedom for its citizens, especially those of Japanese descent. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 , which provided for the internment of Japanese immigrants and Japanese American citizens. The government removed more than 100,000 immigrants and American citizens of Japanese descent (two thirds of them were American citizens) from their homes on the West Coast and incarcerated them in intern - ment camps with very poor living conditions. Their businesses and personal property were confiscated.

The sad irony was that an American president committed to humanitarian ideals and a war for democracy imprisoned Americans simply because of their family heritage. Yet the large concentration of Japanese on the West Coast fostered fears that in the event of a Japanese invasion, these American citizens and immigrants would aid the enemy. Some of Roosevelt’s bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 286 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front closest advisors, including Lt. Gen. John DeWitt, who was in charge of West Coast defenses, pushed him to detain the Japanese, arguing that even though many were second- and even third-generation Americans, racial and ethnic ties could run deeper than their patriotic com - mitment to the United States.

Those incarcerated were only allowed to take whatever possessions they could carry and were given no legal recourse to protest their removal. At the vari - ous camps, armed guards and barbed wire prevented their escape (Robin - son, 2001). Some refused deportation, including Fred Korematsu, a Japanese American who worked as a welder in a war production plant in Northern Cali - fornia. Korematsu resisted the order to report for detention but was even - tually arrested. He and several other Japanese Americans brought legal suit against the government, with conflict - ing results. Two important cases illus - trate the conflict between support for civil liberties and the nation’s need to defend against potential alien enemies.

Represented by the ACLU, Koremat - su’s case eventually reached the U.S.

Supreme Court, but in December 1944, in the case of Korematsu v. United States , the court upheld the constitutionality of Japanese internment, claiming that the need to protect against espionage was more important than individual citizens’ rights and that internment of a group designated as such a threat was legal.

On the same day, however, in the case of Ex parte Endo , the Supreme Court declared Executive Order 9066 unconstitutional and held that an American citizen, no matter whether native born or naturalized, could not be interned without due process and that internment could not be used against any group of people en masse. In January 1945 those imprisoned were allowed to leave the camps. In the 1960s Japanese Americans began a redress movement seeking an official apology and reparations for their internment during the war. Legal and civil actions spanned several decades, but finally in 1992 congressional appropriations pro - vided for $20,000 to each of the 82,210 internees or their heirs.

Ironically, Japanese Americans played a heroic part in the war, especially the 18,000 who served in the all-Japanese-American 442nd Regimental Combat Team and the 100th Infan - try Battalion. The participation of Japanese Americans in the American fighting force further illustrates the conflicting ways that Japanese Americans were treated during the war. They fought in seven major campaigns in North Africa and Europe and were among the first to lib - erate Jewish prisoners from the concentration camp at Dachau in southern Germany. © Corbis The government questioned the loyalty of those of Japanese descent after the attack on Pearl Harbor.

Japanese immigrants and naturalized Japanese American citizens had their property and businesses confiscated and were confined in internment camps. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 287 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.2 The Home Front American Experience: The Zoot Suit Riots of 1943 During World War II in cities across the United States, young men displayed a new fashion trend, the zoot suit.

The outfits consisted of a broad-rimmed or pork-pie hat and baggy pants that draped and ballooned at the knee but tapered tightly at the ankle. Jackets were oversized and sometimes displayed a f lashy gold or silver watch chain. This cultural phenomenon was especially popular among African American and Mexican American youth.

In Los Angeles, California, which had the nation’s larg - est Mexican American population, zoot suiters tended to be Latino men who called themselves pachucos. Like any oppositional youth culture, zoot suiters were viewed suspiciously, especially in the context of the war and because of their race. Their extravagant st yle and obvious value for leisure led some to question their commitment to the war effort, or even to America.

Others believed them to be linked to a criminal element or dangerous activit y (Alvarez, 2008).

Tensions escalated in 1943 when a conf lict erupted between Anglo American sailors and marines stationed in Los Angeles and a group of Latino youth wearing zoot suits. Although thousands of Mexican Americans served in the U.S. military, the sight of young men clearly enjoying a leisurely evening angered the sailors and marines. An incident between a seaman and Latino youth, who believed the sailors insulted a Mexican American woman, erupted into group violence on May 30. Four days later another conf lict resulted in a full- scale battle in the streets of Los Angeles as taxicab loads of sailors and marines motored into Latino neighborhoods.

Over the next few days, servicemen attacked any boys or men wearing zoot suits, often rip - ping the fancy clothing from their bodies. Police were ordered to follow the servicemen but not to make any arrests of men in uniform. Meanwhile, more than 500 zoot suiters were arrested on charges ranging from rioting to assault.

As the riots ended, the public condemned the military and the police for failing to stop the violence. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt commented: The question goes deeper than just suits. It is a racial protest. I have been worried for a long time about the Mexican racial situation. It is a problem with roots going a long way back, and we do not always face these problems as we should. (as cited in Valdez, 1992) But the official response denied that race was a factor in the riots. Los Angeles mayor Fletcher Brown recorded the riot’s official cause as the actions of Latino “ juvenile delin - quents” and servicemen from the southern states.

For further reading, see:

Alvarez, L. (2008). The power of the zoot: Youth culture and resistance during World War II . Berkeley: University of California Press. Valdez, L. (1992). Zoot suit and other plays. Houston: Arte Publico Press. Everett Collection/SuperStock The zoot suit, which used more fabric than recommended by wartime rationing, caused some to question the patriotism of those who wore them. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 288 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.3 Over There 9.3 Over There The United States entered the war on two fronts simultaneously. In Europe, where the Soviet Union had shouldered most of the fighting since 1941 and faced heavy casualties, the Allies were glad to see American ground troops and air fighters. In the Pacific, Japanese incur - sions into Indochina, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand (Siam), and Indonesia (Dutch East Indies) proved a challenge to U.S. military might. Although the United States was the world’s domi - nant industrial power and the manufacturer of the latest and best military equipment and armaments, World War II raged on for 3 1⁄2 years after America entered the conflict. War in Europe The Allied Powers included America and her strong partner Great Britain, a weaker France (most of which had fallen to the Germans in 1940), and the Soviet Union, with which the United States had a strained relationship at best. Joseph Stalin had wielded dictatorial power ever since he became the Communist leader following Vladimir Lenin’s death in 1924, and the fundamental divide between democracy and communism made Roosevelt and Stalin—and the United States and USSR—an unlikely pairing.

