Business essay (link to The Prince by Machivallie)

PE N GUIN B O OKS — GREA T I D EA S The P rin ce " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Nic co lò M ach ia v elli 1469–1527 " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Nic co lò M ach ia velli The P rin ce TR A NSL A TED B Y G EO RG E B U LL PE N GUIN B O OKS— GREA T I D EA S " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" PE N GUIN B O OKS Publis h ed b y t h e P en guin G ro up Pen guin G ro up ( U SA ) I n c., 3 75 H udso n S tr e et, N ew Y ork , N ew Y ork 1 0014, U .S .A .

Pen guin G ro up ( C an ad a), 9 0 E glin to n A ven ue E ast, S uite 7 00, T oro nto , O nta rio , Can ad a M 4P 2 Y 3 ( a d iv is io n o f P ears o n P en guin C an ad a I n c.) Pen guin B ooks L td , 8 0 S tr a n d, L ondon W C2R 0 R L, E ngla n d P en guin I re la n d, 2 5 S t S te p hen ’s G re en , D ublin 2 , I re la n d ( a d iv is io n o f P en guin B ooks Ltd ) Pen guin G ro up ( A ustr a lia ), 2 50 C am berw ell R oad , C am berw ell, V ic to ria 3 124, Austr a lia ( a d iv is io n o f P ears o n A ustr a lia G ro up P ty L td ) Pen guin B ooks I n dia P vt L td , 1 1 C om munity C en tr e , P an ch sh eel P ark , New D elh i— 110 0 17, I n dia Pen guin G ro up ( N Z), 6 7 A pollo D riv e, R ose d ale , N orth S hore 0 632, N ew Z eala n d (a d iv is io n o f P ears o n N ew Z eala n d L td ) Pen guin B ooks ( S outh A fric a) ( P ty ) L td , 2 4 S tu rd ee A ven ue, R ose b an k, Jo han nesb urg 2 196, S outh A fric a Pen guin B ooks L td , R eg is te re d O ffic es: 8 0 S tr a n d, L ondon W C2R 0 R L, E ngla n d Il P rin cip e f ir s t p ublis h ed 1 531–2 This t r a n sla tio n f ir s t p ublis h ed i n P en guin C la ssic s 1 961 Rep rin te d w ith r e v is io ns 1 975, 1 981, 1 995, 1 999 Publis h ed i n P en guin B ooks ( U .K .) 2 004 Fir s t p ublis h ed i n t h e U nite d S ta te s o f A m eric a b y P en guin B ooks 2 005 Tra n sla tio n c o pyrig ht © G eo rg e B ull, 1 961, 1 975, 1 981, 1 995, 1 999 All r ig hts r e se rv ed T ak en f ro m t h e P en guin C la ssic s e d itio n o f The P rin ce , t r a n sla te d w ith n ote s b y G eo rg e Bull a n d w ith a n i n tr o ductio n b y A nth ony G ra fto n LIB RA RY O F C O NGRESS C A TA LO GIN G I N P U BLIC A TIO N D ATA Mach ia v elli, N ic co lò , 1 469–1527.

[P rin cip e. E nglis h ] The p rin ce / N ic co lò M ach ia v elli ; t r a n sla te d b y G eo rg e B ull.

p. c m .— (G re at i d eas) “T his t r a n sla tio n f ir s t p ublis h ed i n P en guin C la ssic s 1 961”— T.p . v ers o IS B N : 9 78-1 -1 01-6 5757-7 1. P olitic al s c ie n ce— Early w ork s t o 1 800. 2 . P olitic al e th ic s— Early w ork s t o 1 800.

I. B ull, G eo rg e A nth ony. I I. T itle . I II S erie s.

" * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" JC 143 M 38 2 005 320.1 — dc2 2 2 005047730 Excep t i n t h e U nite d S ta te s o f A m eric a, t h is b ook i s s o ld s u bje ct t o t h e c o nditio n t h at i t sh all n ot, b y w ay o f t r a d e o r o th erw is e , b e l e n t, r e so ld , h ir e d o ut, o r o th erw is e c ir c u la te d with out t h e p ublis h er’s p rio r c o nse n t i n a n y f o rm o f b in din g o r c o ver o th er t h an t h at i n whic h i t i s p ublis h ed a n d w ith out a s im ila r c o nditio n i n clu din g t h is c o nditio n b ein g im pose d o n t h e s u bse q uen t p urc h ase r.

The s c an nin g, u plo ad in g a n d d is tr ib utio n o f t h is b ook v ia t h e I n te rn et o r v ia a n y o th er mean s w ith out t h e p erm is sio n o f t h e p ublis h er i s i lle g al a n d p unis h ab le b y l a w . P le ase purc h ase o nly a u th oriz ed e le ctr o nic e d itio ns, a n d d o n ot p artic ip ate i n o r e n co ura g e ele ctr o nic p ir a cy o f c o pyrig hte d m ate ria ls . Y our s u pport o f t h e a u th or’s r ig hts i s ap pre cia te d .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Tab le o f C on te n ts Lette r f r o m N ic co lò M ach ia v elli t o t h e M ag nif ic en t L ore n zo d é Med ic i I: H ow m an y k in ds o f p rin cip ality t h ere a re a n d t h e w ay s i n whic h t h ey a re a cq uir e d II: H ere d ita ry p rin cip alitie s III: C om posite p rin cip alitie s IV : W hy t h e k in gdom o f D ariu s c o nquere d b y A le x an der d id not r e b el a g ain st h is s u ccesso rs a fte r h is d eath V: H ow c itie s o r p rin cip alitie s w hic h l iv ed u nder t h eir o w n la w s s h ould b e a d m in is te re d a fte r b ein g c o nquere d VI: N ew p rin cip alitie s a cq uir e d b y o ne’s o w n a rm s a n d pro w ess VII: N ew p rin cip alitie s a cq uir e d w ith t h e h elp o f f o rtu ne a n d fo re ig n a rm s VIII: T hose w ho c o m e t o p ow er b y c rim e IX : T he c o nstitu tio nal p rin cip ality " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" X: H ow t h e s tr e n gth o f e v ery p rin cip ality s h ould b e m easu re d XI: E ccle sia stic al p rin cip alitie s XII: M ilita ry o rg an iz atio n a n d m erc en ary t r o ops XIII: A uxilia ry , c o m posite , a n d n ativ e t r o ops XIV : H ow a p rin ce s h ould o rg an iz e h is m ilitia XV: T he t h in gs f o r w hic h m en , a n d e sp ecia lly p rin ces, a re pra is e d o r b la m ed XVI: G en ero sity a n d p ars im ony XVII: C ru elty a n d c o m passio n; a n d w heth er i t i s b ette r t o b e lo ved t h an f e are d , o r t h e r e v ers e XVIII: H ow p rin ces s h ould h onour t h eir w ord XIX : T he n eed t o a v oid c o nte m pt a n d h atr e d XX: W heth er f o rtr e sse s a n d m an y o f t h e o th er p re se n t- d ay ex ped ie n ts t o w hic h p rin ces h av e r e co urs e a re u se fu l o r n ot XXI: H ow a p rin ce m ust a ct t o w in h onour XXII: A p rin ce’s p ers o nal s ta ff XXIII: H ow f la tte re rs m ust b e s h unned XXIV : W hy t h e I ta lia n p rin ces h av e l o st t h eir s ta te s XXV: H ow f a r h um an a ffa ir s a re g overn ed b y f o rtu ne, a n d h ow fo rtu ne c an b e o ppose d XXVI: E xhorta tio n t o l ib era te I ta ly f ro m t h e b arb aria n s "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Lette r f r o m N ic co lò M ach ia velli t o t h e Magn if ic en t L oren zo d é M ed ic i M en w ho a re a n xio us t o w in t h e f a v our o f a P rin ce n early a lw ay s f o llo w t h e c u sto m o f p re se n tin g t h em se lv es t o h im w ith t h e p osse ssio ns t h ey v alu e m ost, o r w ith t h in gs t h ey k now e sp ecia lly p le ase h im ; s o w e o fte n s e e p rin ces g iv en h ors e s, w eap ons, c lo th o f g old , p re cio us s to nes, a n d s im ila r o rn am en ts w orth y o f t h eir h ig h p ositio n.

N ow , I a m a n xio us t o o ffe r m yse lf t o Y our M ag nif ic en ce w ith s o m e t o ken o f m y d ev otio n t o y ou, a n d I h av e n ot f o und a m ong m y b elo ngin gs a n yth in g a s d ear t o m e o r t h at I v alu e a s m uch a s m y u nders ta n din g o f t h e d eed s o f g re at m en , w on b y m e f ro m a l o ng a cq uain ta n ce w ith c o nte m pora ry a ffa ir s a n d a c o ntin uous s tu dy o f t h e a n cie n t w orld ; t h ese m atte rs I h av e v ery d ilig en tly a n aly se d a n d p ondere d f o r a l o ng t im e, a n d n ow , h av in g s u m mariz ed t h em i n a l ittle b ook, I a m s e n din g t h em t o Y our M ag nif ic en ce.

And a lth ough I c o nsid er t h is w ork u nw orth y t o b e p ut b efo re y ou, y et I a m f u lly c o nfid en t t h at y ou w ill b e k in d e n ough t o a ccep t i t, s e ein g t h at I c o uld n ot g iv e y ou a m ore v alu ab le g if t t h an t h e m ean s o f b ein g a b le i n a v ery s h ort s p ace o f t im e t o g ra sp a ll t h at I , o ver s o m an y y ears a n d w ith s o m uch a fflic tio n a n d p eril, h av e l e arn ed a n d u nders to od. I h av e n ot e m bellis h ed o r " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" cra m med t h is b ook w ith r o unded p erio ds o r b ig , i m pre ssiv e word s, o r w ith a n y b la n dis h m en t o r s u perflu ous deco ra tio n o f t h e kin d w hic h m an y a re i n t h e h ab it o f u sin g t o d esc rib e o r a d orn what t h ey h av e p ro duced ; f o r m y a m bitio n h as b een e ith er t h at noth in g s h ould d is tin guis h m y b ook, o r t h at i t s h ould f in d f a v our so le ly t h ro ugh t h e v arie ty o f i ts c o nte n ts a n d t h e s e rio usn ess o f i ts su bje ct- m atte r. N or I h ope w ill i t b e c o nsid ere d p re su m ptu ous f o r a m an o f l o w a n d h um ble s ta tu s t o d are d is c u ss a n d l a y d ow n t h e la w a b out h ow p rin ces s h ould r u le ; b ecau se , j u st a s m en w ho a re sk etc h in g t h e l a n dsc ap e p ut t h em se lv es d ow n i n t h e p la in t o s tu dy th e n atu re o f t h e m ounta in s a n d t h e h ig hla n ds, a n d t o s tu dy t h e lo w -ly in g l a n d t h ey p ut t h em se lv es h ig h o n t h e m ounta in s, s o , t o co m pre h en d f u lly t h e n atu re o f t h e p eo ple , o ne m ust b e a p rin ce, an d t o c o m pre h en d f u lly t h e n atu re o f p rin ces o ne m ust b e a n ord in ary c itiz en .

So, Y our M ag nif ic en ce, t a k e t h is l ittle g if t i n t h e s p ir it i n w hic h I s e n d i t; a n d i f y ou r e ad a n d c o nsid er i t d ilig en tly , y ou w ill dis c o ver i n i t m y u rg en t w is h t h at y ou r e ach t h e e m in en ce t h at fo rtu ne a n d y our o th er q ualitie s p ro m is e y ou. A nd i f , f ro m y our lo fty p eak , Y our M ag nif ic en ce w ill s o m etim es g la n ce d ow n t o th ese l o w -ly in g r e g io ns, y ou w ill r e aliz e t h e e x te n t t o w hic h , undese rv ed ly , I h av e t o e n dure t h e g re at a n d u nre m ittin g m alic e of f o rtu ne.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" I H ow m an y k in ds o f p rin cip ality t h ere a re a n d t h e w ays in w hic h t h ey a re a cq u ir e d A ll t h e s ta te s, a ll t h e d om in io ns u nder w hose a u th ority m en h av e l iv ed i n t h e p ast a n d l iv e n ow h av e b een a n d a re e ith er r e p ublic s o r p rin cip alitie s. P rin cip alitie s a re h ere d ita ry , w ith t h eir p rin ce’s f a m ily l o ng e sta b lis h ed a s r u le rs , o r t h ey a re n ew . T he n ew a re c o m ple te ly n ew , a s w as M ila n t o F ra n cesc o S fo rz a, o r t h ey a re l ik e l im bs j o in ed t o t h e h ere d ita ry s ta te o f t h e p rin ce w ho a cq uir e s t h em , a s i s t h e k in gdom o f N ap le s i n r e la tio n t o t h e k in g o f S pain .

D om in io ns s o a cq uir e d a re a ccu sto m ed t o b e u nder a p rin ce, o r u se d t o f re ed om ; a p rin ce w in s t h em e ith er w ith t h e a rm s o f o th ers o r w ith h is o w n, e ith er b y f o rtu ne o r b y p ro w ess.

" * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" II Here d ita ry p rin cip alitie s I s h all l e av e o ut a n y d is c u ssio n o f r e p ublic s, s in ce I d is c u sse d t h em a t l e n gth o n a n oth er o ccasio n. I s h all d eal o nly w ith t h e p rin cip ality , a n d I s h all f o llo w t h e ord er s e t o ut a b ove, a n d d eb ate h ow t h ese p rin cip alitie s c an b e g overn ed a n d m ain ta in ed .

I s a y , t h en , t h at i n h ere d ita ry s ta te s, a ccu sto m ed t o t h eir p rin ce’s f a m ily , t h ere a re f a r f e w er d if fic u ltie s i n m ain ta in in g o ne’s r u le t h an i n n ew p rin cip alitie s; b ecau se i t i s e n ough m ere ly n ot t o n eg le ct t h e i n stitu tio ns f o unded b y o ne’s a n cesto rs a n d t h en t o a d ap t p olic y t o e v en ts . I n t h is w ay , i f t h e p rin ce i s r e aso nab ly a ssid uous h e w ill a lw ay s m ain ta in h is r u le , u nle ss s o m e e x tr a o rd in ary a n d i n ord in ate f o rc e d ep riv e h im o f i t; a n d i f s o d ep riv ed , w hen ev er t h e u su rp er s u ffe rs a s e tb ack h e w ill r e co nquer.

We h av e i n I ta ly , f o r e x am ple , t h e d uke o f F erra ra , h e c o uld n ot w ith sta n d t h e a ssa u lts o f t h e V en etia n s i n ‘ 8 4, n or t h ose o f P ope J u liu s i n 1 510, b ut f o r o th er r e aso ns t h an t h at h e h ad b een l o ng e sta b lis h ed . T he f a ct i s t h at t h e n atu ra l p rin ce h as l e ss r e aso n a n d l e ss n eed t o g iv e o ffe n ce; a n d s o i t f o llo w s t h at h e s h ould b e m ore l o ved ; a n d i f h e d oes n ot p ro voke h atr e d b y e x tr a o rd in ary v ic es, i t s ta n ds t o r e aso n t h at h is s u bje cts s h ould n atu ra lly b e w ell d is p ose d t o w ard s h im . A nd i n t h e a n tiq uity a n d p ers is te n ce o f h is r u le m em orie s o f i n novatio ns a n d t h e r e aso ns f o r t h em d is a p pear; b ecau se o ne c h an ge a lw ay s l e av es a t o oth in g-s to ne f o r t h e n ex t.

" * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" III Com posite p rin cip alitie s B ut i n t h e n ew p rin cip ality d if fic u ltie s d o a ris e . F ir s t, i f i t i s n ot e n tir e ly n ew b ut a n ew a p pen dag e t o a n o ld s ta te ( s o t h at t h e t e rrito ry a s a w hole c an b e c alle d c o m posite ) d is o rd ers a ris e c h ie fly b ecau se o f o ne n atu ra l d if fic u lty a lw ay s e n co unte re d i n n ew p rin cip alitie s. W hat h ap pen s i s t h at m en w illin gly c h an ge t h eir r u le r, e x pectin g t o f a re b ette r. T his e x pecta tio n i n duces t h em t o t a k e u p a rm s a g ain st h im ; b ut t h ey o nly d eceiv e t h em se lv es, a n d t h ey l e arn f ro m e x perie n ce t h at t h ey h av e m ad e m atte rs w ors e . T his f o llo w s f ro m a n oth er c o m mon a n d n atu ra l n ecessity :

a p rin ce i s a lw ay s c o m pelle d t o i n ju re t h ose w ho h av e m ad e h im t h e n ew r u le r, s u bje ctin g t h em t o t h e t r o ops a n d i m posin g t h e e n dle ss o th er h ard sh ip s w hic h h is n ew c o nquest e n ta ils . A s a r e su lt y ou a re o ppose d b y a ll t h ose y ou h av e i n ju re d i n o ccu pyin g t h e p rin cip ality , a n d y ou c an not k eep t h e f rie n dsh ip o f t h ose w ho h av e p ut y ou t h ere ; y ou c an not s a tis fy t h em i n t h e w ay t h ey h ad t a k en f o r g ra n te d , y et y ou c an not u se s tr o ng m ed ic in e o n t h em , a s y ou a re i n t h eir d eb t. F or a lw ay s, n o m atte r h ow p ow erfu l o ne’s a rm ie s, i n o rd er t o e n te r a c o untr y o ne n eed s t h e g oodw ill o f t h e i n hab ita n ts . I t w as f o r t h ese r e aso ns t h at L ouis X II, k in g o f F ra n ce, s p eed ily o ccu pie d M ila n a n d s p eed ily l o st i t. O n t h e f ir s t o ccasio n L udovic o ’s o w n f o rc es w ere e n ough t o t a k e t h e c ity f ro m h im , b ecau se t h e p eo ple w ho h ad o pen ed t h e g ate s t o h im , f in din g t h ey h ad d eceiv ed t h em se lv es i n t h eir e x pecta tio ns a n d a s r e g ard s t h e ben efits t h ey h ad a n tic ip ate d , c o uld n ot s ta n d t h e " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" affro nts t h ey r e ceiv ed f ro m t h e n ew co m er.

It i s c erta in ly t r u e t h at w hen l a n ds t h at h av e r e b elle d a re re co nquere d t h ey a re n ot l o st s o e asily ; f o r t h e r u le r, t a k in g ad van ta g e o f t h e r e v olt, i s l e ss s c ru pulo us i n s e cu rin g h im se lf b y punis h in g t h e o ffe n ders , p ro bin g s u sp ects , s tr e n gth en in g h im se lf where h e i s w eak est. T hus f o r F ra n ce t o l o se M ila n a ll t h at h ad t o hap pen t h e f ir s t t im e w as t h at a D uke L udovic o s h ould r a m pag e on t h e b ord ers , b ut f o r F ra n ce t o l o se i t a s e co nd t im e t h e w hole world h ad t o o ppose h er, a n d h er a rm ie s h ad t o b e d estr o yed o r ch ase d o ut o f I ta ly ; a n d t h e r e aso ns f o r t h is I g av e a b ove. N one th e l e ss, b oth t im es F ra n ce l o st M ila n .

The g en era l r e aso ns f o r t h e f ir s t l o ss h av e b een d is c u sse d . I t re m ain s n ow t o g iv e t h ose f o r t h e s e co nd, a n d t o s e e w hat re m ed ie s w ere a v aila b le t o t h e k in g o f F ra n ce, a n d w hat s te p s co uld h av e b een t a k en b y s o m eo ne i n t h e s a m e s tr a its t o m ain ta in his c o nquest m ore s e cu re ly t h an h e d id . N ow I s a y t h at t h ose sta te s w hic h w hen a cq uir e d a re j o in ed t o a s ta te l o ng h eld b y t h e co nquero r a re e ith er o f t h e s a m e c o untr y , s h arin g t h e s a m e la n guag e, o r t h ey a re n ot. W hen t h ey a re , i t i s a v ery e asy m atte r to h old o n t o t h em , e sp ecia lly w hen t h ey a re n ot u se d t o f re ed om ; an d t o h old t h em s e cu re ly i t i s e n ough t o h av e d estr o yed t h e l in e of t h e f o rm er r u lin g p rin ce. F or t h e r e st, s o l o ng a s t h eir o ld w ay s of l if e a re u ndis tu rb ed a n d t h ere i s n o d iv erg en ce i n c u sto m s, m en liv e q uie tly : a s w e h av e s e en i n t h e c ase o f B urg undy, B ritta n y, Gasc o ny, a n d N orm an dy, w hic h h av e b een w ith F ra n ce f o r s o lo ng. A lth ough h ere t h ere is s o m e d iv erg en ce i n l a n guag e, n one th e l e ss t h eir c u sto m s a re s im ila r, a n d t h ey c an e asily g et a lo ng to geth er. I f t h e r u le r w an ts t o k eep h old o f h is n ew p osse ssio ns, h e must b ear t w o t h in gs i n m in d: f ir s t, t h at t h e f a m ily o f t h e o ld prin ce m ust b e d estr o yed ; n ex t, t h at h e m ust c h an ge n eith er t h eir "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" la w s n or t h eir t a x es. I n t h is w ay , i n a v ery s h ort s p ace o f t im e t h e new p rin cip ality w ill b e r o lle d i n to o ne w ith t h e o ld .

But w hen s ta te s a re a cq uir e d i n a p ro vin ce d if fe rin g i n la n guag e, i n c u sto m s, a n d i n i n stitu tio ns, t h en d if fic u ltie s a ris e ; an d t o h old t h em o ne m ust b e v ery f o rtu nate a n d v ery a ssid uous.

One o f t h e b est, m ost e ffe ctiv e e x ped ie n ts w ould b e f o r t h e co nquero r t o g o t o l iv e t h ere i n p ers o n. T his c o urs e o f a ctio n would m ak e a n ew p osse ssio n m ore s e cu re a n d m ore p erm an en t; an d t h is w as w hat t h e T urk a ch ie v ed i n G re ece.

F or a ll t h e o th er measu re s h e t o ok, h ad h e n ot g one t o s e ttle t h ere h e w ould h av e fo und i t i m possib le t o h old t h at s ta te . B ein g o n t h e s p ot, o ne c an dete ct t r o uble a t t h e s ta rt a n d d eal w ith i t i m med ia te ly ; i f o ne i s ab se n t, i t i s d is c ern ed o nly w hen i t h as g ro w n s e rio us, a n d i t i s th en t o o l a te . A nd b esid es, t h is p olic y p re v en ts t h e c o nquere d te rrito ry f ro m b ein g p lu ndere d b y o ne’s o ffic ia ls .

T he s u bje cts a re sa tis fie d b ecau se t h ey h av e d ir e ct r e co urs e t o t h e p rin ce; a n d s o th ey h av e m ore r e aso n t o l o ve h im , i f t h ey w an t t o b e g ood, a n d t o fe ar h im , i f t h ey w an t t o b e o th erw is e . A nyone w is h in g t o i n vad e th e s ta te h as t o t h in k t w ic e a b out i t. S o i f h e s e ttle s t h ere t h e r u le r can l o se h is n ew s ta te o nly w ith t h e g re ate st d if fic u lty .

The o th er s u perio r e x ped ie n t i s t o e sta b lis h s e ttle m en ts i n o ne or t w o p la ces; t h ese w ill, a s i t w ere , f e tte r th e s ta te t o y ou. U nle ss you e sta b lis h s e ttle m en ts , y ou w ill h av e t o g arris o n l a rg e n um bers of m ounte d t r o ops a n d i n fa n tr y . S ettle m en ts d o n ot c o st m uch , an d t h e p rin ce c an f o und t h em a n d m ain ta in t h em a t l ittle o r n o pers o nal e x pen se . H e i n ju re s o nly t h ose f ro m w hom h e t a k es l a n d an d h ouse s t o g iv e t o t h e n ew i n hab ita n ts , a n d t h ese v ic tim s f o rm a t in y m in ority , a n d c an n ev er d o a n y h arm s in ce t h ey r e m ain poor a n d s c atte re d . A ll t h e o th ers a re l e ft u ndis tu rb ed , a n d s o sh ould s ta y q uie t, a n d a s w ell a s t h is t h ey a re f rig hte n ed t o d o "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" wro ng l e st w hat h ap pen ed t o t h e d is p osse sse d s h ould h ap pen t o th em . T o s u m u p, s e ttle m en ts a re e co nom ic al a n d m ore f a ith fu l, an d d o l e ss h arm ; a n d t h ose w ho a re i n ju re d c an not h urt y ou becau se , a s I s a id , t h ey a re s c atte re d a n d p oor. A nd h ere i t h as t o be n ote d t h at m en m ust b e e ith er p am pere d o r c ru sh ed , b ecau se th ey c an g et r e v en ge f o r s m all i n ju rie s b ut n ot f o r g rie v ous o nes.

So a n y i n ju ry a p rin ce d oes a m an s h ould b e o f s u ch a k in d t h at th ere i s n o f e ar o f r e v en ge. I f, h ow ev er, i n ste ad o f e sta b lis h in g se ttle m en ts t h e p rin ce s e n ds i n t r o ops, e x pen se s a re f a r h ig her, a s all t h e r e v en ues h av e t o b e d ev ote d t o d efe n ce a n d t h e g ain beco m es a l o ss. T he p rin ce d oes f a r m ore i n ju ry , b ecau se h e harm s t h e w hole s ta te b y b ille tin g h is a rm y i n d if fe re n t p arts o f th e c o untr y , e v ery one s u ffe rs f ro m t h is a n noyan ce, a n d e v ery body is t u rn ed i n to a n e n em y. A nd t h ose w ho g ro w h ostile c an d o h im harm , b ecau se t h ey r e m ain , d efe ate d , i n t h eir o w n h om es. I n e v ery way , t h ere fo re , t h is m ean s o f d efe n ce i s a s u se le ss a s c o lo niz atio n is u se fu l.

In a d ditio n, a n yone i n a c o untr y w hic h d if fe rs f ro m h is o w n i n th e w ay I d esc rib ed s h ould m ak e h im se lf t h e le ad er a n d p ro te cto r of t h e s m alle r n eig hbourin g p ow ers , a n d h e s h ould e n deav our t o weak en t h ose w hic h a re s tr o ng. H e s h ould a ls o t a k e p re cau tio ns t o ch eck a n i n vasio n o f t h e p ro vin ce b y a f o re ig ner a s p ow erfu l a s him se lf . I n varia b ly , t h e i n tr u der w ill b e b ro ught i n b y t h ose w ho are d is a ffe cte d , b ecau se o f e x cessiv e a m bitio n o r b ecau se o f f e ar.

Thus t h e A eto lia n s o nce b ro ught t h e R om an s i n to G re ece; a n d i n ev ery o th er c o untr y t h ey i n vad ed , t h e R om an s w ere b ro ught i n b y th e i n hab ita n ts . T his i s w hat h ap pen s: a s s o on a s a p ow erfu l fo re ig ner i n vad es a c o untr y a ll t h e w eak er p ow ers g iv e h im t h eir su pport, m oved b y e n vy o f t h e p ow er w hic h h as s o f a r d om in ate d th em . S o, a s f a r a s t h ese w eak er p ow ers a re c o ncern ed , h e h as n o "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" tr o uble a t a ll i n w in nin g t h em t o h is s id e, b ecau se o f t h eir o w n acco rd t h ey s tr a ig ht a w ay m erg e w ith t h e s ta te h e e sta b lis h es. A ll he h as t o w atc h i s t h at t h ey d o n ot b uild u p t o o m uch s tr e n gth a n d to o m uch a u th ority ; a n d w ith h is o w n s tr e n gth a n d t h eir s u pport he c an e asily h old d ow n t h ose w ho a re p ow erfu l a n d s o m ak e him se lf , i n e v ery th in g, t h e m aste r o f t h e c o untr y . W hoev er d oes not a tte n d c are fu lly t o t h ese p oin ts w ill q uic k ly l o se w hat h e h as acq uir e d ; e v en w hile h e s till h old s o n h e w ill e x perie n ce c o untle ss dif fic u ltie s a n d a n noyan ces.

The R om an s, i n t h e c o untr ie s t h ey s e iz ed , d id w atc h t h ese matte rs c are fu lly . T hey e sta b lis h ed s e ttle m en ts , s u pporte d t h e weak er p ow ers w ith out i n cre asin g t h eir s tr e n gth , c ru sh ed t h e pow erfu l, a n d d id n ot a llo w a n y p ow erfu l f o re ig ner t o w in pre stig e. T he c o untr y o f G re ece p ro vid es a g ood e n ough e x am ple .

Here , t h e R om an s s u pporte d t h e A ch aean s a n d t h e A eto lia n s; t h ey cru sh ed t h e M aced onia n k in gdom ; a n d t h ey d ro ve o ut A ntio ch us.

They n ev er a llo w ed t h e A ch aean s o r t h e A eto lia n s t o e x pan d t h eir te rrito rie s h ow ev er w ell t h ey b eh av ed ; t h ey n ev er a llo w ed P hilip to p ers u ad e t h em i n to a n a llia n ce w ith out h old in g h im d ow n; a n d desp ite h is p ow er, A ntio ch us w as n ev er g ra n te d a n y a u th ority i n Gre ece. I n t h ese i n sta n ces, t h e R om an s d id w hat a ll w is e r u le rs must: c o pe n ot o nly w ith p re se n t t r o uble s b ut a ls o w ith o nes l ik ely to a ris e i n f u tu re , a n d a ssid uously f o re sta ll t h em . W hen t r o uble i s se n se d w ell i n a d van ce i t c an e asily b e r e m ed ie d ; i f y ou w ait f o r i t to s h ow i ts e lf a n y m ed ic in e w ill b e t o o l a te b ecau se t h e d is e ase will h av e b eco m e i n cu ra b le . A s t h e d octo rs s a y o f a w astin g dis e ase , t o s ta rt w ith i t i s e asy t o c u re b ut d if fic u lt t o d ia g nose ; afte r a t im e, u nle ss i t h as b een d ia g nose d a n d t r e ate d a t t h e o uts e t, it b eco m es e asy t o d ia g nose b ut d if fic u lt t o c u re . S o i t i s i n politic s. P olitic al d is o rd ers c an b e q uic k ly h eale d i f t h ey a re s e en "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" well i n a d van ce ( a n d o nly a p ru den t r u le r h as s u ch f o re sig ht) ; when , f o r l a ck o f a d ia g nosis , t h ey a re a llo w ed t o g ro w i n s u ch a way t h at e v ery one c an r e co gniz e t h em , r e m ed ie s a re t o o l a te .

So t h e R om an s s a w w hen t r o uble s w ere c o m in g a n d a lw ay s to ok c o unte r-m easu re s. T hey n ev er, t o a v oid a w ar, a llo w ed t h em to g o u nch eck ed , b ecau se t h ey k new t h at t h ere i s n o a v oid in g w ar; it c an o nly b e p ostp oned t o t h e a d van ta g e o f o th ers .

T hey m ad e u p th eir m in ds t o w ag e w ar w ith P hilip a n d A ntio ch us i n G re ece, i n ord er n ot t o h av e t o d o s o i n I ta ly . A t t h e t im e t h ey c o uld h av e av oid ed d oin g e ith er, b ut t h ey w ould n ot. N or w ere t h e R om an s ev er t e m pte d t o d o w hat w e h ear e v ery d ay o n t h e l ip s o f t h e w is e men o f o ur g en era tio n, to m ak e t h e m ost o f t h e p re se n t t im e; ra th er, t h ey m ad e t h e m ost o f t h eir o w n p ro w ess a n d p ru den ce.

Tim e s w eep s e v ery th in g a lo ng a n d c an b rin g g ood a s w ell a s e v il, ev il a s w ell a s g ood.

But l e t u s g o b ack t o F ra n ce, a n d s e e i f t h at c o untr y h as a d opte d an y o f t h e m easu re s I h av e b een d is c u ssin g. I s h all t a lk a b out Louis , n ot C harle s, a n d s o a b out a m an w hose c are er i t h as b een possib le t o s tu dy m ore c lo se ly b ecau se h e w as e n tr e n ch ed i n I ta ly fo r a l o nger t im e. Y ou w ill s e e h ow L ouis h as d one t h e o pposite of w hat o ught t o b e d one t o m ain ta in o ne’s r u le i n a n a lie n co untr y .

Kin g L ouis w as b ro ught i n to I ta ly b y t h e a m bitio n o f t h e Ven etia n s, w ho w an te d b y t h is m ean s t o w in f o r t h em se lv es h alf Lom bard y. I d o n ot m ean t o c o ndem n t h e c o urs e o f a ctio n t a k en by t h e k in g; h e w an te d t o g et a f o otin g i n I ta ly , h e h ad n o a llie s th ere — on t h e c o ntr a ry b ecau se o f t h e a ctio ns o f K in g C harle s a ll th e g ate s w ere b arre d t o h im — an d s o h e w as f o rc ed t o m ak e frie n ds w here h e c o uld . H is p olic y i n t h is m atte r w ould e v en h av e pro ved s u ccessfu l, p ro vid ed h e h ad n ot g one w ro ng e ls e w here .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Now , w hen L om bard y f e ll i n to h is h an ds t h e k in g i m med ia te ly re g ain ed t h e s ta n din g w hic h C harle s h ad l o st. G en oa c ap itu la te d ; th e F lo re n tin es b ecam e h is a llie s; t h e m arq uis o f M an tu a, t h e d uke of F erra ra , t h e B en tiv ogli, t h e c o unte ss o f F orlì, t h e r u le rs o f Faen za, o f P esa ro , o f R im in i, o f C am erin o, o f P io m bin o, t h e citiz en s o f L ucca, P is a , S ie n a, a ll c am e f o rw ard t o s e ek h is frie n dsh ip . T hen t h e V en etia n s w ere i n a p ositio n t o r e aliz e h ow ra sh t h ey h ad b een . I n o rd er t o g ain t w o t o w ns i n L om bard y t h ey had m ad e h im , t h e k in g, r u le r o f a t h ir d o f I ta ly .

Now c o nsid er w ith w hat l ittle t r o uble t h e k in g c o uld h av e main ta in ed h is s ta n din g i n I ta ly , i f h e h ad o bse rv ed t h e r u le s I gav e a b ove a n d k ep t a ll t h ose a llie s o f h is s a fe a n d s e cu re . T here were m an y o f t h em , a n d t h ey w ere w eak a n d f rig hte n ed , s o m e o f th e C hurc h , s o m e o f t h e V en etia n s; s o t h ey w ere b ound t o s ta y b y him , a n d t h ro ugh t h em h e c o uld e asily h av e s a fe g uard ed h im se lf ag ain st t h e p ow ers w hic h r e m ain ed s tr o ng. B ut n o s o oner w as h e in M ila n t h an h e d id t h e c o ntr a ry , h elp in g P ope A le x an der t o occu py t h e R om ag na. N or d id h e r e aliz e t h at b y t a k in g t h is decis io n h e w eak en ed h im se lf , a lie n ate d h is a llie s a n d t h ose w ho had t h ro w n t h em se lv es i n to h is a rm s, a n d s tr e n gth en ed t h e C hurc h by a d din g s o m uch t e m pora l p ow er t o i ts e x is tin g s p ir itu al p ow er, whic h g iv es i t s u ch a u th ority . H av in g m ad e o ne m is ta k e, h e w as fo rc ed t o m ak e o th ers . T o f ru str a te t h e a m bitio n o f A le x an der a n d pre v en t h is b eco m in g r u le r o f T usc an y h e w as f o rc ed t o c o m e dow n i n to I ta ly h im se lf . N ot c o nte n t w ith h av in g m ad e t h e Churc h p ow erfu l a n d h av in g a lie n ate d h is a llie s, h e t h en , b ecau se he w an te d t h e k in gdom o f N ap le s, d iv id ed i t w ith t h e k in g o f Spain . W here as t o s ta rt w ith h e w as m aste r o f I ta ly h e n ow bro ught i n a r iv al t o w hom t h e a m bitio us a n d t h e d is c o nte n te d mig ht h av e r e co urs e . H e c o uld h av e l e ft i n N ap le s a k in g w ho w as "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" in h is p ay . I n ste ad h e e x pelle d h im t o p ut i n h is p la ce o ne w ho co uld c h ase h im o ut i n t u rn .

The w is h t o a cq uir e m ore i s a d m itte d ly a v ery n atu ra l a n d co m mon t h in g; a n d w hen m en s u cceed i n t h is t h ey a re a lw ay s pra is e d r a th er t h an c o ndem ned . B ut w hen t h ey l a ck t h e a b ility t o do s o a n d y et w an t t o a cq uir e m ore a t a ll c o sts , t h ey d ese rv e co ndem natio n f o r t h eir mis ta k es. I f F ra n ce c o uld h av e a tta ck ed Nap le s w ith h er o w n f o rc es, s h e s h ould h av e d one s o ; i f n ot, s h e sh ould n ot h av e d iv id ed i t. A nd i f t h e p artitio n o f L om bard y w ith th e V en etia n s c o uld b e e x cu se d , b ecau se i t g av e L ouis a f o oth old in I ta ly , t h e o th er p artitio n d ese rv ed t o b e c o ndem ned , b ecau se th ere w as n o s u ch n ecessity f o r i t.