However, a common enemy in Hitler bound the nations together. It was clear that both the American and British leaders saw the Soviet Union as an undesirable ally, but Roosevelt and Churchill saw Hitler as something far worse. As British prime minister Winston Churchill said, “If Hitler invaded Hell I would make at least a favorable reference to the Devil” (as cited in Miscamble, 2007, p. 51).

There were important disagreements between the allies over the way the war should be fought. In early 1942, shortly after the United States entered the war, Stalin agitated for Amer - ican forces to open a second front in the West. One observer said that Soviet foreign minister V. M. Molotov knew only four English words: “yes,” “no,” and “second front” (LaFeber, 1997).

Though the location and time to open a second front became a major source of disagreement between the American and British leaders, Churchill and Roosevelt eventually agreed on a plan for American troops to attack first in northern Africa and southern Europe.

Meanwhile, the German army invaded the Soviet Union, and Soviet troops languished in Stal - ingrad in the southwestern region of the Soviet Union during the winter of 1942–1943. The Soviets, fighting without much additional Allied support, held on to this vital city during the protracted Battle of Stalingrad that began in August 1943 and raged for 4 1⁄2 months. If Stal - ingrad were lost, the entire Soviet Union might have toppled.

After months of heavy fighting, the Axis forces finally exhausted their supplies and available supply lines and surrendered to the Soviets’ Red Army on February 2, 1943. It was a battle won at great cost; Stalin lost a half million soldiers and Germany lost 300,000. Some felt that Britain and the United States were letting their two enemies weaken each other, and this dis - content and distrust would be a contributing factor to the coming Cold War. As early as 1941, then senator Harry S. Truman had warned, “If we see that Germany is winning the war, we ought to help Russia; and if that Russia is winning, we ought to help Germany, and in that way let them kill as many as possible” (as cited in Patterson, 1988, p. 8). This strategy lent cred - ibility to Soviet mistrust and concern that the United States and Britain purposely avoided opening a second European front. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 289 1/9/15 9:34 AM SOVIET UNION GERMANY FRANCE ITALY BELGIUM Black Sea Caspian Sea ATLANTIC OCEAN North Sea Allies-aligned Axis-aligned Neutral Major Battle Baltic Sea D-Day (Normandy Landing) (June 6, 1944) Battle of the Bulge(Dec 16, 1944– Jan 25, 1945) St. Tropez (Operation Dragoon)(Aug 15–Sept 14, 1944) Anzio (Jan 22–June 5, 1944) Salerno (Sept 3–16, 1943) Kursk (July 5–16 and July 12-23, 1943) Section 9.3 Over There In North Africa, U.S. general Dwight D. Eisenhower launched a pincer strategy, with the British army pushing from the east and the Americans from the west. These were the giant pincers, and German forces were caught in the middle. In May 1943 Germany surrendered more than a quarter million troops and all of North Africa to the Allies. After this campaign, U.S. general George S. Patton successfully led an amphibious assault on Sicily, and Mussolini fled Italy (see Figure 9.2). German troops descended on Italy to keep it out of Allied hands, but the Allies managed to liberate the nation on April 24, 1945. However, World War II was still far from over.

Figure 9.2: Major battles in Europe This map shows the major battles of the war, and illustrates how widespread the conflict was. SOVIET UNION GERMANY FRANCE ITALY BELGIUM Black Sea Caspian Sea ATLANTIC OCEAN North Sea Allies-aligned Axis-aligned Neutral Major Battle Baltic Sea D-Day (Normandy Landing) (June 6, 1944) Battle of the Bulge(Dec 16, 1944– Jan 25, 1945) St. Tropez (Operation Dragoon)(Aug 15–Sept 14, 1944) Anzio (Jan 22–June 5, 1944) Salerno (Sept 3–16, 1943) Kursk (July 5–16 and July 12-23, 1943) bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 290 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.3 Over There D-Day Throughout the war, the U.S. Army Air Force and British Royal Air Force sent units, known as sorties, to engage in strategic bombing against Germany. The first notable Allied bomb - ing attack came in May 1942, when the RAF sent 1,046 planes to target factories, homes, and stores in Cologne, Germany. This Thousand Bomber raid killed several hundred and left 45,000 homeless. The bombing of Cologne and the other similar operations that fol - lowed were horrific attacks that, even though purported to be strategic, left thousands of civilians dead.

Meanwhile, military commanders planned a daring attack across the English Channel. D-Day , on June 6, 1944, was the largest amphibious assault ever attempted in the history of war - fare. German leaders were prepared for the Allies to strike at the narrowest portion of the Channel, but the allies surprised them by selecting the beaches farther south at Normandy, France, instead.

Coordinating the efforts of more than 150,000 soldiers was a massive undertaking. Eisen - hower, who commanded the mission, was not certain such a large, synchronized effort would succeed, and he prepared a press release to be issued should the mission fail. In it he pre - dicted that he had a 50% chance of success: “My decision to attack at this time and place was based upon the best information available. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone” (as cited in O’Neill, 1997, p. 346).

Allied forces landed and established five beachheads along the Normandy coast, with the Americans landing at positions known as Omaha and Utah beaches. It was a difficult bat - tle with massive casualties. At least 10,000 Allied troops fell, and German troops suffered between 4,000 and 9,000 casualties.

V-E Day In succeeding weeks more than a million Allied troops followed the initial invaders on shore.

Once troops amassed, the Allies began their slow march toward the German capital at Berlin.

Opening up a crucial second Western Front, the Allied troops began taking substantial num - bers of Axis prisoners. Two months later, in late August, Allied forces liberated France from Nazi control.

The Allies followed the land war with new bombing attacks targeting civilian populations in cities such as Dresden, Germany, in February 1945. They argued that the important mili - tary advantage they offered in crippling the Axis war effort and destroying transportation lines overcame the humanitarian objections to killing as many as 25,000 people in a series of bombings that was so aggressive, much of the city center erupted into a firestorm. To support - ers, such acts achieved the desired effect: On April 30, 1945, just 2 months after the Dresden attack, Hitler committed suicide in a Berlin bunker. That same month an army air force histo - rian visited a Nazi death camp at Buchenwald. After seeing the bones from the crematorium and the Jewish inmates who suffered from typhoid, he said, “Here is the antidote for qualms about strategic bombing” (as cited in Schaffer, 1985, p. xiii). Germany surrendered uncondi - tionally on May 8, 1945, on what is known as V-E Day , or Victory in Europe. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 291 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.3 Over There The Holocaust Celebrations for the Allied victory in Europe were tempered by the horrific images and reports of Nazi atrocities that emerged following the liberation of multiple concentration camps. During World War II Hitler ordered the systematic murder of 11 million men, women, and children. Six million were Jewish, but Roma (Gypsies), religious and political dissenters, homosexuals, and others also fell victim to the Holocaust . Persecution of the Jews began when Hitler came to power in 1933. Preaching about the supe - riority of Aryan Germans, Hitler used the legal system, the press, and even force to attack Jewish communities in Germany. Jews were important members of German society, with many holding posts in business, popular culture, and the intellectual community. Hitler and many Germans came to believe that Jews contributed to a modern society that challenged the nation’s traditional culture (Abzug, 1999).

Although such anti-Semitism was not new, when combined with the extreme nationalism of Hitler’s Fascist regime, it proved deadly. During the 1930s the Nazis systematically began to strip German Jews of their civil and political rights. They were forbidden to serve in the military or own land and banned from holding such occupations as lawyers, doctors, den - tists, and accountants and eventually from owning businesses. Jews were first required to obtain special identification cards, and then to wear a yellow Star of David on their coats to identify them. In November 1938, on what became known as Kristallnacht (night of broken glass), the Nazis stepped up the anti-Semitic campaign, attacking Jews, their homes, and businesses. The Nazis fined Jews for the property damages occurring on Kristall - nacht . They confiscated property and began trans - porting thousands of Jews to labor camps or con - centration camps. Many Jews sought to emigrate to the United States, but strict quotas on immigration as well as suspicion and anti-Semitism prevented the entry of most.

Once the war was underway, the Nazis began mass deportation of Jews and others considered undesir - able to concentration camps. Jews in Germany and those in all of the German-occupied territories were subject to removal. In some camps the able-bodied were put to work in slave-like conditions, but in others deportees were murdered soon after arrival.

Although reports of the atrocities reached the United States and the Allies early in the war, Roosevelt and other leaders believed the reports of mass killings to be exaggerated and did nothing. While some activists in America sought to aid Jewish refugees, U.S. immigration policies prevented their entrance. Sovfoto/UIG via Getty Images It was not until the Allied forces liberated the concentration camps that the horrors of the Holocaust became fully known. Here military doctors examine the survivors at Auschwitz. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 292 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.3 Over There Although some pressed for a relaxation of quotas, many others, fearing foreign influences, supported even stricter immigration policies. The World Jewish Congress appealed to the Allies to conduct target bombing of the camps and the railroad lines that transported victims to certain deaths but was told that resources could not be diverted (Breitman, Goda, Naftali, & Wolfe, 2005).

Soviet soldiers arrived at the death camp at Auschwitz, Poland, in January 1945 to discover that all the rumored horrors were in fact true. Unlike some concentration camps built to con - tain non-Aryan populations, camps such as Auschwitz were part of Hitler’s plan to systemati - cally murder undesirable populations. Soldiers found emaciated men and women, gas cham - bers, and pits filled with the ashes of the murdered. The liberation of this and other camps opened the world’s eyes to Hitler’s “final solution,” his plan to kill every Jew in Europe. Jour - nalists and Allied soldiers documented the horrors with cameras and written accounts. The truth about the genocide was finally known, but not before 2 out of every 3 Jews in Europe had perished (Bergen, 2003).

War in the Pacific While the United States and the Allies were engaged in a bitter struggle in Europe, U.S. forces waged an equally significant conflict against Japan in the Pacific (see Figure 9.3). Immediately after Pearl Harbor, the Japanese fleet hovered in the Indian Ocean and off the East Indies prepared to engage the American naval forces. Beginning in the spring of 1942, engagements between the United States and Japanese erupted in the central Pacific. Fleet Admiral Ches - ter William Nimitz led the naval forces, while Gen. Douglas MacArthur, still recovering from his lack of leadership at Pearl Harbor, led an island-hopping attack strategy in an attempt to return to the Philippines, which he had abandoned during the initial Japanese invasion.

In May 1942, exactly 5 months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, American and Japanese air - craft carriers engaged each other for the first time in the Battle of the Coral Sea, where the Americans stopped a Japanese fleet bound to attack Australia. Occurring 1 month later, the Battle of Midway Island (June 4–7, 1942) further damaged the Japanese navy. The Japanese lost 4 aircraft carriers, 1 cruiser, 332 aircraft, and 3,500 men. Americans lost 1 aircraft carrier, 1 destroyer, and 307 men (Gilbert, 2004).

In the wake of Midway, the United States pushed forward to win a string of impressive victo - ries in the Pacific. In June 1944 a massive American naval force attacked the Mariana Islands.