Louis h ad , t h ere fo re , m ad e t h ese f iv e m is ta k es: h e h ad destr o yed t h e w eak er p ow ers ; i n cre ase d t h e p ow er o f s o m eo ne alr e ad y p ow erfu l i n I ta ly ; b ro ught i n to t h at c o untr y a v ery pow erfu l f o re ig ner; s ta y ed a w ay f ro m I ta ly h im se lf ; f a ile d t o esta b lis h s e ttle m en ts t h ere . E ven t h ese m is ta k es, i f h e h ad l iv ed , need n ot h av e b een f a ta l i f t h ere h ad n ot b een a s ix th : h is dis p osse ssin g t h e V en etia n s o f t h eir s ta te . I f h e h ad n ot m ad e t h e Churc h s tr o ng, o r b ro ught S pain i n to I ta ly , i t w ould h av e b een re aso nab le a n d n ecessa ry t o c ru sh t h e V en etia n s. B ut h av in g t a k en th ose s te p s, h e s h ould n ev er h av e l e t t h em b e r u in ed ; b ecau se while t h ey r e m ain ed p ow erfu l t h ey w ould a lw ay s h av e p re v en te d th e o th ers f ro m m ovin g a g ain st L om bard y. T he V en etia n s w ould hav e o ppose d t h is u nle ss i t g av e t h em c o ntr o l o f L om bard y th em se lv es, a n d t h e o th ers w ould n ot h av e w an te d t o w re st i t f ro m Fra n ce t o g iv e i t t o t h em . N or w ould t h ey h av e h ad t h e c o ura g e t o defy b oth F ra n ce a n d t h e V en etia n s. I f a n yone s h ould s a y t h at Kin g L ouis c ed ed t h e R om ag na t o A le x an der a n d t h e k in gdom o f Nap le s t o S pain i n o rd er t o e sc ap e a w ar, I w ould r e p ly w ith t h e "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" arg um en ts u se d a b ove, t h at o ne m ust n ev er a llo w d is o rd er t o co ntin ue s o a s t o e sc ap e a w ar. A nyhow o ne d oes n ot e sc ap e:

t h e war i s m ere ly p ostp oned t o o ne’s d is a d van ta g e. A nd i f an yone sh ould c ite t h e k in g’s g ood f a ith , w hic h h e h ad p le d ged t o t h e pope, a n d h is p ro m is e t o u nderta k e t h at e n te rp ris e i n r e tu rn f o r hav in g h is m arria g e d is so lv ed a n d a c ard in al’ s h at g iv en t o Rouen , m y r e p ly i s w hat I s h all s a y l a te r c o ncern in g t h e g ood fa ith o f p rin ces a n d t h e w ay t h ey s h ould k eep t h eir w ord . K in g Louis , t h ere fo re , l o st L om bard y b ecau se h e o bse rv ed n one o f t h e ru le s o bse rv ed b y o th ers w ho h av e s e iz ed c o untr ie s a n d dete rm in ed t o h old o n t o t h em . T here i s n oth in g f a n ta stic a b out th is , i t i s v ery c o m monpla ce a n d r e aso nab le . I h ad a w ord o n t h is su bje ct w ith R ouen , a t N an te s, w hen V ale n tin o ( a s C esa re B org ia , so n o f P ope A le x an der, w as p opula rly c alle d ) w as o ccu pyin g t h e Rom ag na. W hen t h e c ard in al o f R ouen s a id t o m e t h at t h e I ta lia n s did n ot u nders ta n d w ar, I r e to rte d t h at t h e F re n ch d id n ot unders ta n d s ta te cra ft, b ecau se , i f t h ey u nders to od i t, t h en t h ey would n ot l e t t h e C hurc h b eco m e s o g re at. A nd t h e c o urs e o f ev en ts i n I ta ly h as s h ow n h ow t h e g re atn ess o f t h e C hurc h a n d o f Spain h as b een c au se d b y F ra n ce, a n d h ow t h e r u in o f F ra n ce h as been c au se d b y t h em . F ro m t h is w e c an d ed uce a g en era l r u le , whic h n ev er o r r a re ly f a ils t o a p ply : t h at w hoev er i s r e sp onsib le fo r a n oth er’s b eco m in g p ow erfu l r u in s h im se lf , b ecau se t h is pow er i s b ro ught i n to b ein g e ith er b y i n gen uity o r b y f o rc e, a n d both o f t h ese a re s u sp ect t o t h e o ne w ho h as b eco m e p ow erfu l.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" IV W hy t h e k in gdom o f D ariu s c o n qu ere d b y A le x an der did n ot r e b el a gain st h is s u ccesso rs a fte r h is d ea th O ne c o uld w ell w onder, a fte r h av in g c o nsid ere d a ll t h e d if fic u ltie s i n volv ed i n h old in g a n ew ly a cq uir e d s ta te , h ow i t w as t h at w hen A le x an der, w ho h ad i n a f e w y ears b eco m e r u le r o f a ll A sia , d ie d w ith h is c o nquest s c arc ely c o m ple te d , t h ere w as n ot, a s m ig ht h av e b een e x pecte d , a g en era l u pris in g.

I n ste ad , A le x an der’s s u ccesso rs r u le d s e cu re ly ; a n d i n t h eir g overn m en t t h e o nly d if fic u lty a ro se f ro m t h eir o w n a m bitio ns a n d r iv alr ie s. M y a n sw er t o t h is p ro ble m i s t h at a ll p rin cip alitie s k now n t o h is to ry a re g overn ed i n o ne o f t w o w ay s, e ith er b y a p rin ce t o w hom e v ery one i s s u bse rv ie n t a n d w hose m in is te rs , w ith h is f a v our a n d p erm is sio n, h elp g overn , o r b y a p rin ce a n d b y n oble s w hose r a n k i s e sta b lis h ed n ot b y f a v our o f t h e p rin ce b ut b y t h eir a n cie n t l in eag e. S uch n oble s h av e s ta te s a n d s u bje cts o f t h eir o w n, a n d t h ese a ck now le d ge t h em a s t h eir l o rd s a n d b ear a n atu ra l a ffe ctio n t o w ard s t h em . I n s ta te s g overn ed b y a p rin ce a n d h is s e rv an ts , t h e p rin ce h as g re ate r a u th ority . F or t h ro ughout t h e w hole c o untr y h e a lo ne i s r e co gniz ed a s b ein g e n title d t o a lle g ia n ce; a n yone e ls e i s o bey ed a s a m in is te r a n d a n o ffic ia l f o r w hom n o s p ecia l l o ve i s f e lt.

Conte m pora ry e x am ple s o f t h ese t w o d if fe re n t k in ds o f g overn m en t a re p ro vid ed b y t h e T urk a n d t h e k in g o f F ra n ce. T he T urk is h e m pir e i s r u le d b y o ne m an ; a ll t h e o th ers a re h is " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" se rv an ts . T his o ne r u le r d iv id es t h e em pir e i n to sa ndja ks , i n ch arg e o f w hic h h e p la ces v ario us a d m in is tr a to rs , w hom h e ch an ges a n d v arie s a s i t s u its h im . B ut t h e k in g o f F ra n ce i s su rro unded b y a l o ng-e sta b lis h ed o rd er o f n oble s, w ho a re ack now le d ged i n F ra n ce b y t h eir o w n s u bje cts a n d a re l o ved b y th em . T hey h av e t h eir p re ro gativ es; t h e k in g c an not t a k e t h ese aw ay f ro m t h em e x cep t a t h is o w n p eril. S o, t o m ak e a co m paris o n b etw een t h ese t w o k in ds o f s ta te , i t i s d if fic u lt t o w in co ntr o l o f t h e T urk is h e m pir e b ut, o nce i t h as b een c o nquere d , i t can b e h eld w ith e ase . O n t h e o th er h an d, i n s e v era l r e sp ects y ou will f in d t h at t h e F re n ch s ta te c an b e m ore e asily s e iz ed , b ut i t c an be h eld o nly w ith g re at d if fic u lty .

The r e aso ns f o r i t b ein g d if fic u lt t o s u cceed i n w in nin g posse ssio n o f t h e T urk is h e m pir e a re t h at t h ere i s n o c h an ce o f bein g c alle d i n b y t h e l o cal p rin ces, a n d t h at o ne c an not h ope t o fo rw ard t h e e n te rp ris e b y t h e r e b ellio n o f t h ose w ho a re n ear t o th e r u le r. A nd t h is i s b ecau se o f t h e r e aso ns I g av e a b ove: t h ey a re all s la v es b ound i n l o yalty t o t h eir m aste r a n d s o i t i s m ore dif fic u lt t o c o rru pt t h em ; a n d e v en s h ould t h ey b e c o rru pte d o ne can not h ope t o m ak e m uch u se o f t h em b ecau se t h ey a re u nab le , fo r t h e r e aso ns a lr e ad y g iv en , t o d ra w t h e p eo ple a fte r t h em .

Whoev er a tta ck s t h e T urk is h e m pir e , t h ere fo re , m ust e x pect t o fin d i t c o m ple te ly u nite d , a n d h e i s c o nstr a in ed t o b ase h is h opes on h is o w n s tr e n gth r a th er t h an h is e n em y’s d is u nity . B ut i f o nce th e T urk h as b een v an quis h ed a n d b ro ken i n b attle s o t h at h e can not r a is e n ew a rm ie s, t h ere i s n oth in g t o w orry a b out e x cep t th e r u le r’s f a m ily . W hen t h at h as b een w ip ed o ut t h ere i s n o o ne le ft t o f e ar, b ecau se t h e o th ers h av e n o cre d it w ith t h e p eo ple ; a n d ju st a s b efo re h is v ic to ry t h e c o nquero r h as n oth in g t o h ope f ro m th em , s o a fte rw ard s h e n eed n ot f e ar t h em .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" The o pposite h ap pen s i n k in gdom s g overn ed i n t h e w ay F ra n ce is . Y ou c an e asily i n vad e i f y ou w in o ver o ne o f t h e b aro ns. T here alw ay s e x is t m alc o nte n ts a n d t h ose w ho w an t a c h an ge. T hese , f o r th e r e aso ns e x pla in ed , c an o pen u p t h e s ta te t o y ou a n d f a cilita te your v ic to ry . B ut s u bse q uen tly , w hen y ou w an t t o m ain ta in y our ru le , y ou r u n i n to c o untle ss d if fic u ltie s, a s r e g ard s b oth t h ose w ho hav e h elp ed y ou a n d t h ose y ou h av e s u bju gate d . N or i s i t e n ough fo r y ou t o d estr o y t h e r u le r’s f a m ily , b ecau se t h ere s till r e m ain noble s t o r a is e i n su rre ctio ns; a n d b ein g a b le n eith er t o s a tis fy th em n or t o d estr o y t h em y ou l o se t h e s ta te a s s o on a s t h eir opportu nity p re se n ts i ts e lf .

Now , i f y ou w ill c o nsid er t h e k in d o f g overn m en t w hic h D ariu s ad m in is te re d , y ou w ill f in d i t r e se m ble d t h at o f t h e T urk ; a n d s o fir s t o f a ll A le x an der h ad t o a tta ck h im h ead -o n a n d d riv e h im fro m t h e f ie ld . T hen , a fte r h e h ad w on t h at v ic to ry a n d D ariu s w as dead , t h e s ta te r e ste d s e cu re ly i n A le x an der’s h an ds f o r t h e re aso ns d is c u sse d a b ove. H ad t h ey b een u nite d , h is s u ccesso rs co uld h av e e n jo yed i t u ndis tu rb ed ; c erta in ly , t h ere w ere n o tu m ults o th er t h an t h ose t h ey t h em se lv es p ro voked . B ut a s f o r sta te s c o nstitu te d l ik e F ra n ce, i t i s i m possib le t o r u le t h em w ith s o little t r o uble . T his f a ct e x pla in s t h e m an y r e b ellio ns a g ain st t h e Rom an s i n S pain , F ra n ce, a n d G re ece, w hic h w ere d ue t o t h e num ber o f p rin cip alitie s o f w hic h t h ese c o untr ie s w ere c o m pose d .

The R om an s w ere a lw ay s u nsu re o f t h eir h old w hile t h e mem ory of t h ese p rin cip alitie s e n dure d . B ut w hen R om an r u le h ad b een lo ng e sta b lis h ed a n d h ad b eco m e p ow erfu l, a n d t h e p rin cip alitie s were c o m ple te ly f o rg otte n , t h e R om an s c o nso lid ate d t h eir positio n. L ate r o n, h ow ev er, w hen t h ey , t h e R om an s, f o ught am ong t h em se lv es, e ach o ne o f t h em c o uld d ra w s u pport f ro m vario us p arts o f t h e c o nquere d t e rrito rie s i n p ro portio n t o t h e "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" au th ority h e h ad a cq uir e d ; a lle g ia n ce w as g iv en t o t h e R om an s in div id ually b ecau se t h e f a m ilie s o f t h e f o rm er r u le rs h ad b een wip ed o ut. S o i f t h is i s b orn e i n m in d n o o ne w ill w onder a t t h e ease w ith w hic h A le x an der k ep t c o m man d o f A sia , o r a t t h e dif fic u ltie s e n co unte re d b y o th ers , s u ch a s P yrrh us a n d m an y more l ik e h im , i n m ain ta in in g t h eir c o nquests . T his c o ntr a st d oes not d ep en d o n w heth er t h e c o nquero rs a re m ore o r l e ss c ap ab le but o n t h e k in d o f s ta te t h ey c o nquer.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" V H ow c itie s o r p rin cip alitie s w hic h l iv ed u nder t h eir o w n la w s s h ou ld b e a dm in is te re d a fte r b ein g c o n qu ere d W hen s ta te s n ew ly a cq uir e d a s I s a id h av e b een a ccu sto m ed t o l iv in g f re ely u nder t h eir o w n l a w s, t h ere a re t h re e w ay s t o h old t h em s e cu re ly : f ir s t, b y d ev asta tin g t h em ; n ex t, b y g oin g a n d l iv in g t h ere i n p ers o n; t h ir d ly , b y l e ttin g t h em k eep t h eir o w n l a w s, e x actin g t r ib ute , a n d s e ttin g u p a n o lig arc h y w hic h w ill k eep t h e s ta te f rie n dly t o y ou. I n t h e l a st c ase , t h e g overn m en t w ill k now t h at i t c an not e n dure w ith out t h e f rie n dsh ip a n d pow er o f t h e p rin ce w ho c re ate d i t, a n d s o i t h as t o e x ert i ts e lf t o m ain ta in h is a u th ority . A c ity u se d t o f re ed om c an b e m ore e asily r u le d t h ro ugh i ts o w n c itiz en s, p ro vid ed y ou d o n ot w is h t o d estr o y i t, t h an i n a n y o th er w ay .

Exam ple s a re p ro vid ed b y t h e S parta n s a n d t h e R om an s. T he S parta n s r u le d A th en s a n d T heb es t h ro ugh t h e o lig arc h ie s t h ey e sta b lis h ed t h ere , a lth ough i n t h e e n d t h ey l o st t h em . T he R om an s, i n o rd er t o h old C ap ua, C arth ag e, a n d N um an tia , d estr o yed t h em , a n d s o n ev er l o st t h em . T hey w an te d t o r u le G re ece a lm ost a s t h e S parta n s d id , f re ely , u nder i ts o w n l a w s, b ut t h ey d id n ot s u cceed ; s o i n o rd er t o m ain ta in t h eir p ow er t h ey w ere c o nstr a in ed t o d estr o y m an y c itie s i n t h at p ro vin ce. I n deed , t h ere i s n o s u re r w ay o f k eep in g p osse ssio n t h an b y d ev asta tio n.

W hoev er b eco m es t h e m aste r o f a c ity a ccu sto m ed t o f re ed om , a n d d oes n ot d estr o y i t, m ay e x pect t o b e d estr o yed h im se lf ; " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" becau se , w hen t h ere i s a r e b ellio n, s u ch a c ity j u stif ie s i ts e lf b y callin g o n t h e n am e o f l ib erty a n d i ts a n cie n t i n stitu tio ns, n ev er fo rg otte n d esp ite t h e p assin g o f t im e a n d t h e b en efits r e ceiv ed fro m t h e n ew r u le r. W hate v er t h e c o nquero r’s a ctio ns o r f o re sig ht, if t h e i n hab ita n ts a re n ot d is p ers e d a n d s c atte re d , t h ey w ill f o rg et neith er t h at n am e n or t h ose i n stitu tio ns; a n d a t t h e f ir s t opportu nity t h ey w ill a t o nce h av e r e co urs e t o t h em , a s d id P is a afte r h av in g b een k ep t i n s e rv itu de f o r a h undre d y ears b y t h e Flo re n tin es. B ut w hen c itie s o r p ro vin ces a re u se d t o l iv in g u nder a p rin ce, a n d h is f a m ily i s w ip ed o ut, s in ce o n t h e o ne h an d t h ey are u se d t o o bey in g, a n d o n t h e o th er h av e l o st t h eir f o rm er prin ce, t h ey c an not a g re e o n t h e c h oic e o f a n ew prin ce f ro m am ong t h em se lv es a n d t h ey c an not l iv e i n f re ed om w ith out o ne.

So t h ey a re s lo w er t o t a k e u p a rm s, a n d a p rin ce c an w in t h em a n d assu re h im se lf o f t h em m ore e asily .

B ut i n r e p ublic s t h ere i s m ore lif e , m ore h atr e d , a g re ate r d esir e f o r r e v en ge; t h e m em ory o f t h eir an cie n t l ib erty d oes n ot a n d c an not l e t t h em r e st; i n t h eir c ase t h e su re st w ay i s t o w ip e t h em o ut o r t o l iv e t h ere i n p ers o n.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" VI New p rin cip alitie s a cq u ir e d b y o n e’s o w n a rm s a n d pro w ess N o o ne s h ould b e s u rp ris e d i f , i n d is c u ssin g s ta te s w here b oth t h e p rin ce a n d t h e c o nstitu tio n a re n ew , I s h all g iv e t h e l o ftie st e x am ple s. M en n early a lw ay s f o llo w t h e t r a ck s m ad e b y o th ers a n d p ro ceed i n t h eir a ffa ir s b y i m ita tio n, e v en t h ough t h ey c an not e n tir e ly k eep t o t h e t r a ck s o f o th ers o r e m ula te t h e p ro w ess o f t h eir m odels .

S o a p ru den t m an m ust a lw ay s f o llo w i n t h e f o ots te p s o f g re at m en a n d i m ita te t h ose w ho h av e b een o uts ta n din g. I f h is o w n p ro w ess f a ils t o c o m pare w ith t h eir s , a t l e ast i t h as a n a ir o f g re atn ess a b out i t. H e m ust b eh av e l ik e t h ose a rc h ers w ho, i f t h ey a re s k ilf u l, w hen t h e t a rg et s e em s t o o d is ta n t, k now t h e c ap ab ilitie s o f t h eir b ow a n d a im a g ood d eal h ig her t h an t h eir o bje ctiv e, n ot i n o rd er t o s h oot s o h ig h b ut s o t h at b y a im in g h ig h t h ey c an r e ach t h e t a rg et.