In some of the costliest fighting of the war, they captured Guam, Tinian, and Saipan. These strategically important islands were just over 1,300 miles from Tokyo. In October 1944 Gen - eral MacArthur entered the Philippines, and sporadic intense fighting saw the island nation finally liberated at the war’s end in August 1945.

Despite the victories, as the United States and the Allies pressed closer to Japan, the resis - tance intensified. The marine corps engaged in the deadliest battle in its history at Iwo Jima, which was just 750 miles from Tokyo. The battle started on February 19, 1945, as 800 Allied vessels waited offshore with 70,000 marines. Their task was to take the 8 square miles of the island that 22,000 Japanese soldiers defended in an intricate network of caves and tunnels.

The orders from the Japanese general Tadamichi Kuribayashi were to fight to the death. The battle lasted 36 days; in total, 28,000 soldiers died—6,821 of them American. Though the Americans were ultimately victorious, it was a high price to pay for victory. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 293 1/9/15 9:34 AM MarshallIslands HawaiianIslands SolomonIslands NewCaledonia NewHebrides Fi ji Aleutian Islands KurilIslands Gulf ofAlaska Sea ofJapan YellowSea SouthChinaSea Bering Strait Coral Sea East China Sea Sea ofOkhotsk NO RTH PACIFIC OCEAN Barrier Reef Great Nagasaki HongKong Hiroshima Anchorage Tokyo Shanghai JAPAN KOREA SOVIET UNION CHINA MONGOLIA BURMA AUSTRALIA DUTCH EAST INDIES THAILAND FRENCHINDOCHINA MALAYA SA RAWA K Philippine Islands Formosa Sakhalin(Karafuto) MANCHUKUO Borneo Sumatra Celebes New Guinea Guadalcanal(Aug 1942–Feb 1943) Pearl Harbor(Dec 1941) Midway Island(June 1942) Wake Island(Dec 1941) Coral Sea(May 1942) Philippine Sea(June 1944) Iwo Jima(Feb–March 1945) Okinawa(June 1942) Guam (July–Aug 1944) Maximum extent of Japanese control, 1942 Japan and Japanese controlled area, 1942 Major battle Section 9.3 Over There Even after Iwo Jima, as the American forces pressed closer to the mainland of Japan, the resistance increased. In early April until mid-June 1945, the battle for Okinawa, which was 370 miles from Tokyo, presented yet another example of the Japanese strength and resil - iency. Deadly kamikaze , or suicide planes, flew into American warships. Japan sacrificed 3,500 planes and pilots with this strategy. Napalm attacks by the United States killed thou - sands more Japanese.

Figure 9.3: Major battles in the Pacific The Japanese controlled extensive territory in the Pacific. The war in that theater included an island- hopping campaign by the U.S. Marines and U.S. Navy. MarshallIslands HawaiianIslands SolomonIslands NewCaledonia NewHebrides Fi ji Aleutian Islands KurilIslands Gulf ofAlaska Sea ofJapan YellowSea SouthChinaSea Bering Strait Coral Sea East China Sea Sea ofOkhotsk NO RTH PACIFIC OCEAN Barrier Reef Great Nagasaki HongKong Hiroshima Anchorage Tokyo Shanghai JAPAN KOREA SOVIET UNION CHINA MONGOLIA BURMA AUSTRALIA DUTCH EAST INDIES THAILAND FRENCHINDOCHINA MALAYA SA RAWA K Philippine Islands Formosa Sakhalin(Karafuto) MANCHUKUO Borneo Sumatra Celebes New Guinea Guadalcanal(Aug 1942–Feb 1943) Pearl Harbor(Dec 1941) Midway Island(June 1942) Wake Island(Dec 1941) Coral Sea(May 1942) Philippine Sea(June 1944) Iwo Jima(Feb–March 1945) Okinawa(June 1942) Guam (July–Aug 1944) Maximum extent of Japanese control, 1942 Japan and Japanese controlled area, 1942 Major battle bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 294 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.3 Over There When the battle for Okinawa was over at the end of June, the Allies had suffered more than 50,000 casualties and Japan more than 100,000. American military leaders struggled to imag - ine the death and devastation that awaited them when they eventually attacked the Japa - nese mainland. It was largely because of this fear that Okinawa became the final battle of World War II (Leckie, 1996).

Hiroshima and Nagasaki In an effort to bring the conflict in the Pacific to a close, the United States began conducting strategic bombing raids on Japan in June 1944 and intensified the attacks in the spring of 1945. The raids targeted industrial sites but also hit urban areas where manufacturing facili - ties were located. The bombings killed significant numbers of civilians, with estimates rang - ing from a quarter million to as many as 900,000.

When the air raids failed to force Japan to surrender, the United States decided to use the newest and most devastating weapon on the planet. A massive American government, industry, and academic partnership known as the Manhattan Project had operated for 3 years to create an atomic weapon. The project’s initial goal was to develop the bomb before German scientists, who appeared close to success, but when the Allies defeated Germany, the Manhattan Project continued. Scientists tested the first atomic bomb near Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945. The bright light and mushroom cloud was a remarkable sci - entific achievement that ushered in the dawn of the nuclear age and threatened a war more deadly than any known before.

The decision to use atomic weapons on Japan rested with the nation’s new president. At the end of the day on April 12, 1945, Vice President Harry S. Truman had been summoned to the White House. He expected to be greeted by FDR, but instead he was taken to Eleanor Roosevelt’s study. She simply said, “Harry . . . the President is dead” (as cited in Mis - camble, 2007, p. ix). Roosevelt’s health had been in decline for more than a year, and his opponents had tried to make the most of it during the 1944 presi - dential election. Among other concerns, he suffered from arteriosclerosis, a narrowing of the arter - ies. While visiting relatives at his cottage in Warm Springs, Georgia, he suffered a massive cerebral hemorrhage and collapsed.

Two hours after arriving at the White House, Tru - man took the oath of office. Addressing his cabinet, he told them that it was his intention to “continue both the foreign and domestic politics of the Roo - sevelt administration” (Miscamble, 2007, p. ix).

Within 4 months, Truman authorized the dropping of atomic bombs on Japan. SuperStock A 20,000-foot mushroom cloud towered above Nagasaki, Japan, following a second nuclear attack by the United States. Japan surrendered 5 days later, ending World War II. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 295 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.4 Toward a New World Order Truman knew very little about the bomb prior to becoming president. He had, in fact, only been vice president for a few weeks when Roosevelt died. In that short time Roosevelt had apparently excluded him from all discussions about the Manhattan Project and all executive branch conferences on foreign policy. With limited knowledge at hand, Truman made the cru - cial decision to use the new weapon, arguing that doing so would prevent heavy casualties that would likely occur in an invasion and land war (Donovan, 1996). The first attack hit the city of Hiroshima on August 6, and the second targeted Nagasaki 3 days later.

The acute effects of the bombing of Hiroshima killed between 90,000 and 166,000, with thou - sands dying later from the long-term effects of radiation. At Nagasaki between 60,000 and 80,000 perished. A few days later, on August 15 in the wake of the Nagasaki destruction, the emperor of Japan offered his surrender. World War II had ended.

Historians and the public have debated whether Truman should have dropped the bombs.

Historian Wilson Miscamble (2007) wrote: Those who rush to “judge” Truman’s decision to use the atomic bombs must hesitate a little so as to appreciate that had he not authorized the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, thousands of American soldiers, sailors, marines and airmen might have been added to the lists of those killed in World War II.

And, added to their number would have been the thousands of allied prisoners of war whom the Japanese planned to execute. Could an American president have survived politically and personally knowing that he might have used a weapon that could have saved their slaughter? (p. 242) Another historian, Ronald Takaki, argued that Truman’s decision was partly motivated by anti-Japanese racism. Japanese people were vilified in American media and government pro - paganda. Newspaper accounts referred to “Japs” and portrayed Japanese men as rats. Takaki (1995) claimed that Americans were more willing to accept the use of the atomic bomb in Asia because of those racist beliefs. The use of the atomic bomb also aimed to intimidate the Soviet Union, reflecting the emerging tensions of the coming Cold War. The U.S. use of the weapon demonstrated the nation’s superior military might and served to escalate the mili - tary and ideological divisions between the United States and the Soviet Union.

9.4 Toward a New World Order At the close of World War II, the world experienced a radical change in the way that inter - national power and influence was distributed. Japan and Germany, once dominant powers, were utterly defeated. Great Britain retained its status, but physical devastation from war - time bombing raids left that nation weakened. France also emerged from the conflict with an urgent need to rebuild its weakened infrastructure and industrial base. Only the United States and the Soviet Union stood strong at the end of the war. It soon became clear, however, that the United States was now the dominant world power. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 296 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.4 Toward a New World Order Planning the Postwar World In several important ways World War II shaped the postwar world, beginning when the Big Three Allied leaders—Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin—met in 1943 in Tehran, Iran, which was the first time the three of them had ever met in person. They appeared to develop a positive relationship. Roosevelt broke the ice first by teasing Churchill about his “Britishness” and his cigars. Churchill expressed feigned irritation, which seemed to please Stalin, and Roosevelt recalled, “Stalin broke out into a deep, hearty guffaw, and for the first time in three days I saw light” (as cited in Meacham, 2004, p. 265). Roosevelt eventually even referred to Stalin as “Uncle Joe.” When the meeting ended, the three had agreed to the D-Day plan that earned them victory in World War II. However, Tehran represented the high point of their relationship.

The Big Three at Yalta Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met again in February 1945 at Yalta , on the Soviet Union’s Black Sea coast. At the conference they discussed the future of Germany, Eastern Europe, and the creation of a new international coalition that eventually became the United Nations (UN) . The stakes were high, but the outcome was much different and more strained. As one histo - rian wrote, Roosevelt and Churchill called themselves the “Argonauts,” an allusion to ancient warriors who tried to steal a Golden Fleece away from a dragon that never slept. For Churchill and Roosevelt, their prize was a favorable settlement to World War II, and their dragon was the powerful dictator, Stalin. With resources dwindling, Churchill and Roosevelt realized that without additional fighting, the Soviet Union was unlikely to relinquish the territories in Eastern Europe its mili - tary had liberated from the Nazis.

Roosevelt’s health at Yalta was not good, but he was determined to par - ticipate in the important meeting.

Churchill and many of Roosevelt’s advisors did not trust the Soviets or their intentions after the war ended.

Among the issues was the argument that Germany should be made to pay significant reparations following the war, the postwar governing of Ger - many, and the disposition of Eastern European nations. Churchill and Roo - sevelt reluctantly agreed that the East - ern European nations bordering the Soviet Union ought to look toward the Soviets for aid and alliance, and the Soviets agreed to allow democratic elections in those nations. Consid - ering the unwillingness and likely political inability of Churchill and Roosevelt to force the Soviets to agree to more democratic gains, just agreeing to elections, even ones that were not likely to be fully free or fair, was a major accomplishment of the meeting.

Poland proved to be a thorny problem, foreshadowing Cold War divisions between the United States and Soviet Union. With Soviet troops already occupying the country, a provisional ©Bettmann/Corbis British prime minister Winston Churchill, American president Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin seated together during the Yalta Conference, 1945. The meeting considered the postwar reorganization of Europe. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 297 1/9/15 9:34 AM Section 9.4 Toward a New World Order pro-Communist government had been established. Roosevelt and Churchill believed that the Polish government officials exiled at the beginning of the war should return as the rightful governing body. In the end the Soviets agreed to allow free elections in Poland as well, but Roosevelt and many Americans believed the Communist influence would pervade Poland, especially so long as the Soviet troops remained.