I s a y , t h ere fo re , t h at i n c o m ple te ly n ew s ta te s, w here t h e p rin ce h im se lf i s a n ew co m er, t h e d if fic u lty h e en co unte rs i n m ain ta in in g h is r u le i s m ore o r l e ss s e rio us i n so fa r a s h e i s m ore o r l e ss a b le .

A nd s in ce t h e v ery f a ct t h at f ro m b ein g a p riv ate c itiz en h e h as b eco m e a p rin ce p re su ppose s e ith er a b ility o r g ood f o rtu ne, i t w ould s e em t h at o ne o r t h e o th er o f t h ese s h ould t o s o m e e x te n t l e sse n m an y o f t h e d if fic u ltie s e n co unte re d . N one t h e l e ss, t h e l e ss a m an h as r e lie d o n f o rtu ne t h e s tr o nger h e h as m ad e h is p ositio n.

I t a ls o h elp s i f t h e p rin ce h as n o o th er s ta te s a n d s o i s f o rc ed t o " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" liv e i n h is n ew s ta te i n p ers o n. B ut t o c o m e t o t h ose w ho b ecam e prin ces b y t h eir o w n a b ilitie s a n d n ot b y g ood f o rtu ne, I s a y t h at th e m ost o uts ta n din g a re M ose s, C yru s, R om ulu s, T hese u s, a n d oth ers l ik e t h em . A lth ough o ne s h ould n ot r e aso n a b out M ose s, sin ce h e m ere ly e x ecu te d w hat G od c o m man ded , y et h e m ust b e pra is e d f o r t h e g ra ce w hic h m ad e h im w orth y o f s p eak in g w ith God. B ut l e t u s c o nsid er C yru s a n d t h e o th ers w ho a cq uir e d a n d fo unded k in gdom s: t h ey w ere a ll p ra is e w orth y, a n d t h eir a ctio ns an d i n stitu tio ns, w hen e x am in ed , d o n ot s e em t o d if fe r f ro m t h ose of M ose s, w ho h ad s u ch a m ig hty t e ach er. A nd w hen w e c o m e t o ex am in e t h eir a ctio ns a n d l iv es, t h ey d o n ot s e em t o h av e h ad fro m f o rtu ne a n yth in g o th er t h an o pportu nity . F ortu ne, a s i t w ere , pro vid ed t h e m atte r b ut t h ey g av e i t i ts f o rm ; w ith out o pportu nity th eir p ro w ess w ould h av e b een e x tin guis h ed , a n d w ith out s u ch pro w ess t h e o pportu nity w ould h av e c o m e i n v ain .

Thus f o r t h e I s ra elite s t o b e r e ad y t o f o llo w M ose s, i n o rd er t o esc ap e f ro m s e rv itu de, i t w as n ecessa ry f o r h im t o f in d t h em , i n Egypt, e n sla v ed a n d o ppre sse d b y t h e E gyptia n s. F or R om ulu s t o beco m e k in g o f R om e a n d fo under o f h is c o untr y , h e h ad t o h av e le ft A lb a a n d b een e x pose d t o d ie w hen h e w as b orn . C yru s need ed t o f in d t h e P ers ia n s r e b ellio us a g ain st t h e e m pir e o f t h e Med es, a n d t h e M ed es g ro w n s o ft a n d e ffe m in ate t h ro ugh t h e lo ng y ears o f p eace. T hese u s c o uld n ot h av e d em onstr a te d h is pro w ess h ad h e n ot f o und t h e A th en ia n s d is p ers e d . T he opportu nitie s g iv en t h em e n ab le d t h ese m en t o s u cceed , a n d t h eir ow n e x cep tio nal p ro w ess e n ab le d t h em t o s e iz e t h eir opportu nitie s; i n c o nse q uen ce t h eir c o untr ie s w ere e n noble d a n d en jo yed g re at p ro sp erity .

Men w ho b eco m e r u le rs b y p ro w ess s im ila r t o t h eir s a cq uir e th eir p rin cip alitie s w ith d if fic u lty b ut h old t h em w ith e ase . T he "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" dif fic u ltie s t h ey e n co unte r i n a cq uir in g t h eir p rin cip alitie s a ris e partly b ecau se o f t h e n ew i n stitu tio ns a n d l a w s t h ey a re f o rc ed t o in tr o duce i n f o undin g t h e s ta te a n d m ak in g t h em se lv es s e cu re . I t sh ould b e b orn e i n m in d t h at t h ere i s n oth in g m ore d if fic u lt t o han dle , m ore d oubtf u l o f s u ccess, a n d m ore d an gero us t o c arry th ro ugh t h an i n itia tin g c h an ges i n a s ta te ’s c o nstitu tio n. T he in novato r m ak es e n em ie s o f a ll t h ose w ho p ro sp ere d u nder t h e o ld ord er, a n d o nly l u kew arm s u pport i s f o rth co m in g f ro m t h ose w ho would p ro sp er u nder t h e n ew . T heir s u pport i s l u kew arm p artly fro m f e ar o f t h eir a d vers a rie s, w ho h av e t h e e x is tin g l a w s o n t h eir sid e, a n d p artly b ecau se m en a re g en era lly i n cre d ulo us, n ev er re ally t r u stin g n ew t h in gs u nle ss t h ey h av e t e ste d t h em b y ex perie n ce. I n c o nse q uen ce, w hen ev er t h ose w ho o ppose t h e ch an ges c an d o s o , t h ey a tta ck v ig oro usly , a n d t h e d efe n ce m ad e by t h e o th ers i s o nly l u kew arm . S o b oth t h e i n novato r a n d h is frie n ds co m e t o g rie f. B ut t o d is c u ss t h is s u bje ct t h oro ughly w e must d is tin guis h b etw een i n novato rs w ho s ta n d a lo ne a n d t h ose who d ep en d o n o th ers , t h at i s b etw een t h ose w ho t o a ch ie v e t h eir purp ose s c an f o rc e t h e i s su e a n d t h ose w ho m ust u se p ers u asio n.

In t h e s e co nd c ase , t h ey a lw ay s c o m e t o g rie f, h av in g a ch ie v ed noth in g; w hen , h ow ev er, t h ey d ep en d o n t h eir o w n r e so urc es a n d can f o rc e t h e i s su e, t h en t h ey a re s e ld om e n dan gere d . T hat i s w hy all a rm ed p ro phets h av e c o nquere d , a n d u narm ed p ro phets h av e co m e t o g rie f. B esid es w hat I h av e s a id a lr e ad y, t h e p opula ce i s by n atu re f ic k le ; i t i s e asy t o p ers u ad e t h em o f s o m eth in g, b ut dif fic u lt t o c o nfir m t h em i n t h at p ers u asio n. T here fo re o ne m ust urg en tly a rra n ge m atte rs s o t h at w hen t h ey n o l o nger b elie v e t h ey can b e m ad e t o b elie v e b y f o rc e. M ose s, C yru s, T hese u s, a n d Rom ulu s w ould n ot h av e b een a b le t o h av e t h eir i n stitu tio ns re sp ecte d a l o ng t im e i f t h ey h ad b een u narm ed , a s w as t h e c ase i n "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" our t im e w ith F rà G ir o la m o S av onaro la w ho c am e t o g rie f w ith his n ew i n stitu tio ns w hen t h e c ro w d s ta rte d t o l o se f a ith i n h im , an d h e h ad n o w ay o f h old in g f a st t h ose w ho h ad b elie v ed o r o f fo rc in g t h e i n cre d ulo us t o b elie v e. M en s u ch a s h e h av e co nsid era b le d if fic u lty i n a ch ie v in g t h eir e n ds, a n d t h e m ost dan gero us t im e f o r t h em i s w hen t h ey a re s till s tr iv in g; b ut o nce th ey h av e s u cceed ed a n d b eg in t o b e v en era te d , h av in g d estr o yed th ose w ho w ere e n vio us o f t h eir a b ilitie s, t h ey s ta y p ow erfu l, se cu re , r e sp ecte d , a n d h ap py.

I w an t n ow t o a d d a n oth er, l e sse r e x am ple t o t h ese l o fty o nes. I t will, h ow ev er, b ear t h e c o m paris o n t o s o m e e x te n t, a n d I s h all l e t it s ta n d f o r o th ers o f i ts k in d. T he ex am ple I h av e i n m in d i s H ie ro of S yra cu se . F ro m b ein g a p riv ate c itiz en , h e b ecam e r u le r o f Syra cu se . H e t o o o w ed n oth in g t o f o rtu ne e x cep t h is o pportu nity , becau se t h e S yra cu sa n s c h ose h im t o l e ad t h eir a rm y w hen t h ey were b ein g d riv en h ard , a n d t h en h e e arn ed t h e r ig ht t o b e t h eir prin ce. H is p ro w ess w as s u ch , e v en w hen h e w as a n o rd in ary citiz en , t h at h is b io gra p her w ro te : ‘ quod n ih il i lli d eera t a d re g nandum p ra ete r r e g num ’ . * H e d is b an ded t h e o ld m ilitia a n d org an iz ed a n ew o ne; h e a b an doned f o rm er a llia n ces a n d m ad e fre sh o nes; a n d w hen h e h ad h is o w n a llia n ces a n d t r o ops h e h ad th e f o undatio ns f o r w hate v er h e w an te d . H ie ro , t h ere fo re , h ad t o work v ery h ard t o e sta b lis h h is p ositio n, b ut v ery l ittle t o m ain ta in it.

* ‘ T hat h e h ad a ll t h e a ttr ib ute s o f a k in g e x cep t a k in gdom .’ "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" VII N ew p rin cip alitie s a cq u ir e d w ith t h e h elp o f f o rtu ne a n d fo re ig n a rm s P riv ate c itiz en s w ho b eco m e p rin ces p ure ly b y g ood f o rtu ne d o s o w ith l ittle e x ertio n o n t h eir o w n p art; b ut s u bse q uen tly t h ey m ain ta in t h eir p ositio n o nly b y c o nsid era b le e x ertio n. T hey m ak e t h e j o urn ey a s i f t h ey h ad w in gs; t h eir p ro ble m s s ta rt w hen t h ey a lig ht. T his i s t h e c ase w ith m en w ho e ith er b uy t h eir w ay i n to p ow er o r a re g ra n te d i t b y t h e f a v our o f s o m eo ne e ls e , a s h ap pen ed w ith m an y i n G re ece, i n t h e c itie s o f I o nia a n d th e H elle sp ont, w ho w ere m ad e s a tr a p s b y D ariu s s o t h at t h ey m ig ht r u le t h ose c itie s f o r h is s e cu rity a n d g lo ry . T his w as a ls o t h e c ase w ith t h ose w ho f ro m b ein g p riv ate c itiz en s b ecam e e m pero rs b y c o rru ptin g t h e s o ld ie rs . S uch r u le rs r e ly o n t h e g oodw ill a n d f o rtu ne o f t h ose w ho h av e e le v ate d t h em , a n d b oth t h ese a re c ap ric io us, u nsta b le t h in gs. T hey d o n ot k now h ow t o m ain ta in t h eir p ositio n, a n d t h ey c an not d o s o . T hey d o n ot k now h ow , b ecau se , u nle ss t h ey p osse ss c o nsid era b le t a le n t a n d p ro w ess, p riv ate c itiz en s a re i n cap ab le o f c o m man din g; t h ey c an not, b ecau se t h ey d o n ot h av e l o yal a n d d ev ote d t r o ops o f t h eir o w n.

T hen a g ain , g overn m en ts s e t u p o vern ig ht, l ik e e v ery th in g i n n atu re w hose g ro w th i s f o rc ed , l a ck s tr o ng r o ots a n d r a m if ic atio ns. S o t h ey a re d estr o yed i n t h e f ir s t b ad s p ell. T his i s i n ev ita b le u nle ss t h ose w ho h av e s u dden ly b eco m e p rin ces a re o f s u ch p ro w ess t h at o vern ig ht t h ey c an l e arn h ow t o p re se rv e w hat " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" fo rtu ne h as s u dden ly t o sse d i n to t h eir l a p s, a n d u nle ss t h ey c an th en l a y f o undatio ns s u ch a s o th er p rin ces w ould h av e a lr e ad y been b uild in g o n.

Of t h ese t w o w ay s o f b eco m in g a p rin ce, b y p ro w ess o r b y fo rtu ne, I w an t n ow t o g iv e t w o e x am ple s f ro m l iv in g m em ory :

nam ely F ra n cesc o S fo rz a a n d C esa re B org ia . F ra n cesc o , u sin g t h e rig ht m ean s, a n d b y h is o w n g re at p ro w ess, f ro m b ein g a p riv ate citiz en b ecam e d uke o f M ila n . W hat h e w on o nly a fte r e n dle ss str u ggle s h e t h en h eld w ith l ittle e x ertio n. O n t h e o th er h an d, Cesa re B org ia , c o m monly c alle d D uke V ale n tin o, a cq uir e d h is sta te t h ro ugh t h e g ood f o rtu ne o f h is f a th er, a n d l o st i t w hen t h at dis a p peare d ; a n d t h is h ap pen ed e v en t h ough h e u se d t h e s a m e way s a n d m ean s a n y p ru den t a n d cap ab le p rin ce w ould t o co nso lid ate h is p ow er i n t h e s ta te s h e h ad w on b y t h e a rm s a n d fo rtu ne o f o th ers . A s I s a id b efo re , a m an o f e x cep tio nal p ro w ess can b uild t h e f o undatio ns o f h is s ta te a fte r h e h as a cq uir e d i t, e v en if b y d oin g s o h e r u ns a r is k h im se lf a s w ell a s e n dan gerin g t h e whole s u bse q uen t e d if ic e. S o i f w e c o nsid er t h e d uke’s c are er a s a whole , w e f in d t h at h e l a id s tr o ng f o undatio ns f o r t h e f u tu re . A nd I d o n ot c o nsid er i t s u perflu ous t o d is c u ss t h ese , b ecau se I k now no b ette r p re cep ts t o g iv e a n ew p rin ce t h an o nes d eriv ed f ro m Cesa re ’s a ctio ns; a n d i f w hat h e i n stitu te d w as o f n o a v ail, t h is was n ot h is f a u lt b ut a ro se f ro m t h e e x tr a o rd in ary a n d i n ord in ate malic e o f f o rtu ne.

Ale x an der V I, w hen h e s o ught t h e a g gra n diz em en t o f h is s o n, fa ced a c o nsid era b le n um ber o f a ctu al a n d p ote n tia l d if fic u ltie s.

Fir s t, h e s a w n o w ay o f a cq uir in g a s ta te f o r t h e d uke, u nle ss i t were o ne o f t h e s ta te s o f t h e C hurc h ; b ut h e k new t h e d uke o f Mila n a n d t h e V en etia n s w ould n ev er c o nse n t i f h e s e t o ut t o s e iz e one o f t h ese . F aen za a n d R im in i w ere a lr e ad y u nder t h e p ro te ctio n "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" of t h e V en etia n s. H e s a w a s w ell t h at t h e I ta lia n a rm s, o r s u ch o f th em a s h e c o uld h ope t o u tiliz e, w ere c o ntr o lle d b y t h ose w ho had r e aso n t o f e ar t h e a g gra n diz em en t o f t h e p ope; h e c o uld n ot tr u st h im se lf t o t h em , s in ce t h ey b elo nged t o t h e O rs in i a n d t h e Colo nna a n d t h eir c o nfe d era te s. W hat h e h ad t o d o, t h ere fo re , w as to c re ate d is o rd er, t h ro w in g t h eir s ta te s i n to a t u rm oil, s o t h at h e co uld w in s e cu re c o ntr o l o f p art o f t h em . T his p ro ved v ery e asy t o do b ecau se h e f o und t h e V en etia n s, f o r o th er r e aso ns, en deav ourin g t o b rin g t h e F re n ch b ack i n to I ta ly . N ot o nly d id Ale x an der not g ain sa y t h is , h e f a cilita te d i t b y d is so lv in g K in g Louis ’ f o rm er m arria g e. S o t h e k in g i n vad ed I ta ly w ith t h e h elp o f th e V en etia n s a n d t h e c o nse n t o f A le x an der, a n d h e w as n o s o oner in M ila n t h an t h e p ope h ad t r o ops f ro m h im f o r t h e R om ag na cam paig n; a n d t h e R om ag na y ie ld ed t o h im b ecau se o f t h e sta n din g o f t h e k in g i n I ta ly . B ut t h en w hen t h e d uke h ad w on t h e Rom ag na, a n d t h e C olo nna h ad b een c ru sh ed , t w o t h in gs pre v en te d h im f ro m c o nso lid atin g h is p ositio n a n d a d van cin g fu rth er: f ir s t, t h e l o yalty o f h is t r o ops w as d oubtf u l, a n d s e co nd, th ere w as t h e p olic y o f F ra n ce. T o e x pla in t h is , i t s e em ed t h at t h e Ors in i t r o ops, o f w hic h h e h ad m ad e u se , m ig ht b etr a y h im , n ot only h altin g h is p ro gre ss b ut r o bbin g h im o f w hat h e h ad w on; an d i t s e em ed t h at t h e k in g m ig ht d o t h e s a m e. H e h ad o ne co nfir m atio n o f t h ese f e ars w hen , a fte r t h e c ap tu re o f F aen za, h e assa u lte d B olo gna a n d s a w t h e O rs in i t r o ops g o i n to b attle h alf - hearte d ly .

A s f o r t h e k in g, t h e d uke r e aliz ed w hat w as i n h is m in d when , a fte r c ap tu rin g t h e d uch y o f U rb in o, h e i n vad ed T usc an y an d t h e k in g c alle d h im o ff. S o t h e d uke d ete rm in ed t o r e ly n o lo nger o n t h e a rm s a n d f o rtu ne o f o th ers . F ir s t h e u nderm in ed t h e pow er o f t h e O rs in i a n d C olo nna f a ctio ns i n R om e, w in nin g t h e alle g ia n ce o f a ll t h eir h ig h-b orn a d here n ts b y g iv in g t h em o ffic es "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" an d c o m mis sio ns, a n d h onourin g t h em a cco rd in g t o t h eir r a n k.

The u psh ot w as t h at w ith in a f e w m onth s t h eir a tta ch m en t t o t h e fa ctio ns w as d estr o yed a n d t h ey w ere a ll f o r t h e d uke. A fte r t h is he w aite d h is c h an ce t o d estr o y t h e l e ad ers o f t h e O rs in i, h av in g alr e ad y d is p ers e d t h ose o f t h e C olo nna. A g ood o pportu nity c am e his w ay , a n d h e u se d i t w ell. W hat hap pen ed w as t h at t h e O rs in i re aliz ed , b ela te d ly , t h at t h e a g gra n diz em en t o f t h e d uke a n d o f t h e Churc h s p elle d t h eir o w n r u in , a n d t h ere fo re t h ey s u m moned a co nfe re n ce a t M ag io ne n ear P eru gia . O ut o f t h is m eetin g c am e t h e re v olt o f U rb in o, u pris in gs i n t h e R om ag na, a n d c o untle ss d an gers to t h e d uke. H e o verc am e a ll o f t h ese w ith t h e h elp o f t h e F re n ch .