Ultimately, many in the West viewed Yalta as a lost opportunity to shape the postwar world in a positive way. Some thought that Stalin had manipulated Churchill and Roosevelt and that they were too willing to appease his Communist ambitions. However, the Soviets were no happier with the outcome. Though Yalta by itself did not cause the Cold War, it contrib - uted to the mutual distrust that divided the world between communism and democracy (Plokhy, 2010).

A New Financial Order at Bretton Woods A new financial order was as important as the division of territory as the war neared an end.

For 3 weeks in July 1944, representatives from 44 nations met together at a resort in Bretton Woods , New Hampshire, to ponder the best way to regulate the international monetary and financial systems following the war.

The outcome of this important conference established rules for international commercial and financial relations among industrial states. Representatives agreed to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which regulated international trade, and a path was laid for the cre - ation of an international banking system. This eventually included the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The World Bank loaned money to developing nations and for the rebuilding of Europe. The IMF regulated the value of currency on the interna - tional market and prevented countries from intentionally devaluing their currency (Hoopes & Brinkley, 1997).

The United Nations and the Nuremberg Trials As the war came to a close it also became clear that a successor to the League of Nations would be essential for future peace. A new multination body, the United Nations, was formally established at a 1944 conference at Dumbarton Oaks, near Washington, D.C. It consisted of two main bodies—a General Assembly and a Security Council. The General Assembly was to act as a deliberative body and include representatives from all member nations. The Secu - rity Council was to be responsible for keeping international peace and ensuring security. The Security Council included just five nations: the United States, Britain, France, China, and the Soviet Union.

Representatives of 51 countries met in San Francisco in June 1945 to formally adopt the UN Charter. The organization outlawed force or threat of force as a means to settle disputes among nations.

Another result of World War II was a series of trials before the International Military Tribunal held at Nuremberg, Germany. Even before the war’s conclusion, many began to clamor for the prosecution of the Nazis for committing war atrocities, and especially actions related to the Holocaust. Between November 1945 and October 1946, 22 Nazi military and political leaders bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 298 1/9/15 1:29 PM Summary and Resources faced indictment for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and aggressively pushing the war.

Another 100 Nazi defendants faced trial in the United States under additional proceedings.

Three of the defendants were found not guilty, 7 were sentenced to lengthy jail terms, and 12 sentenced to death by hanging (Mettraux, 2008). The lasting legacy of the trials came with the United Nations’ establishment of the Nuremberg Principles of international law relating to war crimes or crimes against humanity.

Toward an Atomic Age More than 400,000 American lives were lost in World War II. The Allies crushed the Axis Powers and stopped the march of fascism and militarism in Europe and Asia. The Nazi geno - cidal campaign against the Jews was halted, and a new international organization emerged to mediate future disputes. Government spending on the military and infusion from Allied purchases finally ended the Great Depression and brought full employment to all Americans who sought a job. Although brighter days seemed ahead for the United States, wartime events also left clouds on the horizon.

The devastation caused by the atomic bombs ushered the world into a new and fearful era.

The fires of world war were extinguished, but a new conflict was brewing as other nations, especially the Soviet Union, sought to build their own nuclear arsenals. The alliance between the United States and the Soviet Union fractured, and the two most powerful nations in the world verged on the edge of a “cold war” that pitted Soviet communism against American capitalism and democracy. In order to contain the spread of communism, the United States threw off any pretense at isolation and became the police force of the free world.

Summary and Resources Chapter Summary • Still in the throes of the Great Depression when the war erupted in Europe, the United States initially took an official position as a neutral observer. • Most Americans favored the Allied Powers of Britain and France over Germany, Italy, and Japan, which constituted the Axis Powers. While still technically neutral, the United States began to supply the Allies with arms and equipment. • The United States formally entered the war on December 8, 1941, after the Japanese bombed the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. • The United States began a major mobilization of the economy and industry even before the attack. Millions volunteered or were drafted for military service, and women moved into industrial work for the duration of the conflict. • Following intensive battles in Europe and the Pacific, the Allies emerged victorious.

The Axis Powers were diminished, and the world learned of the horrors of the Holo - caust that killed millions of Jews and others. • The United States emerged from World War II as the world’s dominant political and economic power. • At the war’s conclusion the United States led the planning for a postwar world in which future conflicts would be managed by the newly created United Nations. • Even before the ink dried on the agreements, disagreement between the United States and the Soviet Union began to flare, and the Cold War conflict between com - munism and democracy emerged. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 299 1/9/15 9:34 AM June 6, 1944:

D-Day invasion of Normandy coast by Allied forces.

September 1938:

Munich Agreement between Britain, France, and Germany is signed. August 1939:

Germany and the Soviet Union sign a nonaggression pact with a secret provision allowing Germany to claim Poland. September 1, 1939:

Germany invades Poland. September 3, 1939:

World War II begins when France and Britain declare war on Germany. 1940 ―41: German Blitzkrieg warfare leads to the capture of Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Luxemburg, France, Yugoslavia, and Greece. May 7 ―8, 1942: The Battle of Coral Sea allows U.S. to assert its military might against Japanese.

June 4 ―7, 1942: The United States defeats the Japanese Navy at the Battle of Midway. December 7, 1941:

Japan attacks Pearl Harbor; the following day the U.S. Congress declares war on Japan and Germany.

February 1945:

Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin meet at Yalta to discuss postwar issues linked to Eastern Europe and Germany.

August 6 and 9, 1945:

The United States drops atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. August 14, 1945:

V-J Day, Victory in Japan declared after Japan surrenders.