His f o rm er s ta n din g i n I ta ly w as r e sto re d , b ut h e n o l o nger t r u ste d Fra n ce o r t h e f o rc es o f o th ers , a n d i n o rd er n ot t o r u n r is k s b y doin g s o h e t u rn ed t o s tr a ta g em . H is p ow ers o f d is sim ula tio n w ere so g re at t h at e v en t h e O rs in i, t h ro ugh S ig nor P au lo , r e co ncile d th em se lv es w ith h im . T he d uke u se d e v ery d ev ic e o f d ip lo m acy t o re assu re P au lo , g iv in g h im g if ts o f m oney , c lo th es, a n d h ors e s; an d s o t h eir s im plic ity l e d t h e O rs in i t o S in ig ag lia , i n to h is h an ds.

So, t h e l e ad ers d estr o yed , t h eir f o llo w ers w ere f o rc ed i n to t h e duke’s c am p. T he d uke h ad l a id e x celle n t f o undatio ns f o r h is fu tu re p ow er. H e h eld a ll t h e R om ag na w ith t h e d uch y o f U rb in o, an d, a b ove a ll, h e s e em ed t o h av e w on t h e t r u st a n d f rie n dsh ip o f th e R om ag na a n d i ts i n hab ita n ts , n ow t h at t h ey h ad s ta rte d t o pro sp er u nder h is r u le .

As t h is p oin t d ese rv es c lo se s tu dy a n d i m ita tio n b y o th ers , I will n ot l e av e i t o ut. N ow , t h e d uke w on c o ntr o l o f t h e R om ag na an d f o und t h at i t h ad p re v io usly b een r u le d b y w eak o verlo rd s, quic k er t o d esp oil t h eir s u bje cts t h an t o g overn t h em w ell. T hey had g iv en t h em c au se f o r a n arc h y r a th er t h an u nio n, t o s u ch a n ex te n t t h at t h e p ro vin ce w as r if e w ith b rig an dag e, f a ctio ns, a n d "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" ev ery s o rt o f a b use . H e d ecid ed t h ere fo re t h at i t n eed ed g ood govern m en t t o p acif y i t a n d m ak e i t o bed ie n t t o t h e s o vere ig n au th ority . S o h e p la ced t h ere m esse r R em ir ro de O rc o , a c ru el, effic ie n t m an , t o w hom h e e n tr u ste d t h e f u lle st p ow ers . I n a s h ort tim e t h is R em ir ro p acif ie d a n d u nif ie d t h e R om ag na, w in nin g gre at c re d it f o r h im se lf . T hen t h e d uke d ecid ed t h at t h ere w as n o need f o r t h is e x cessiv e a u th ority , w hic h m ig ht g ro w i n to le ra b le , an d h e e sta b lis h ed i n t h e c en tr e o f t h e p ro vin ce a c iv il t r ib unal, under a n e m in en t p re sid en t, o n w hic h e v ery c ity h ad i ts o w n re p re se n ta tiv e. K now in g a ls o t h at t h e s e v eritie s o f t h e p ast h ad earn ed h im a c erta in a m ount o f h atr e d , t o p urg e t h e m in ds o f t h e peo ple a n d t o w in t h em o ver c o m ple te ly h e d ete rm in ed t o s h ow th at i f c ru eltie s h ad b een i n flic te d t h ey w ere n ot h is d oin g b ut pro m pte d b y t h e h ars h n atu re o f h is m in is te r. T his g av e C esa re a pre te x t; t h en , o ne m orn in g, R em ir ro ’s b ody w as f o und c u t i n t w o pie ces o n t h e p ia zza a t C ese n a, w ith a b lo ck o f w ood a n d a b lo ody knif e b esid e i t. T he b ru ta lity o f t h is s p ecta cle k ep t t h e p eo ple o f th e R om ag na a t o nce a p pease d a n d s tu pefie d .

But l e t u s g o b ack t o w here w e w ere b efo re t h at d ig re ssio n. T he duke f o und h im se lf i n a p ositio n o f c o nsid era b le p ow er a n d, i n part, s a fe a g ain st i m med ia te t h re ats , t h ro ugh p osse ssin g h is o w n tr o ops a n d h av in g l a rg ely d estr o yed t h e f o rc es o f t h ose w ho w ere near e n ough t o d o h im h arm . T hen , w an tin g t o e x pan d f u rth er, h e still h ad t o g o c are fu lly r e g ard in g F ra n ce, b ecau se h e k new t h is would n ot h av e b een a llo w ed b y t h e k in g, w ho h ad b ela te d ly re aliz ed h is m is ta k en p olic y . S o C esa re s ta rte d t o s e ek n ew allia n ces a n d t o t e m poriz e w ith F ra n ce w hen h er t r o ops w ere o n th e e x ped itio n t o w ard s N ap le s d ir e cte d a g ain st t h e S pan ia rd s w ho were b esie g in g G aeta . H is i n te n tio n w as t o s e cu re S pan is h su pport; a n d h e w ould h av e h ad i m med ia te s u ccess, i f A le x an der "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" had l iv ed .

Those w ere h is p la n s r e g ard in g t h e i m med ia te f u tu re . B ey ond th at, h is c h ie f c au se f o r a n xie ty w as t h at t h e n ex t s u ccesso r t o t h e pap acy m ig ht p ro ve u nfrie n dly a n d m ig ht e n deav our t o t a k e b ack what A le x an der h ad g iv en h im . H e s o ught t o g uard a g ain st t h is ev en tu ality i n f o ur w ay s: b y d estr o yin g a ll t h e f a m ilie s o f t h e ru le rs h e h ad d esp oile d , t h us d ep riv in g t h e p ope o f t h e opportu nity o f u sin g t h em a g ain st h im ; s e co nd, b y w in nin g o ver all t h e p atr ic ia n s i n R om e, a s I m en tio ned b efo re , i n o rd er t o h old th e p ope i n c h eck ; t h ir d , b y c o ntr o llin g t h e C olle g e o f C ard in als as f a r a s h e c o uld ; f o urth , b y a cq uir in g s o m uch p ow er h im se lf befo re A le x an der d ie d t h at h e c o uld o n h is o w n w ith sta n d a n in itia l a tta ck . O f t h ese f o ur, h e h ad , o n t h e d eath o f A le x an der, acco m plis h ed t h re e; a n d h e h ad a lm ost a cco m plis h ed t h e f o urth .

He k ille d a s m an y o f t h e r u le rs h e h ad d esp oile d a s h e c o uld re ach , a n d v ery f e w e sc ap ed ; h e h ad w on o ver t h e R om an patr ic ia n s, a n d h e h ad a v ery l a rg e f o llo w in g i n t h e C olle g e. A s fo r e x te n din g h is p ow er, h e h ad a im ed a t b eco m in g t h e r u le r o f Tusc an y. P eru gia a n d P io m bin o h e a lr e ad y p osse sse d , P is a w as under h is p ro te ctio n. A nd a s s o on a s h e n eed h av e n o c o ncern over F ra n ce ( h e n o l o nger h ad t o , t h e F re n ch h av in g a lr e ad y l o st th e k in gdom o f N ap le s t o t h e S pan ia rd s, w ith t h e r e su lt t h at b oth sid es s o ught t o b uy h is f rie n dsh ip ) h e w ould h av e p ounced o n Pis a . T hat d one, L ucca a n d S ie n a w ould h av e s u rre n dere d a t o nce, partly f ro m s p ite t o w ard s t h e F lo re n tin es, a n d p artly t h ro ugh f e ar; an d t h e F lo re n tin es w ere a t h is m erc y . H ad h e s u cceed ed i n a ll th is ( a s h e would h av e s u cceed ed i n t h e y ear t h at A le x an der d ie d ) he w ould h av e a cq uir e d s u ch s tr e n gth a n d p re stig e t h at h e w ould hav e b een a b le t o s ta n d a lo ne a n d b een d ep en den t n o l o nger o n th e f o rtu ne a n d s tr e n gth o f o th ers b ut o n h is o w n p ow er a n d "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" pro w ess. B ut A le x an der d ie d f iv e y ears f ro m t h e t im e C esa re t o ok up t h e s w ord . H e l e ft h im w ith h is s ta te i n t h e R om ag na co nso lid ate d b ut w ith e v ery th in g e ls e i n t h e a ir , b etw een t w o ex tr e m ely p ow erfu l a n d h ostile a rm ie s, a n d m orta lly i ll. T he d uke was a m an o f s u ch f e ro city a n d p ro w ess, a n d h e u nders to od s o well t h at m en m ust b e e ith er w on o ver o r d estr o yed , a n d t h e fo undatio ns h e l a id i n s o s h ort a t im e w ere s o s o und, t h at, h ad th ose a rm ie s n ot b een b earin g d ow n o n h im , o r h ad h e b een i n good h ealth , h e w ould h av e o verc o m e e v ery d if fic u lty . T he str e n gth o f t h e f o undatio ns h e l a id i s e v id en t: b ecau se t h e Rom ag na w aite d f o r h im f o r o ver a m onth ; i n R om e, e v en w hen he w as m ore d ead t h an a liv e, h e w as u nm ole ste d , a n d a lth ough th e B ag lio ni, t h e V ite lli, a n d t h e O rs in i e n te re d t h e c ity t h ey ro use d n o o ne a g ain st h im ; i f h e c o uld n ot m ak e w hom h e w an te d pope, h e w as a t l e ast a b le t o k eep t h e p ap acy f ro m g oin g t o o ne h e did n ot w an t. I f, w hen A le x an der d ie d , h e h ad b een w ell h im se lf , ev ery th in g w ould h av e b een e asy f o r h im . A nd h e h im se lf s a id t o me, t h e d ay J u liu s I I w as e le cte d , t h at h e h ad t h ought o f ev ery th in g t h at c o uld h ap pen w hen h is f a th er d ie d , a n d f o und a re m ed y f o r e v ery th in g e x cep t t h at h e n ev er t h ought t h at w hen h e did s o h e h im se lf w ould a ls o b e a t t h e p oin t o f d eath .

So h av in g s u m med u p a ll t h at t h e d uke d id , I c an not p ossib ly cen su re h im . R ath er, I t h in k I h av e b een r ig ht in p uttin g h im fo rw ard a s a n e x am ple f o r a ll t h ose w ho h av e a cq uir e d p ow er th ro ugh g ood f o rtu ne a n d t h e a rm s o f o th ers . H e w as a m an o f gre at c o ura g e a n d h ig h i n te n tio ns, a n d h e c o uld n ot h av e co nducte d h im se lf o th er t h an t h e w ay h e d id ; h is p la n s w ere fru str a te d o nly b ecau se A le x an der’s l if e w as c u t s h ort a n d becau se o f h is o w n s ic k ness. S o a n ew p rin ce c an not f in d m ore re cen t e x am ple s t h an t h ose s e t b y t h e d uke, i f h e t h in ks i t "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" necessa ry t o s e cu re h im se lf a g ain st h is e n em ie s, w in f rie n ds, co nquer e ith er b y f o rc e o r b y s tr a ta g em , m ak e h im se lf b oth l o ved an d f e are d b y h is s u bje cts , f o llo w ed a n d r e sp ecte d b y h is s o ld ie rs , if h e d ete rm in es t o d estr o y t h ose w ho c an a n d w ill i n ju re h im , t o re fo rm a n cie n t i n stitu tio ns, b e s e v ere y et l o ved , m ag nan im ous a n d gen ero us, a n d i f h e d ecid es t o d estr o y d is lo yal t r o ops a n d c re ate a new s ta n din g a rm y, m ain ta in in g s u ch r e la tio ns w ith k in gs a n d prin ces t h at t h ey h av e e ith er t o h elp h im g ra cio usly o r g o care fu lly i n d oin g h im h arm .

T he d uke d ese rv es c en su re o nly re g ard in g t h e e le ctio n o f P ope J u liu s, w here h e m ad e a b ad ch oic e. A s I s a id , n ot b ein g a b le t o g et a p ope t o h is l ik in g h e co uld h av e k ep t t h e p ap acy f ro m g oin g t o o ne w ho w as n ot; a n d he s h ould n ev er h av e a llo w ed t h e e le ctio n o f o ne o f t h ose card in als h e h ad i n ju re d , o r o ne w ho w ould h av e c au se t o f e ar him . M en d o y ou h arm e ith er b ecau se t h ey f e ar y ou o r b ecau se th ey h ate y ou. T hose t o w hom C esa re h im se lf h ad d one h arm were , a m ong o th ers , S an P ie tr o a d V in cu la , C olo nna, S an G io rg io , Asc an io . A ll t h e o th ers , w ere t h ey t o b e e le cte d , h ad c au se t o f e ar him , e x cep t f o r R ouen a n d t h e S pan ia rd s. T he S pan ia rd s i n t h e Colle g e w ere C esa re ’s c o untr y m en , a n d u nder a n o blig atio n to him ; R ouen w as p ow erfu l i n h is o w n r ig ht, h av in g t h e b ack in g o f th e k in gdom o f F ra n ce.

T he d uke’s a im , f ir s t a n d f o re m ost, s h ould hav e b een t o g et a S pan ia rd e le cte d p ope a n d, f a ilin g t h at, t o l e t i t be R ouen , n ot S an P ie tr o a d V in cu la . W hoev er b elie v es t h at w ith gre at m en n ew s e rv ic es w ip e o ut o ld i n ju rie s d eceiv es h im se lf . S o th e d uke’s c h oic e w as a m is ta k en o ne; a n d i t w as t h e c au se o f h is ultim ate r u in .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" VIII Those w ho c o m e t o p ow er b y c rim e A s t h ere a re a ls o t w o w ay s o f b eco m in g a p rin ce w hic h c an not a lto geth er b e a ttr ib ute d e ith er t o f o rtu ne o r t o p ro w ess, I d o n ot t h in k I o ught t o l e av e t h em o ut, e v en t h ough o ne o f t h em c an b e d ealt w ith a t g re ate r l e n gth u nder t h e h ead in g o f r e p ublic s. T he t w o I h av e i n m in d a re w hen a m an b eco m es p rin ce b y s o m e c rim in al a n d n efa rio us m eth od, a n d w hen a p riv ate c itiz en b eco m es p rin ce o f h is n ativ e c ity w ith t h e a p pro val o f h is f e llo w c itiz en s. I n d ealin g w ith t h e f ir s t m eth od, I s h all g iv e t w o e x am ple s, o ne f ro m t h e a n cie n t w orld , o ne f ro m t h e m odern , w ith out o th erw is e d is c u ssin g t h e r ig hts a n d w ro ngs o f t h is s u bje ct, b ecau se I i m ag in e t h at t h ese e x am ple s a re e n ough f o r a n yone w ho h ad t o f o llo w t h em .

Agath ocle s, t h e S ic ilia n , n ot o nly f ro m t h e s ta tu s o f a p riv ate c itiz en b ut f ro m t h e l o w est, m ost a b je ct c o nditio n o f l if e , r o se t o b eco m e k in g o f S yra cu se . A t e v ery s ta g e o f h is c are er t h is m an , t h e s o n o f a p otte r, b eh av ed l ik e a c rim in al; n one t h e l e ss h e a cco m pan ie d h is c rim es w ith s o m uch a u dacity a n d p hysic al c o ura g e t h at w hen h e j o in ed t h e m ilitia h e r o se t h ro ugh t h e r a n ks t o b eco m e p ra eto r o f S yra cu se . A fte r h e h ad b een a p poin te d t o t h is p ositio n, h e d ete rm in ed t o m ak e h im se lf p rin ce a n d t o p osse ss b y f o rc e a n d w ith out o blig atio n t o o th ers w hat h ad b een v olu nta rily c o nced ed t o h im . H e r e ach ed a n u nders ta n din g a b out t h is a m bitio n o f h is w ith H am ilc ar t h e C arth ag in ia n , w ho w as c am paig nin g w ith h is a rm ie s i n S ic ily . T hen o ne m orn in g h e " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" asse m ble d t h e p eo ple a n d S en ate o f S yra cu se , a s i f h e m ean t t o ra is e m atte rs w hic h a ffe cte d t h e r e p ublic ; a n d a t a p re arra n ged sig nal h e h ad a ll t h e s e n ato rs , a lo ng w ith t h e r ic h est c itiz en s, kille d b y h is s o ld ie rs ; a n d w hen t h ey w ere d ead h e s e iz ed a n d h eld th e g overn m en t o f t h at c ity , w ith out e n co unte rin g a n y o th er in te rn al o ppositio n. A lth ough h e w as t w ic e r o ute d a n d f in ally besie g ed b y t h e C arth ag in ia n s, n ot o nly d id h e s u ccessfu lly defe n d t h e c ity , b ut, l e av in g s o m e o f h is t r o ops t o d efe n d i t, h e in vad ed A fric a w ith t h e r e st, a n d i n a s h ort t im e l if te d t h e s ie g e an d r e d uced t h e C arth ag in ia n s t o s e v ere s tr a its . T hey w ere co m pelle d t o m ak e a p act w ith h im , c o nte n tin g t h em se lv es w ith th e p osse ssio n o f A fric a a n d l e av in g S ic ily t o A gath ocle s. S o whoev er s tu die s t h at m an ’s a ctio ns a n d l if e w ill d is c o ver l ittle o r noth in g t h at c an b e a ttr ib ute d t o f o rtu ne, i n asm uch a s n ot b y an yone’s f a v our h e r o se t h ro ugh t h e r a n ks o f t h e m ilitia , a s I s a id , an d h is p ro gre ss w as a tte n ded b y c o untle ss d if fic u ltie s a n d dan gers ; t h at w as h ow h e w on h is p rin cip ality , a n d h e m ain ta in ed his p ositio n w ith m an y a u dacio us a n d d an gero us e n te rp ris e s. Y et it c an not b e c alle d p ro w ess t o k ill f e llo w citiz en s, t o b etr a y frie n ds, t o b e t r e ach ero us, p itile ss, i r re lig io us. T hese w ay s c an win a p rin ce p ow er b ut n ot g lo ry . O ne c an d ra w a tte n tio n t o t h e pro w ess o f A gath ocle s i n c o nfro ntin g a n d s u rv iv in g d an ger, a n d his c o ura g eo us s p ir it i n e n durin g a n d o verc o m in g a d vers ity , a n d i t ap pears t h at h e s h ould n ot b e j u dged i n fe rio r t o a n y e m in en t co m man der; n one t h e l e ss, h is b ru ta l c ru elty a n d i n hum an ity , h is co untle ss c rim es, f o rb id h is b ein g h onoure d a m ong e m in en t m en .

One c an not a ttr ib ute t o f o rtu ne o r p ro w ess w hat w as acco m plis h ed b y h im w ith out t h e h elp o f e ith er.

In o ur o w n t im e, d urin g t h e p ontif ic ate o f A le x an der V I, t h ere was O liv ero tto o f F erm o. Y ears b efo re , h e h ad b een l e ft f a th erle ss "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" as a s m all b oy a n d w as b ro ught u p b y a m ate rn al u ncle c alle d Gio van ni F oglia n i. I n h is e arly y outh h e w as s e n t t o s e rv e a s a so ld ie r u nder P au lo V ite lli s o t h at h e c o uld w in h ig h c o m man d afte r b ein g t r a in ed b y h im . W hen P au lo d ie d , O liv ero tto s o ld ie re d under V ite llo zzo , h is b ro th er; a n d i n a v ery s h ort t im e, a s h e w as in te llig en t, a n d a m an o f c o ura g e a n d a u dacity , h e b ecam e Vite llo zzo ’s c h ie f c o m man der. B ut h e t h ought i t w as s e rv ile t o ta k e o rd ers f ro m o th ers , a n d s o h e d ete rm in ed t h at, w ith t h e h elp of s o m e c itiz en s o f F erm o t o w hom t h e e n sla v em en t o f t h eir nativ e c ity w as m ore a ttr a ctiv e t h an i ts l ib erty , a n d w ith t h e f a v our an d h elp o f V ite llo zzo , h e w ould s e iz e F erm o f o r h im se lf . H e wro te t o G io van ni F oglia n i s a y in g t h at, h av in g b een m an y y ears aw ay f ro m h om e h e w an te d t o c o m e a n d s e e h im a n d h is c ity a n d to m ak e s o m e i n vestig atio n i n to h is o w n e sta te . H e h ad w ork ed fo r n oth in g e ls e e x cep t h onour, h e w en t o n, a n d i n o rd er t h at h is fe llo w c itiz en s mig ht s e e t h at h e h ad n ot s p en t h is t im e i n v ain , h e wan te d t o c o m e h onoura b ly , w ith a m ounte d e sc o rt o f a h undre d co m pan io ns a n d s e rv an ts . H e b eg ged G io van ni t o a rra n ge a re cep tio n w hic h w ould b rin g h onour t o G io van ni a s w ell a s t o him se lf , a s h e w as G io van ni’ s f o ste r c h ild . G io van ni f a ile d i n n o duty o f h osp ita lity t o w ard s h is n ep hew . H e h ad h im h onoura b ly welc o m ed b y t h e c itiz en s o f F erm o a n d l o dged h im i n h is o w n man sio n. T here , a fte r a f e w d ay s h ad p asse d d urin g w hic h h e waite d i n o rd er t o c o m ple te t h e s e cre t a rra n gem en ts f o r h is f u tu re crim e, O liv ero tto p re p are d a f o rm al b an quet t o w hic h h e i n vite d Gio van ni F oglia n i a n d t h e l e ad in g c itiz en s o f F erm o. A fte r t h ey had f in is h ed e atin g a n d a ll t h e o th er e n te rta in m en t u su al a t s u ch ban quets w as d one w ith , O liv ero tto a rtf u lly s ta rte d t o t o uch o n su bje cts o f g ra v e i m porta n ce, t a lk in g o f t h e g re atn ess o f P ope Ale x an der a n d o f C esa re h is s o n, a n d o f t h eir e n te rp ris e s. W hen "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Gio van ni a n d t h e o th ers b eg an t o d is c u ss t h ese s u bje cts i n t u rn , h e got t o h is f e et a ll o f a s u dden , s a y in g t h at t h ese w ere t h in gs t o b e sp oken o f s o m ew here m ore p riv ate , a n d h e w ith dre w t o a n oth er ro om , f o llo w ed b y G io van ni a n d a ll t h e o th er c itiz en s. A nd n o so oner w ere t h ey s e ate d t h an s o ld ie rs a p peare d f ro m h id den re cesse s, a n d k ille d G io van ni a n d a ll t h e o th ers . A fte r t h is sla u ghte r, O liv ero tto m ounte d h is h ors e , r o de t h ro ugh t h e t o w n, an d l a id s ie g e t o t h e p ala ce o f t h e g overn in g c o uncil; co nse q uen tly t h ey w ere f rig hte n ed i n to o bey in g h im a n d i n to se ttin g u p a g overn m en t o f w hic h h e m ad e h im se lf t h e p rin ce.

And h av in g p ut t o d eath a ll w ho, b ecau se t h ey w ould r e se n t h is ru le , m ig ht i n ju re h im , h e s tr e n gth en ed h is p ositio n b y fo undin g new c iv il a n d m ilita ry i n stitu tio ns. I n t h is w ay , i n t h e s p ace o f t h e year t h at h e h eld t h e p rin cip ality , h e n ot o nly e sta b lis h ed h im se lf in t h e c ity o f F erm o b ut a ls o m ad e h im se lf f o rm id ab le t o a ll t h e neig hbourin g s ta te s. H is o verth ro w w ould h av e p ro ved a s d if fic u lt as t h at o f A gath ocle s, i f h e h ad n ot l e t h im se lf b e t r ic k ed b y Cesa re B org ia w hen , a t S in ig ag lia , a s w as r e co unte d a b ove, Cesa re t r a p ped t h e O rs in i a n d V ite llo zzo V ite lli. O liv ero tto w as als o t r a p ped t h ere , a n d a y ear a fte r c o m mittin g p arric id e h e, a lo ng with V ite llo zzo , t h e t e ach er a s r e g ard s b oth h is p ro w ess a n d h is crim es, w as s tr a n gle d .

One m ig ht w ell w onder h ow i t w as t h at A gath ocle s ( a n d o th ers lik e h im ) a fte r c o untle ss t r e ach erie s a n d c ru eltie s, c o uld l iv e se cu re ly i n h is o w n c o untr y a n d h old f o re ig n e n em ie s a t b ay , w ith nev er a c o nsp ir a cy a g ain st h im b y h is c o untr y m en , i n asm uch a s man y o th ers , b ecau se o f t h eir c ru el b eh av io ur, h av e n ot b een a b le to m ain ta in t h eir r u le e v en i n p eacefu l t im es, l e t a lo ne i n t h e uncerta in t im es o f w ar. I b elie v e t h at h ere i t i s a q uestio n o f cru elty u se d w ell o r b ad ly . W e c an s a y t h at c ru elty i s u se d w ell ( if "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" it i s p erm is sib le t o t a lk i n t h is w ay o f w hat i s e v il) w hen i t i s em plo yed o nce f o r a ll, a n d o ne’s s a fe ty d ep en ds o n i t, a n d t h en i t is n ot p ers is te d i n b ut a s f a r a s p ossib le t u rn ed t o t h e g ood o f one’s s u bje cts . C ru elty b ad ly u se d i s t h at w hic h , a lth ough in fre q uen t t o s ta rt w ith , a s t im e g oes o n, r a th er t h an d is a p pearin g, gro w s i n i n te n sity . T hose w ho u se t h e f ir s t m eth od c an , w ith G od an d w ith m en , s o m ew hat e n han ce t h eir p ositio n, a s d id Agath ocle s; t h e o th ers c an not p ossib ly s ta y i n p ow er.

So i t s h ould b e n ote d t h at w hen h e s e iz es a s ta te t h e new r u le r must d ete rm in e a ll t h e i n ju rie s t h at h e w ill n eed t o i n flic t. H e m ust in flic t t h em o nce f o r a ll, a n d n ot h av e t o r e n ew t h em e v ery d ay , an d i n t h at w ay h e w ill b e a b le t o s e t m en ’s m in ds a t r e st a n d w in th em o ver t o h im w hen h e c o nfe rs b en efits . W hoev er a cts oth erw is e , e ith er t h ro ugh t im id ity o r m is ju dgem en t, i s a lw ay s fo rc ed t o h av e t h e k nif e r e ad y i n h is h an d a n d h e c an n ev er dep en d o n h is s u bje cts b ecau se t h ey , s u ffe rin g f re sh a n d co ntin uous v io le n ce, c an n ev er f e el s e cu re w ith r e g ard t o h im .

Vio le n ce m ust b e i n flic te d o nce f o r a ll; p eo ple w ill t h en f o rg et what i t t a ste s l ik e a n d s o b e l e ss r e se n tf u l. B en efits m ust b e co nfe rre d g ra d ually ; a n d i n t h at w ay t h ey w ill t a ste b ette r. A bove all, a p rin ce m ust l iv e w ith h is s u bje cts i n s u ch a w ay t h at n o dev elo pm en t, e ith er f a v oura b le o r a d vers e , m ak es h im v ary h is co nduct. F or, w hen a d vers ity b rin gs t h e n eed f o r i t, t h ere i s n o tim e t o i n flic t h arm ; a n d t h e f a v ours h e m ay c o nfe r a re p ro fitle ss, becau se t h ey a re s e en a s b ein g f o rc ed , a n d s o t h ey e arn n o t h an ks.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" IX The c o n stitu tio n al p rin cip ality B ut n ow w e c o m e t o t h e o th er c ase , w here a p riv ate c itiz en b eco m es t h e r u le r o f h is c o untr y n eith er b y c rim e n or b y a n y o th er o utr a g eo us a ct o f v io le n ce b ut b y t h e f a v our o f h is f e llo w -c itiz en s ( a n d t h is w e c an c all a c o nstitu tio nal p rin cip ality , t o b eco m e t h e r u le r o f w hic h o ne n eed s n eith er p ro w ess a lo ne n or f o rtu ne, b ut r a th er a l u ck y a stu te n ess). I s a y t h at o ne b eco m es a p rin ce i n th is c ase w ith t h e f a v our o f t h e p eo ple o r o f t h e n oble s. T hese t w o d if fe re n t d is p ositio ns a re f o und i n e v ery c ity ; a n d t h e p eo ple a re e v ery w here a n xio us n ot t o b e d om in ate d o r o ppre sse d b y t h e n oble s, a n d t h e n oble s a re o ut t o d om in ate a n d o ppre ss t h e p eo ple .

T hese o ppose d a m bitio ns b rin g a b out o ne o f t h re e r e su lts ; a p rin cip ality , a f re e c ity , o r a n arc h y.

A p rin cip ality i s c re ate d e ith er b y t h e p eo ple o r b y t h e n oble s, a cco rd in g t o w heth er t h e o ne o r t h e o th er o f t h ese t w o c la sse s i s g iv en t h e o pportu nity . W hat h ap pen s i s t h at w hen t h e n oble s s e e t h ey c an not w ith sta n d t h e p eo ple , t h ey s ta rt t o i n cre ase t h e s ta n din g o f o ne o f t h eir o w n n um bers , a n d t h ey m ak e h im p rin ce i n o rd er t o b e a b le t o a ch ie v e t h eir o w n e n ds u nder h is c lo ak . T he p eo ple i n t h e s a m e w ay , w hen t h ey s e e t h ey c an not w ith sta n d t h e n oble s, i n cre ase t h e s ta n din g o f o ne o f t h em se lv es a n d m ak e h im p rin ce i n o rd er t o b e p ro te cte d b y h is a u th ority . A m an w ho b eco m es p rin ce w ith t h e h elp o f t h e n oble s f in ds i t m ore d if fic u lt t o m ain ta in h is p ositio n t h an o ne w ho d oes s o w ith t h e h elp o f t h e p eo ple . A s p rin ce, h e f in ds h im se lf s u rro unded b y m an y w ho " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" belie v e t h ey a re h is e q uals , a n d b ecau se o f t h at h e c an not co m man d o r m an ag e t h em t h e w ay h e w an ts . A m an w ho beco m es p rin ce b y f a v our o f t h e p eo ple f in ds h im se lf s ta n din g alo ne, a n d h e h as n ear h im e ith er n o o ne o r v ery f e w n ot p re p are d to t a k e o rd ers . I n a d ditio n, i t i s i m possib le t o s a tis fy t h e n oble s honoura b ly , w ith out d oin g v io le n ce t o t h e i n te re sts o f o th ers ; b ut th is c an b e d one a s f a r a s t h e p eo ple a re c o ncern ed . T he p eo ple are m ore h onest i n t h eir i n te n tio ns t h an t h e n oble s a re , b ecau se t h e la tte r w an t t o o ppre ss t h e p eo ple , w here as th ey w an t o nly n ot t o be o ppre sse d . M ore o ver, a p rin ce c an n ev er m ak e h im se lf s a fe ag ain st a h ostile p eo ple : t h ere a re t o o m an y o f t h em . H e c an m ak e him se lf s a fe a g ain st t h e n oble s, w ho a re f e w . T he w ors t t h at c an hap pen t o a p rin ce w hen t h e p eo ple a re h ostile i s f o r h im t o b e dese rte d ; b ut f ro m t h e n oble s, i f h ostile , h e h as t o f e ar n ot o nly dese rtio n b ut e v en a ctiv e o ppositio n. T he n oble s h av e m ore fo re sig ht a n d a re m ore a stu te , t h ey a lw ay s a ct i n t im e t o s a fe g uard th eir i n te re sts , a n d t h ey t a k e s id es w ith t h e o ne w hom t h ey e x pect to w in . A gain , a p rin ce m ust a lw ay s l iv e w ith t h e s a m e p eo ple , but h e c an w ell d o w ith out t h e n oble s, s in ce h e c an m ak e a n d unm ak e t h em e v ery d ay , i n cre asin g a n d l o w erin g t h eir s ta n din g a t will.

To c la rif y t h e d is c u ssio n f u rth er, I s a y t h at t h ere a re t w o m ain co nsid era tio ns t o b e r e m em bere d i n r e g ard t o t h e n oble s: e ith er th ey c o nduct t h em se lv es i n s u ch a w ay t h at t h ey c o m e t o d ep en d en tir e ly o n y our f o rtu nes, o r t h ey d o n ot. T hose w ho b eco m e dep en den t, a n d a re n ot r a p acio us, m ust b e h onoure d a n d l o ved ; th ose w ho r e m ain i n dep en den t o f y ou d o s o f o r t w o d if fe re n t re aso ns. T hey m ay d o s o b ecau se t h ey a re p usilla n im ous a n d natu ra lly l a ck in g i n s p ir it; i f s o y ou s h ould m ak e u se o f t h em , esp ecia lly t h ose w ho a re c ap ab le o f g iv in g s e n sib le a d vic e, s in ce "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" th ey w ill r e sp ect y ou w hen y ou a re d oin g w ell, a n d y ou w ill h av e noth in g t o f e ar f ro m t h em i n t im es o f a d vers ity . B ut w hen t h ey delib era te ly a n d f o r r e aso ns o f a m bitio n r e m ain i n dep en den t o f you, i t i s a s ig n t h at t h ey a re m ore c o ncern ed a b out t h em se lv es th an a b out y ou. A gain st n oble s s u ch a s t h ese , a p rin ce m ust sa fe g uard h im se lf , f e arin g t h em a s i f t h ey w ere h is decla re d en em ie s, b ecau se i n t im es o f a d vers ity t h ey w ill a lw ay s h elp t o ru in h im .

A m an w ho i s m ad e a p rin ce b y t h e f a v our o f t h e p eo ple m ust work t o r e ta in t h eir f rie n dsh ip ; a n d t h is i s e asy f o r h im b ecau se th e p eo ple a sk o nly n ot t o b e o ppre sse d . B ut a m an w ho h as beco m e p rin ce a g ain st t h e w ill o f t h e p eo ple a n d b y t h e f a v our o f th e n oble s s h ould , b efo re a n yth in g e ls e , t r y t o w in t h e p eo ple over; t h is t o o i s e asy i f h e t a k es t h em u nder h is p ro te ctio n. W hen men r e ceiv e f a v ours f ro m s o m eo ne t h ey e x pecte d t o d o t h em i ll, th ey a re u nder a g re ate r o blig atio n t o t h eir b en efa cto r; j u st s o t h e peo ple c an i n a n i n sta n t b eco m e m ore a m ic ab ly d is p ose d t o w ard s th e p rin ce t h an i f h e h ad s e iz ed p ow er b y t h eir f a v our. A nd t h ere are m an y w ay s i n w hic h a p rin ce c an w in t h em o ver. T hese v ary acco rd in g t o c ir c u m sta n ces, s o n o d efin ite r u le c an b e g iv en a n d I sh all n ot d eal w ith t h em h ere . I s h all o nly c o nclu de t h at i t i s necessa ry f o r a p rin ce t o h av e t h e f rie n dsh ip o f t h e p eo ple ; oth erw is e h e h as n o r e m ed y i n t im es o f a d vers ity .

Nab is , p rin ce o f t h e S parta n s, w ith sto od t h e w hole o f G re ece an d a t r iu m phan t R om an a rm y, a n d s u ccessfu lly d efe n ded h is co untr y a n d h is o w n a u th ority a g ain st t h em . A ll h e h ad t o d o, when d an ger t h re ate n ed , w as t o t a k e s te p s a g ain st a f e w o f h is su bje cts ; b ut t h is w ould n ot h av e b een e n ough h ad t h e p eo ple been h ostile t o h im . L et n o o ne c o ntr a d ic t t h is o pin io n o f m in e with t h at t r ite p ro verb , t h at h e w ho b uild s o n t h e p eo ple b uild s o n "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" mud. T hat m ay b e s o w hen a p riv ate c itiz en b ase s h is p ow er o n th e p eo ple a n d t a k es i t f o r g ra n te d t h at t h e p eo ple w ill r e sc u e h im if h e i s i n d an ger f ro m en em ie s o r f ro m t h e m ag is tr a te s. ( In t h is case , h e c o uld o fte n f in d h e h ad m ad e a m is ta k e, a s h ap pen ed w ith th e G ra cch i i n R om e a n d m esse r G io rg io S cali i n F lo re n ce.) B ut i f it i s a p rin ce w ho b uild s h is p ow er o n t h e p eo ple , o ne w ho c an co m man d a n d i s a m an o f c o ura g e, w ho d oes n ot d esp air i n ad vers ity , w ho d oes n ot f a il t o t a k e p re cau tio ns, a n d w ho w in s gen era l a lle g ia n ce b y h is p ers o nal q ualitie s a n d t h e i n stitu tio ns h e esta b lis h es, h e w ill n ev er b e l e t d ow n b y t h e p eo ple ; a n d h e w ill be f o und t o h av e e sta b lis h ed h is p ow er s e cu re ly .

Prin cip alitie s u su ally c o m e t o g rie f w hen t h e t r a n sitio n i s b ein g mad e f ro m l im ite d p ow er t o a b so lu tis m . P rin ces t a k in g t h is s te p ru le e ith er d ir e ctly o r t h ro ugh m ag is tr a te s. I n t h e l a tte r c ase , t h eir positio n i s w eak er a n d m ore d an gero us, b ecau se t h ey r e ly e n tir e ly on t h e w ill o f t h ose c itiz en s w ho h av e b een p ut i n o ffic e; a n d th ese , e sp ecia lly i n t im es o f a d vers ity , c an v ery e asily d ep ose th em e ith er b y p ositiv e a ctio n a g ain st t h em o r b y n ot o bey in g th em .