1945 ―1946: Nuremberg Trials prosecute prominent German military of�icers and politicians for war crimes. October 1945:

United Nations created to promote international cooperation. May 8, 1945:

V-E Day, Victory in Europe, declared after Germany surrenders. 1 935 1 9 50 February 19, 1942:

Executive order by FDR sends Japanese immigrants and Japanese Americans to internment camps June 6, 1944:

D-Day invasion of Normandy coast by Allied forces. © Bettmann/Corbis SuperStock De Agostini Picture Library/ Bridgeman Images Associated Press © Galerie Bilderwelt/Bridgeman Images Associated Press © Bettmann/Corbis Summary and Resources Chapter 9 Timeline June 6, 1944:

D-Day invasion of Normandy coast by Allied forces. September 1938:

Munich Agreement between Britain, France, and Germany is signed. August 1939:

Germany and the Soviet Union sign a nonaggression pact with a secret provision allowing Germany to claim Poland. September 1, 1939:

Germany invades Poland. September 3, 1939:

June 4 ―7, 1942: The United States defeats the Japanese Navy at the Battle of Midway. December 7, 1941:

Japan attacks Pearl Harbor; the following day the U.S. Congress declares war on Japan and Germany.

February 1945:

Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin meet at Yalta to discuss postwar issues linked to Eastern Europe and Germany.

August 6 and 9, 1945:

The United States drops atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. August 14, 1945:

V-J Day, Victory in Japan declared after Japan surrenders.

1945 ―1946: Nuremberg Trials prosecute prominent German military of�icers and politicians for war crimes. October 1945:

United Nations created to promote international cooperation. May 8, 1945:

V-E Day, Victory in Europe, declared after Germany surrenders. 1 935 1 9 50 February 19, 1942:

Executive order by FDR sends Japanese immigrants and Japanese Americans to internment camps June 6, 1944:

D-Day invasion of Normandy coast by Allied forces. © Bettmann/Corbis SuperStock De Agostini Picture Library/ Bridgeman Images Associated Press © Galerie Bilderwelt/Bridgeman Images Associated Press © Bettmann/Corbis bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 300 1/9/15 9:34 AM Summary and Resources Post-Test 1. What was the purpose of the Good Neighbor Policy?

a. to appease the Germans in the hope that they would not invade additional territory b. to demonstrate that the United States had respect for the sovereignty of nations in Latin America c. to demonstrate that the Germans respected the sovereignty of nations in Eastern Europe d. to convince Latin American nations to cede additional western territory to the United States 2. How did the Neutrality Acts effect U.S. involvement with the Allies?

a. The acts spurred the United States toward involvement because they led to attacks on American ships. b. The acts led to additional trade because they reduced the Hawley–Smoot Tariff. c. The acts did not allow the United States to sell arms to the Allies. d. The acts appeased the Germans because they allowed trade with Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. 3. The Lend–Lease Act was adopted prior to U.S. entry into the war primarily because it would:

a. contain the spread of communism. b. bring aid to the Allies without the United States entering the war. c. create jobs to end the Great Depression. d. demonstrate the industrial might of the United States and keep Americans out of war. 4. During World War II, women and minorities made economic gains largely because:

a. labor shortages in defense and other industries created new opportunities in the workplace. b. civil rights legislation forced employers to grant equal pay for equal work. c. new educational opportunities afforded women and minorities more skills. d. the War Labor Board formed special recruiting units. 5. Which of the following are among the Four Freedoms that FDR argued were funda - mental to all?

a. freedom of the press; freedom from fear b. freedom from illegal search; freedom of the press c. freedom from want; freedom from fear d. freedom of speech; freedom of the press 6. A major reason for the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II was:

a. racial prejudice b. immigration quotas c. Jim Crow laws d. economic depression bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 301 1/9/15 9:34 AM Summary and Resources 7. The Allied victory in North Africa can be linked to General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s:

a. appeasement strategy. b. D-Day landing. c. strategic bombing. d. pincer strategy. 8. The strategic bombing campaign at Dresden, Germany, was controversial because:

a. The pilots dropped the bombs without prior authorization. b. The heavy bombing disproportionately hit civilian targets and homes. c. The RAF pilots bombed the wrong targets. d. The bombing campaign targeted a prisoner of war camp in violation of the rules of war. 9. The Manhattan Project involved the cooperation of the following in creation of the atomic bomb:

a. the United States, Canada, and the Soviet Union. b. the military, Wall Street bankers, and the Royal Air Force. c. German scientists, the Royal Air Force, and academics. d. The U.S. government, American industry, and academics. 10. The United Nations Security Council included the following nations:

a. Germany, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, the United States, and China. b. France, China, Germany, Japan, and the United States. c. France, Great Britain, the United States, China, and Japan. d. China, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, the United States, and France. Answers: 1 (b), 2 (b), 3 (b), 4 (a), 5 (c), 6 (a), 7 (d), 8 (b), 9 (d), 10 (d) Critical Thinking Questions 1. How did World War II change life on the American home front? 2. How did the outbreak of war influence U.S. policy? 3. Could the United States have done more to prevent the Holocaust? 4. How did the Allies finally win the war? 5. Was World War II justified by its results? Additional Resources D-Day Order ht tp://w w w.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=75&page=transcript The plan of attack for the Allied landing in France on June 4, 1944.

Executive Order 9066 ht tp://w w w.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=74 The order that provided for the internment of Japanese and Japanese Americans. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 302 1/9/15 9:34 AM Summary and Resources Joint Address to Congress ht tp://w w w.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=73 Franklin D. Roosevelt’s address to the Congress on December 8, 1941, asking for a declara - tion of war against Japan.

Lend–Lease Act ht tp://w w w.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=71&page=transcript The 1941 act of Congress permitting the lending or leasing of arms and military supplies to the Allies before U.S. entry into World War II.

Manhattan Project Notebook ht tp://w w w.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=77 This workbook details the workings of the secret military project to develop the atomic bomb.

United Nations Charter ht tp://w w w.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=79&page=transcript The 1945 agreement between multiple nations for collective security in the post–World War II era.