A nd w hen d an ger c o m es, t h e p rin ce h as n o t im e t o s e iz e ab so lu te a u th ority , b ecau se t h e c itiz en s a n d s u bje cts , a ccu sto m ed to t a k in g o rd ers f ro m t h e m ag is tr a te s, w ill n ot t a k e t h em f ro m h im in a c ris is . I n d is tu rb ed t im es, a ls o , m en w hom t h e p rin ce c an t r u st will b e h ard t o f in d. S o s u ch a p rin ce c an not r e ly o n w hat h e h as ex perie n ced i n t im es o f t r a n quillity , w hen t h e c itiz en s h av e n eed of h is g overn m en t. W hen t h in gs a re q uie t, e v ery one d an ces atte n dan ce, e v ery one m ak es p ro m is e s, a n d e v ery body w ould d ie fo r h im s o l o ng a s d eath i s f a r o ff. B ut i n t im es o f a d vers ity , w hen th e s ta te h as n eed o f i ts c itiz en s, t h ere a re f e w t o b e f o und. A nd th is t e st o f l o yalty i s a ll t h e m ore d an gero us s in ce i t c an be m ad e only o nce. T here fo re a w is e p rin ce m ust d ev is e w ay s b y w hic h h is "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" citiz en s a re a lw ay s a n d i n a ll c ir c u m sta n ces d ep en den t o n h im a n d on h is a u th ority ; a n d t h en t h ey w ill a lw ay s b e f a ith fu l t o h im .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" X How t h e s tr e n gth o f e very p rin cip ality s h ou ld b e mea su re d T here i s a n oth er c o nsid era tio n r ig htly t o b e b orn e i n m in d w hen i n quir in g i n to t h e c h ara cte ris tic s o f t h ese p rin cip alitie s: a n d t h at i s w heth er a p rin ce h as t e rrito ry s u ch t h at, i n c ase o f n ecessity , h e c an s ta n d a lo ne, o r w heth er h e m ust a lw ay s h av e r e co urs e t o t h e p ro te ctio n o f o th ers . T o c la rif y t h is f u rth er, I s a y t h at, i n m y j u dgem en t, t h ose p rin ces c an s ta n d a lo ne w ho h av e s u ffic ie n t m an pow er o r m oney t o a sse m ble a n a rm y e q ual t o a n e n co unte r w ith a n y a g gre sso r. I n t h e s a m e w ay , t h ose p rin ces m ust a lw ay s h av e r e co urs e t o o th ers w ho c an not t a k e t h e f ie ld a g ain st t h e e n em y b ut a re f o rc ed t o r e tr e at b eh in d w alls a n d m ak e t h eir d efe n ce t h ere . I h av e d is c u sse d t h e f ir s t c ase a lr e ad y, a n d l a te r o n I s h all s a y w hate v er o ccu rs t o m e o n t h at s u bje ct. A s f o r t h e s e co nd c ase , n oth in g c an b e s a id e x cep t t o a d vis e s u ch p rin ces t o s tr e n gth en a n d f o rtif y t h eir o w n t o w ns a n d n ot t o w orry a b out t h e c o untr y a ro und. I f a p rin ce h as f o rtif ie d h is t o w n w ell, a n d h as a rra n ged h is g overn m en t i n t h e w ay I s a id ( a n d I s h all s a y m ore a b out t h is ), t h en a n e n em y w ill b e v ery c ir c u m sp ect i n a tta ck in g h im . M en a lw ay s d is lik e e n te rp ris e s w here t h e s n ag s a re e v id en t, a n d i t i s o bvio usly n ot e asy t o a ssa u lt a t o w n w hic h h as b een m ad e i n to a b astio n b y a p rin ce w ho i s n ot h ate d b y t h e p eo ple .

The c itie s o f G erm an y a re w holly i n dep en den t, t h ey c o ntr o l o nly l im ite d t e rrito ry , a n d o bey t h e e m pero r o nly w hen t h ey w an t " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" to . T hey f e ar n eith er h im n or a n y n eig hbourin g p ow er, b ecau se th ey a re s o f o rtif ie d t h at e v ery one k now s i t w ould b e a p ro tr a cte d , dif fic u lt o pera tio n t o r e d uce t h em . T his i s b ecau se t h ey a ll h av e ex celle n t m oats a n d w alls ; t h ey h av e a d eq uate a rtille ry ; t h ey alw ay s l a y i n p ublic s to ck s o f d rin k, f o od, a n d f u el t o l a st a y ear.

Over a n d a b ove t h is , e v ery G erm an c ity , m ak in g p ro vis io n f o r t h e co m mon p eo ple w ith out p ublic l o ss, a lw ay s k eep s a y ear’s s u pply of t h e w here w ith al f o r t h em t o w ork a t t h ose t r a d es w hic h g iv e th em t h eir l iv elih ood a n d a re t h e s in ew s o f t h e c ity i ts e lf . M ilita ry ex erc is e s a lw ay s e n jo y a h ig h s ta n din g, a n d t h ey h av e m an y l a w s an d i n stitu tio ns p ro vid in g f o r t h em .

There fo re a p rin ce w ho h as a w ell- fo rtif ie d c ity a n d d oes n ot mak e h im se lf h ate d i s s e cu re a g ain st a tta ck ; y et e v en i f t h ere w ere an a tta ck , t h e b esie g er w ould h av e t o a b an don t h e e n te rp ris e w ith ig nom in y, b ecau se t h e c o urs e o f e v en ts i s s o v aria b le t h at n o o ne can s ta y e n cam ped w ith h is a rm y, i n i d le n ess, f o r a y ear. O ne mig ht w ell o bje ct: i f t h e p eo ple h av e t h eir p osse ssio ns o uts id e t h e walls o f t h e c ity a n d s e e t h em b ein g b urn ed , t h ey w ill n ot b e a b le to c o nta in t h em se lv es, a n d t h e l e n gth o f t h e s ie g e a n d t h eir o w n se lf -in te re st w ill m ak e t h em f o rg et t h eir d uty t o t h e p rin ce. M y an sw er t o t h is i s t h at a p ow erfu l, c o ura g eo us p rin ce w ill a lw ay s b e ab le t o o verc o m e a ll s u ch d if fic u ltie s, i n sp ir in g h is s u bje cts now with t h e h ope t h at t h e i lls t h ey a re e n durin g w ill n ot l a st l o ng, n ow with f e ar o f t h e e n em y’s c ru elty , a n d t a k in g e ffe ctiv e m easu re s ag ain st t h ose w ho a re t o o o uts p oken . I n a d ditio n, t h e e n em y w ill as a m atte r o f c o urs e b urn a n d p illa g e t h e c o untr y sid e w hen h e arriv es, a n d h e w ill d o t h is a t a t im e w hen t h e p rin ce’s s u bje cts a re still f ir e d w ith e n th usia sm f o r t h e d efe n ce, s o t h e p rin ce h as a ll t h e le ss r e aso n t o w orry , b ecau se b y t h e t im e t h is e n th usia sm h as d ie d dow n, t h e l o sse s w ill a lr e ad y h av e b een s u sta in ed a n d t h e d am ag e "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" done, a n d t h ere w ill b e n o r e m ed y f o r i t. S o t h e s u bje cts w ill id en tif y t h em se lv es e v en m ore w ith t h eir p rin ce, s in ce n ow t h at th eir h ouse s h av e a lr e ad y b een b urn ed a n d t h eir l a n ds p illa g ed i n his d efe n ce t h ey w ill c o nsid er t h at t h ere i s a s tr o ng b ond o f oblig atio n o n h is p art. T he n atu re o f m an i s s u ch t h at p eo ple co nsid er t h em se lv es p ut u nder a n o blig atio n a s m uch b y t h e ben efits t h ey c o nfe r a s b y t h ose t h ey r e ceiv e. S o, b earin g a ll t h is in m in d, i t s h ould n ot b e d if fic u lt f o r a p ru den t p rin ce t o i n sp ir e his s u bje cts w ith d ete rm in atio n d urin g a s ie g e, s o l o ng a s h e h as ad eq uate p ro vis io ns a n d m ean s o f d efe n ce.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XI Eccle sia stic a l p rin cip alitie s I t n ow r e m ain s t o d is c u ss e ccle sia stic al p rin cip alitie s; a n d h ere t h e d if fic u ltie s w hic h h av e t o b e f a ced o ccu r b efo re t h e r u le r i s e sta b lis h ed , i n t h at s u ch p rin cip alitie s a re w on b y p ro w ess o r b y f o rtu ne b ut a re k ep t w ith out t h e h elp o f e ith er. T hey a re m ain ta in ed , i n f a ct, b y r e lig io us in stitu tio ns, s o p ow erfu lly m atu re t h at, n o m atte r h ow t h e r u le r a cts a n d l iv es, t h ey s a fe g uard h is g overn m en t. E ccle sia stic al p rin ces a lo ne p osse ss s ta te s, a n d d o n ot d efe n d t h em ; s u bje cts , a n d d o n ot g overn t h em . A nd t h ough t h eir s ta te s a re n ot d efe n ded t h ey a re n ot t a k en a w ay f ro m t h em ; a n d t h eir s u bje cts , b ein g w ith out g overn m en t, d o n ot w orry a b out i t a n d n eith er c an n or h ope t o o verth ro w i t i n f a v our o f a n oth er.

S o t h ese p rin cip alitie s a lo ne a re s e cu re a n d h ap py.

B ut a s t h ey a re s u sta in ed b y h ig her p ow ers w hic h t h e h um an m in d c an not c o m pre h en d, I s h all n ot a rg ue a b out t h em ; t h ey a re e x alte d a n d m ain ta in ed b y G od, a n d s o o nly a r a sh a n d p re su m ptu ous m an w ould t a k e i t o n h im se lf t o d is c u ss t h em . N one t h e l e ss i f a n yone s h ould a sk m e h ow i t i s t h at t h e C hurc h h as a tta in ed s u ch g re at t e m pora l p ow er, i n asm uch a s, u p t o t h e t im e o f A le x an der, t h e I ta lia n p ote n ta te s, a n d n ot o nly t h ose w ho a re c alle d p ote n ta te s b ut e v ery b aro n a n d n oble m an , e v en t h e p ettie st, s e t i t a t n au ght, b ut n ow a k in g o f F ra n ce t r e m ble s b efo re i t, a n d i t h as b een a b le t o c h ase h im o ut o f I ta ly a n d r u in t h e V en etia n s, I s h ould n ot t h in k i t s u perflu ous t o r e call t o s o m e e x te n t h ow i t h ap pen ed , e v en t h ough t h e s to ry i s w ell k now n.

" * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Befo re C harle s, k in g o f F ra n ce, i n vad ed I ta ly , t h at c o untr y w as ru le d b y t h e p ope, t h e V en etia n s, t h e k in g o f N ap le s, t h e d uke o f Mila n , a n d t h e F lo re n tin es. T hese p ow ers n ecessa rily h ad t w o main p re o ccu patio ns: t h e o ne, t h at n o a rm ed f o re ig n p ow er s h ould in vad e I ta ly ; t h e o th er, t h at n o o ne p ow er a m ong t h em se lv es sh ould e n la rg e i ts d om in io n. T hose w ho h ad e sp ecia lly t o b e watc h ed w ere t h e p ope a n d t h e V en etia n s. T o h old t h e Ven etia n s in c h eck , a n a llia n ce o f a ll t h e o th ers w as n ecessa ry , a s w as t h e case i n t h e d efe n ce o f F erra ra ; a n d t o p in d ow n t h e p ope u se w as mad e o f t h e R om an b aro ns. A s t h ese w ere s p lit i n to t w o f a ctio ns, Ors in i a n d C olo nna, t h ere w as a lw ay s s c o pe f o r d is se n sio n betw een t h em ; a n d w hile t h ey r e m ain ed a rm ed b efo re t h e v ery ey es o f t h e p ontif f t h ey k ep t t h e p ap acy w eak a n d i n se cu re .

Alth ough s o m etim es a s p ir ite d p ope, s u ch a s S ix tu s, m ig ht c o m e alo ng, e v en s u ch a m an c o uld n ev er r id h im se lf o f t h is n uis a n ce, fo r a ll h is g ood f o rtu ne o r s ta te cra ft. T his w as b ecau se o f t h e bre v ity o f a p ope’s r e ig n. I n t h e t e n y ears t h at, o n a v era g e, a p ope ru le d , h e s c arc ely h ad t im e t o c ru sh o ne o f t h e f a ctio ns; a n d t h en , fo r e x am ple , i f o ne p ope h ad a lm ost m an ag ed t o d estr o y t h e Colo nna, a n oth er c am e a lo ng h ostile t o t h e O rs in i ( s o e n su rin g t h e re su rg en ce o f t h e C olo nna), a n d y et d id n ot h av e t im e e n ough t o destr o y t h e O rs in i.

This m ean t t h at t h e t e m pora l p ow er o f t h e p ope w as l ittle re sp ecte d i n I ta ly . B ut t h en c am e t h e r e ig n o f A le x an der V I, a n d he, m ore t h an a n y o th er p ontif f w ho h as e v er l iv ed , s h ow ed h ow much a p ope c o uld a ch ie v e w ith m oney a n d a rm ed f o rc e. W ith Duke V ale n tin o a s h is i n str u m en t a n d t h e i n vasio n b y t h e F re n ch as h is o ccasio n, h e b ro ught a b out a ll t h ose t h in gs I d is c u sse d ab ove r e g ard in g t h e d uke’s a ctiv itie s. A lth ough h is a im w as t h e ag gra n diz em en t o f t h e d uke, n ot o f t h e C hurc h , n one t h e l e ss w hat "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" he d id i n cre ase d t h e g re atn ess o f t h e C hurc h ; a n d a fte r h is d eath , when t h e d uke h ad b een d estr o yed , t h e C hurc h i n herite d t h e f ru its of h is l a b ours . T hen c am e P ope J u liu s. H e f o und t h e C hurc h alr e ad y g re at, p osse ssin g t h e R om ag na, w ith t h e R om an b aro ns destr o yed a n d, a s a r e su lt o f A le x an der’s v ig our, t h e f a ctio ns wip ed o ut; a n d h e a ls o f o und r e ad y t o h an d a m ean s o f accu m ula tin g w ealth w hic h h ad n ot b een e m plo yed b efo re Ale x an der. J u liu s n ot o nly c o ntin ued b ut a ls o i m pro ved o n a ll th ese t h in gs. H e p la n ned t o w in B olo gna f o r h im se lf a n d t o c ru sh th e V en etia n s a n d t o c h ase t h e F re n ch o ut o f I ta ly .

H e s u cceed ed in a ll h is e n te rp ris e s, a n d e arn ed a ll t h e m ore c re d it i n a s m uch a s he d id e v ery th in g f o r t h e a g gra n diz em en t o f t h e C hurc h a n d n ot fo r t h at o f a n y i n div id ual. H e a ls o k ep t t h e O rs in i a n d C olo nna fa ctio ns i n t h e s a m e c o nditio n a s h e h ad f o und t h em . A nd alth ough a m ong t h ese t h ere w ere s o m e l e ad ers d is p ose d t o m ak e tr o uble , t w o t h in gs h eld t h em i n c h eck : t h e o ne, t h e g re atn ess o f th e C hurc h , w hic h o vera w ed t h em ; t h e o th er, t h eir b ein g w ith out card in als , w ho c au se t h e t u m ults a m ong t h em . T hese f a ctio ns w ill nev er s ta y q uie t w hen t h ey h av e t h eir o w n c ard in als , b ecau se t h e la tte r s tir u p f e u ds, b oth i n R om e a n d o uts id e, a n d t h ose b aro ns are b ound t o c o m e t o t h e a id o f t h eir o w n s id e; a n d s o c o nflic ts an d t u m ults a m ong t h e b aro ns a re p ro voked b y t h e a m bitio n o f th e p re la te s. N ow , H is H olin ess P ope L eo f o und t h e p ap acy i n a n ex tr e m ely s tr o ng p ositio n; a n d i t i s o ur h ope t h at, h is i m med ia te pre d ecesso rs h av in g e sta b lis h ed i ts g re atn ess b y f o rc e o f a rm s, h e, by h is g oodness a n d c o untle ss o th er v ir tu es, w ill m ak e i t v ery gre at a n d r e v ere d .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XII Milita ry o rg an iz a tio n a n d m erc en ary t r o ops H av in g d is c u sse d i n d eta il a ll t h e c h ara cte ris tic s o f t h e p rin cip alitie s I l is te d t o s ta rt w ith , a n d h av in g t o s o m e e x te n t c o nsid ere d t h e r e aso ns w hy t h ey p ro sp er o r f a il, a n d s h ow n t h e m eth ods o fte n u se d t o a cq uir e a n d r e ta in t h em , i t n ow r e m ain s f o r m e t o d is c u ss i n g en era l t h e v ario us w ay s i n w hic h t h ese p rin cip alitie s c an o rg an iz e t h em se lv es f o r a tta ck o r d efe n ce. W e s a id a b ove t h at a p rin ce m ust b uild o n s o und f o undatio ns; o th erw is e h e i s b ound t o c o m e t o g rie f. T he m ain f o undatio ns o f e v ery s ta te , n ew s ta te s a s w ell a s a n cie n t o r c o m posite o nes, a re g ood l a w s a n d g ood a rm s; a n d b ecau se y ou c an not h av e g ood l a w s w ith out g ood a rm s, a n d w here t h ere a re g ood a rm s, g ood l a w s i n ev ita b ly f o llo w , I s h all n ot d is c u ss l a w s b ut g iv e m y a tte n tio n t o a rm s.

Now , I s a y t h at t h e a rm s o n w hic h a p rin ce b ase s t h e d efe n ce o f h is s ta te a re e ith er h is o w n, o r m erc en ary , o r a u xilia ry , o r c o m posite . M erc en arie s a n d a u xilia rie s a re u se le ss a n d d an gero us.