The Nuremberg Trials http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/Nuremberg_trials.html A series of international military tribunals held in Germany between 1945 and 1949 to adju - dicate the political and military leaders of Nazi Germany.

Audio Links Rosie the Riveter Revisited ht tp://symposia.library.csulb.edu/iii/cpro/DigitalItemViewPage.external;jsessionid=EBE8 75DC63B749256D8614D363390F7E.?lang=eng&sp=1001616&sp=T&sp=1&suite=def An interview with Margarita Salazar McSweyn.

Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pre-Test 1. True . Executive Order 9066 incarcerated Japanese aliens and American citizens who were of Japanese descent in internment camps. The government removed more than 100,000 Japanese (two thirds of whom were American citizens) from the West Coast, and the War Relocation Authority placed them in camps with very poor living conditions. 2. False . Deadly strategic bombing and Soviet contributions to the ground war in the East also proved to be vital strategies for the Allies. 3. False. At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill met to establish a plan for reorganizing the governments of war-torn Europe. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 303 1/9/15 9:34 AM Summary and Resources Allied Powers The military alliance between Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, the United States, and other nations.

appeasement The policy aimed at avoiding conflict with the Germans. Under the Munich Agreement in 1938, Hitler promised not to seek additional territory.

Axis Powers The military alliance between Germany, Japan, Italy, and other nations.

blitzkrieg German for “lightning war,” it refers to Hitler’s fast takeover of Denmark, Norway, Belgium, and Netherlands in 1940. braceros Temporary workers under a program that enabled Mexicans to enter the United States for work, especially as migrant farm laborers.

Bretton Woods The meeting place of members from 44 nations to establish a new world financial system. Results eventually included the World Bank and the Interna - tional Monetary Fund.

Civil Defense Corps The voluntary force that worked to mobilize the civilian popu - lation in response to potential domestic threats. 4. True . Millions of women left their more traditional female jobs or entered the work - force for the first time to work in industries for the duration of the war. 5. False . The Manhattan Project was a secret project aimed at developing the atomic bomb. Rejoinders to Chapter Post-Test 1. This policy ended the pattern of U.S. intervention in Latin American affairs and asserted that the United States recognized the sovereignty of nations in the region. 2. The acts passed in 1935 and 1937 forbade U.S. sales of arms or war-related imple - ments to countries at war. 3. The act allowed FDR to funnel arms to the Allies, including Britain, China, and even - tually the Soviet Union, and, he hoped, to keep the Americans out of the conflict. 4. Women, African Americans, and Mexican immigrants were welcomed into positions in war industries that were traditionally held by White men. For the duration of the war, they were able to earn higher salaries and experience economic advancement. 5. Outlined in his annual message to Congress on January 6, 1941, FDR declared four important freedoms for the modern age: freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. 6. Vilification of Japanese Americans began shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor.

Racial prejudice guided the issuance of Executive Order 9066 and the placement of thousands of Japanese Americans in concentration camps. 7. Eisenhower and the British launched a pincer movement, with the British pushing from the east and the Americans from the west to catch the German army in the middle, leading to the capture of 250,000 German troops. 8. The heavy bombing hit this industrial city particularly hard, causing thousands of civilian casualties and burning a large part of the city to the ground. 9. Government personnel, representatives from industry, and academic scholars worked together for 3 years to create an atomic weapon. 10. All members of the Axis Powers were excluded from the UN Security Council, which holds veto power over acts enacted by the General Assembly. Key Terms bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 304 1/9/15 9:34 AM Summary and Resources concentration camps Armed camps where the Germans held Jews and others removed from their homes.

D-Day The massive invasion of occupied France launched by the Allies on June 6, 1944. The decisive victory allowed the Allies to begin the overland march toward the Ger - man capital at Berlin.

dollar-a-year men Experienced executives who transferred their service to run govern - ment war industries in exchange for a token compensation.

Executive Order 9066 Issued by FDR, this order provided for the internment of Japa - nese immigrants and Japanese Americans in concentration camps.

fascism A form of radical authoritarian nationalism that manifested in a government system ruled by a dictator who held com - plete control.

Four Freedoms The freedoms outlined in a speech by President Roosevelt in January 1941 in which he ensured the American public that standing with the Allies would protect freedom for all.

Good Neighbor Policy The U.S. foreign policy asserting that the United States rec - ognized the sovereignty of Latin American countries and would avoid interfering in their affairs.

Holocaust The genocidal murder of 11 mil - lion people, including 6 million Jews, perpe - trated by the Nazis.

kamikaze Planes piloted by individuals willing to sacrifice their lives for the Japa - nese military cause. Lend–Lease Act The act of Congress that permitted the United States to lend or lease arms and equipment to the Allied Powers.

Manhattan Project A massive partnership between agents of government, industry, and academics who worked toward the development of an atomic weapon.

Nazi Party Also known as the National Socialists; beginning in 1933 Adolph Hitler headed this Fascist German political party.

Neutrality Acts A series of acts Congress passed between 1935 and 1939 in an attempt to maintain American neutrality in the face of growing European hostilities.

Rosie the Riveter The fictional symbol of the strong woman who took on industrial work in support of the nation at war.

Tuskegee Airmen This African American fighter pilot group flew more than 15,000 missions and shot down multiple Axis planes.

United Nations (UN) The multination body that replaced the League of Nations as the international body to mediate future con - flicts between nations.

V-E Day Victory in Europe Day, May 8, 1945, when Germany officially surrendered to the Allies.

War Production Board As the United States mobilized for war, this agency coordi - nated production across multiple industries.

Yalta The location of the second of three meetings between the leaders of the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain designed to discuss the reestablishment of European nations and to establish an agenda for governing in the postwar era. bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 305 1/9/15 9:34 AM bar82063_09_c09_269-306.indd 306 1/9/15 9:34 AM