I f a p rin ce b ase s t h e d efe n ce o f h is s ta te o n m erc en arie s h e w ill n ev er a ch ie v e s ta b ility o r s e cu rity . F or m erc en arie s a re d is u nite d , t h ir s ty f o r p ow er, u ndis c ip lin ed , a n d d is lo yal; t h ey a re b ra v e a m ong t h eir f rie n ds a n d c o w ard s b efo re t h e e n em y; t h ey h av e n o f e ar o f G od, t h ey d o n ot k eep f a ith w ith t h eir f e llo w m en ; t h ey a v oid d efe at j u st s o l o ng a s t h ey a v oid b attle ; i n p eacetim e y ou a re d esp oile d b y t h em , a n d i n w artim e b y t h e e n em y. T he r e aso n f o r a ll t h is i s t h at t h ere i s n o l o yalty o r i n ducem en t t o k eep t h em o n " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" th e f ie ld a p art fro m t h e l ittle t h ey a re p aid , a n d t h is i s n ot e n ough to m ak e t h em w an t t o d ie f o r y ou. T hey a re o nly t o o r e ad y t o se rv e i n y our a rm y w hen y ou a re n ot a t w ar; b ut w hen w ar c o m es th ey e ith er d ese rt o r d is p ers e . I s h ould h av e l ittle n eed t o l a b our th is p oin t, b ecau se t h e p re se n t r u in o f I ta ly h as b een c au se d b y noth in g e ls e b ut t h e r e lia n ce p la ced o n m erc en ary t r o ops f o r s o man y y ears . A lth ough t h ere w ere t im es w hen s o m e m ad e g ood use o f t h em , a n d t h ey a p peare d b ra v e e n ough w hen m atc h ed ag ain st o th er m erc en arie s, w hen t h e f o re ig ner i n vad ed I ta ly t h ey sh ow ed t h em se lv es f o r w hat t h ey w ere . S o i t w as t h at C harle s, kin g o f F ra n ce, w as a b le t o c o nquer I ta ly w ith h is b ille tin g offic ers a lo ne. A nd h e w ho s a id t h at t h e r e aso ns f o r t h is w ere o ur ow n s in s w as t e llin g t h e t r u th ; b ut t h ey w ere t h ose I h av e desc rib ed , n ot t h e s in s h e t h ought. A s t h ey w ere s in s c o m mitte d by p rin ces, t h ey t o o h av e p aid t h e p en alty f o r t h em .

I w an t t o s h ow m ore c le arly w hat u nhap py r e su lts f o llo w t h e use o f m erc en arie s. M erc en ary c o m man ders a re e ith er s k ille d i n warfa re o r t h ey a re n ot: i f t h ey a re , y ou c an not t r u st t h em , b ecau se th ey a re a n xio us t o a d van ce t h eir o w n g re atn ess, e ith er b y co erc in g y ou, t h eir e m plo yer, o r b y c o erc in g o th ers a g ain st y our ow n w is h es. I f, h ow ev er, t h e c o m man der i s l a ck in g i n p ro w ess, i n th e n orm al w ay h e b rin gs a b out y our r u in . I f a n yone a rg ues t h at th is i s t r u e o f a n y o th er a rm ed f o rc e, m erc en ary o r n ot, I r e p ly t h at arm ed f o rc es m ust b e u nder t h e c o ntr o l o f e ith er a p rin ce o r a re p ublic : a p rin ce s h ould a ssu m e p ers o nal c o m man d a n d c ap ta in his t r o ops h im se lf ; a r e p ublic m ust a p poin t i ts o w n c itiz en s, a n d when a c o m man der s o a p poin te d t u rn s o ut i n co m pete n t, sh ould ch an ge h im , a n d i f h e i s c o m pete n t, i t s h ould l im it h is a u th ority b y sta tu te . E xperie n ce h as s h ow n t h at o nly p rin ces a n d a rm ed re p ublic s a ch ie v e s o lid s u ccess, a n d t h at m erc en arie s b rin g "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" noth in g b ut l o ss; a n d a r e p ublic w hic h h as i ts o w n c itiz en a rm y i s fa r l e ss l ik ely t o b e s u bju gate d b y o ne o f i ts o w n c itiz en s t h an a re p ublic w hose f o rc es a re n ot i ts o w n.

Rom e a n d S parta e n dure d f o r m an y c en tu rie s, a rm ed a n d f re e.

The S w is s a re s tr o ngly a rm ed a n d c o m ple te ly f re e. T he Carth ag in ia n s p ro vid e a n e x am ple o f r e lia n ce o n m erc en ary a rm s in a n cie n t t im es. T hey w ere v ery n early s u bju gate d b y t h eir merc en ary t r o ops, a fte r t h e f ir s t w ar w ith t h e R om an s w as o ver, ev en t h ough t h eir o w n c itiz en s h eld t h e p ositio ns o f c o m man d.

Afte r t h e d eath o f E pam in ondas, t h e T heb an s p ut P hilip o f Maced on i n c o m man d o f t h eir a rm y; a n d w hen h e h ad w on a vic to ry h e r o bbed t h em o f t h eir l ib erty . A fte r t h e d eath o f D uke Filip po, t h e M ila n ese h ir e d F ra n cesc o S fo rz a t o s o ld ie r f o r t h em ag ain st t h e V en etia n s; a n d w hen h e h ad d efe ate d t h e e n em y a t Cara v ag gio h e j o in ed f o rc es w ith t h em i n o rd er t o s u bju gate h is em plo yers , t h e M ila n ese t h em se lv es. S fo rz a, h is f a th er, a fte r bein g h ir e d b y Q ueen J o an na o f N ap le s, d ese rte d h er w ith out warn in g a n d l e ft h er d efe n cele ss; s o t o s a v e h er k in gdom s h e w as co m pelle d t o t h ro w h ers e lf o n t h e m erc y o f t h e k in g o f A ra g on.

Adm itte d ly , t h e V en etia n s a n d t h e F lo re n tin es h av e i n t h e p ast use d m erc en ary a rm s t o e x te n d t h eir p ow er, a n d t h eir co m man ders h av e f o ught t o d efe n d t h em , w ith out h ow ev er se iz in g t h e s ta te . B ut m y c o m men t o n t h is i s t h at h ere t h e Flo re n tin es h ap pen t o h av e b een l u ck y. A s f o r t h e g ood co m man ders l ik ely to c au se t h em a n xie ty , o ne h as f a ile d t o ach ie v e m ilita ry s u ccess, o ne h as b een c h eck ed i n h is d esig ns, an oth er h as d ir e cte d h is a m bitio n e ls e w here . G io van ni A cu to w as th e o ne w ho p ro ved u nsu ccessfu l, a n d, a s t h at w as s o , h is l o yalty co uld n ot b e p ut t o t h e t e st; b ut e v ery one w ill a d m it t h at i f h e h ad been s u ccessfu l i n b attle t h e F lo re n tin es w ould h av e b een i n h is "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" pow er. T he S fo rz as a lw ay s h ad t h e B ra ccesc h i a g ain st t h em , a n d th ey h eld e ach o th er i n c h eck . F ra n cesc o d ir e cte d h is a m bitio n to w ard s L om bard y, B ra ccio a g ain st t h e C hurc h a n d t h e k in gdom of N ap le s.

But l e t u s h av e a l o ok a t w hat h ap pen ed a l ittle w hile a g o. A s th eir c o m man der t h e F lo re n tin es a p poin te d P au lo V ite lli, a v ery sh re w d m an w ho, s ta rtin g m odestly , a ch ie v ed c o nsid era b le sta n din g. H ad h e t a k en P is a t h e F lo re n tin es w ould u nden ia b ly hav e h ad t o f a ll i n w ith h is w is h es, b ecau se i f h e h ad g one o ver t o th eir e n em ie s t h ey w ould h av e b een p ow erle ss a g ain st h im ; a n d keep in g h im i n t h eir s e rv ic e m ean t t h at t h ey h ad t o o bey h im . I f th e e x pan sio n o f V en ic e i s c o nsid ere d , i t w ill b e s e en t h at t h e Ven etia n s w on g lo ry f o r t h em se lv es a n d r e m ain ed s e cu re w hen th ey m ad e w ar w ith t h eir o w n f o rc es ( th is w as b efo re t h ey s ta rte d to c am paig n o n t h e m ain la n d); w ith t h eir o w n p atr ic ia n s a n d citiz en a rm y t h ey d is p la y ed t h e g re ate st p ro w ess. B ut w hen t h ey sta rte d t o f ig ht o n t h e m ain la n d t h ey l o st t h is p ro w ess a n d f e ll i n with t h e m ilita ry t r a d itio ns o f I ta ly . W hen t h ey f ir s t s ta rte d t o acq uir e t e rrito ry o n t h e m ain la n d t h ey d id n ot h av e m uch t o f e ar fro m t h eir c o m man ders , a s t h eir d om in io ns w ere s till v ery l im ite d an d t h eir s ta n din g w as c o nsid era b le . B ut w hen t h ey e x pan ded , with C arm ag nola a s t h eir c o m man der, t h ey t a ste d t h e e rro r o f th eir w ay s. T hey h ad s e en t h e g re at p ro w ess o f w hic h C arm ag nola was c ap ab le , a n d u nder h is l e ad ers h ip t h ey h ad d efe ate d t h e d uke of M ila n . T hen t h ey p erc eiv ed t h at h e w as o nly l u kew arm i n h is co nduct o f t h e w ar a n d t h ey r e aliz ed t h at h e w ould w in n o m ore battle s f o r t h em ; b ut t h ey c o uld n ot a ffo rd t o d is m is s h im , l e st th ey l o st w hat t h ey h ad a cq uir e d . S o, f o r s a fe ty ’s s a k e, t h ey w ere fo rc ed t o k ill h im . T hey t h en a p poin te d a s t h eir c o m man ders Barto lo m meo d a B erg am o, R uberto d a S an S ev erin o, t h e c o unt o f "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Pitig lia n o, a n d m en s u ch a s t h ese ; a n d w hen t h ey w ere i n co m man d t h e q uestio n w as w heth er t h e V en etia n s c o uld h old o n to w hat t h ey h ad r a th er t h an w heth er t h ey c o uld h ope f o r n ew gain s. S uch w as t h e p ositio n a t V ailà w here , i n o ne d ay ’s en gag em en t, t h ey l o st w hat i t h ad t a k en t h em e ig ht h undre d y ears ’ ex ertio n t o c o nquer. M erc en ary a rm ie s b rin g o nly s lo w , b ela te d , an d f e eb le c o nquests , b ut s u dden , s ta rtlin g d efe at. S in ce t h ese ex am ple s h av e b ro ught m e t o I ta ly , w hic h f o r s o m an y y ears h as been d om in ate d b y m erc en ary a rm s, I w ould l ik e t o d is c u ss t h em more t h oro ughly . I f t h eir o rig in s a n d d ev elo pm en t h av e b een mad e c le ar, i t w ill b e e asie r t o p ro vid e a r e m ed y.

You m ust r e aliz e t h at a s s o on a s i n m ore r e cen t t im es I ta ly sta rte d t o r e p udia te t h e E m pir e , a n d t h e s ta n din g o f t h e p ap acy becam e h ig her i n t h e t e m pora l s p here , t h e c o untr y s p lit i n to se v era l s ta te s. W hat h ap pen ed w as t h at i n m an y o f t h e b ig c itie s th ere w ere u pris in gs a g ain st t h e n oble s w ho h ad f o rm erly , w ith th e b ack in g o f t h e e m pero r, h eld t h em i n s u bje ctio n; a n d t h e Churc h , i n o rd er t o i n cre ase i ts t e m pora l a u th ority , s u pporte d th ese re v olts . I n m an y o th er c itie s o ne o f t h e c itiz en s b ecam e prin ce. S o I ta ly c am e t o b e a lm ost e n tir e ly u nder t h e c o ntr o l o f t h e Churc h a n d s o m e f e w r e p ublic s, a n d t h en , a s t h e p rie sts a n d to w nsm en h ad n o e x perie n ce i n m ilita ry m atte rs , t h ey s ta rte d t o hir e f o re ig n t r o ops. T he f ir s t t o w in a s ta n din g f o r t h is k in d o f arm y w as A lb erig o d a C onio , o f R om ag na. F ro m h is s c h ool c am e, am ong o th ers , B ra ccio a n d S fo rz a, w ho i n t h eir t im e w ere t h e maste rs o f I ta ly . T hen t h ere f o llo w ed a ll t h ose o th er m erc en arie s up t o o ur o w n t im es. A nd t h e r e su lt o f t h eir p ro w ess h as b een t h at Ita ly h as b een o verru n b y C harle s, p lu ndere d b y L ouis , o ccu pie d by F erd in an d, a n d o utr a g ed b y t h e S w is s. I t h as b een t h e p olic y o f th ese m erc en arie s f ir s t t o d etr a ct f ro m t h e m ilita ry s ta n din g o f "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" in fa n tr y i n o rd er t o i n cre ase t h at o f t h eir o w n t r o ops. T hey d id t h is becau se , a s t h ey w ere s ta te le ss m en s o ld ie rin g f o r m oney , le ad ers h ip o f a f e w i n fa n tr y t r o ops d id n ot g iv e t h em a n y sta n din g, w hile t h ey c o uld n ot p ro vid e a d eq uate ly f o r l a rg e num bers . S o t h ey h ad r e co urs e t o c av alr y , a n d i n t h is w ay t h ey were h onoure d a n d a d eq uate ly p ro vid ed f o r, w hile n eed in g o nly to le ra b le n um bers . T hin gs c am e t o s u ch a p ass t h at i n a n a rm y o f tw en ty t h ousa n d s o ld ie rs t h ere w ould b e h ard ly t w o t h ousa n d in fa n tr y . B ey ond t h is , t h ey d ir e cte d a ll t h eir e ffo rts t o r id din g th em se lv es a n d t h eir s o ld ie rs o f a n y c au se f o r f e ar o r n eed o f ex ertio n; i n ste ad o f f ig htin g t o t h e d eath i n t h eir s c rim mag es t h ey to ok p ris o ners , w ith out d em an din g r a n so m . T hey n ev er a tta ck ed garris o n t o w ns b y n ig ht; a n d i f t h ey w ere b esie g ed t h ey n ev er mad e a s o rtie ; t h ey d id n ot b oth er t o f o rtif y t h eir c am ps w ith sto ck ad es o r d itc h es; t h ey n ev er c am paig ned i n win te r. A ll t h ese th in gs w ere p erm is sib le u nder t h eir m ilita ry c o de, a n d t h is p olic y was f o llo w ed b y t h em s o t h at, a s I s a id , t h ey m ig ht e sc ap e b oth ex ertio n a n d d an ger: a n d a s a r e su lt t h ey h av e l e d I ta ly i n to sla v ery a n d i g nom in y.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XIII Auxilia ry , c o m posite , a n d n ativ e t r o ops A uxilia rie s, t h e o th er u se le ss k in d o f t r o ops, a re i n volv ed w hen y ou c all u pon a p ow erfu l s ta te t o c o m e t o y our d efe n ce a n d a ssis ta n ce. P ope J u liu s d id t h is i n t h e r e cen t p ast, w hen , h av in g s e en t h e s a d a cco unt g iv en o f t h em se lv es b y h is m erc en arie s i n t h e F erra ra c am paig n, h e t u rn ed t o a u xilia rie s a n d a rra n ged f o r F erd in an d o f S pain t o a ssis t h im w ith h is m en a n d t r o ops. I n t h em se lv es, a u xilia ry f o rc es c an p ro ve u se fu l a n d r e lia b le , b ut f o r t h e o ne w ho c alls t h em i n t h ey a re a lm ost a lw ay s a d is a ste r. Y ou a re l e ft i n t h e l u rc h i f t h ey a re d efe ate d , a n d i n t h eir p ow er i f t h ey a re v ic to rio us. A lth ough a n cie n t h is to ry i s f u ll o f e x am ple s, n one t h e l e ss I w ill b e c o nte n t w ith t h e f re sh e x am ple p ro vid ed b y P ope J u liu s I I. H is c o urs e o f a ctio n c o uld n ot h av e b een m ore i ll- c o nsid ere d w hen , w an tin g t o t a k e F erra ra , h e t h re w h im se lf i n to t h e h an ds o f a f o re ig ner. B ut s u ch w as h is g ood f o rtu ne t h at s o m eth in g e ls e h ap pen ed w hic h p re v en te d h is r e ap in g w hat h e h ad s o w n: a fte r h is a u xilia rie s w ere r o ute d a t R av en na, t h e S w is s a rriv ed o n t h e s c en e a n d d ro ve t h e v ic to rs o ff, s o t h at t o e v ery one’s s u rp ris e , i n clu din g h is o w n, J u liu s e sc ap ed b ein g a t t h e m erc y o f t h e e n em y ( a s t h ey h ad fle d ) o r b ein g i n t h e p ow er o f h is o w n a u xilia rie s ( a s h e h ad n ot c o nquere d w ith t h eir a rm s). T he F lo re n tin es, b ein g c o m ple te ly w ith out f o rc es, h ir e d t e n t h ousa n d F re n ch m en t o r e d uce P is a ; b ecau se o f w hic h d ecis io n t h ey i n cu rre d m ore d an gers t h an a t a n y t im e d urin g t h eir t r o uble s. T he e m pero r o f C onsta n tin ople , t o w ith sta n d h is n eig hbours , s e n t i n to " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Gre ece t e n t h ousa n d T urk s w ho, w hen t h e w ar w as o ver, r e fu se d to l e av e; a n d t h is w as h ow t h e i n fid els s ta rte d t o e n sla v e G re ece.

So a n yone w ho d oes n ot w an t m ilita ry s u ccess s h ould h av e re co urs e t o t h is k in d o f f o rc e, b ecau se i t i s f a r m ore d an gero us th an a m erc en ary a rm y. A uxilia rie s a re f a ta l; t h ey c o nstitu te a unite d a rm y, w holly o bed ie n t t o t h e o rd ers o f s o m eo ne e ls e ; b ut merc en arie s, h av in g c o nquere d , n eed m ore t im e a n d o pportu nity to h arm y ou, f o r t h ey a re n ot a c o m pact f o rc e a n d y ou h av e r a is e d an d p aid t h em y ours e lf . M erc en arie s, a ls o , a re l e d b y s o m eo ne you a p poin t, a n d h e c an not i m med ia te ly a ssu m e s u ffic ie n t au th ority t o b e a b le t o d o y ou h arm . T o s u m u p, c o w ard ic e i s t h e dan ger w ith m erc en arie s, a n d v alo ur w ith a u xilia rie s.

Wis e p rin ces, t h ere fo re , h av e a lw ay s s h unned a u xilia rie s a n d mad e u se o f t h eir o w n f o rc es. T hey h av e p re fe rre d t o l o se b attle s with t h eir o w n f o rc es t h an w in t h em w ith o th ers , i n t h e b elie f t h at no t r u e v ic to ry i s p ossib le w ith a lie n a rm s. N ow , I s h all n ev er hesita te t o c ite C esa re B org ia a n d h is c o nduct a s a n e x am ple . T he duke u se d a u xilia rie s i n h is i n vasio n o f t h e R om ag na, g oin g t h ere at t h e h ead o f F re n ch t r o ops. W ith t h ose , h e t o ok I m ola a n d F orlì.

But t h en h e d ecid ed t h at t h ey w ere u nsa fe , a n d h e t u rn ed t o merc en arie s i n t h e b elie f t h at l e ss r is k w as i n volv ed , h ir in g t h e Ors in i a n d t h e V ite lli. In m ak in g u se o f t h ese , h e f o und t h em t o b e su sp ect, d is lo yal, a n d d an gero us; s o h e g ot r id o f t h em a n d r a is e d his o w n f o rc es. A nd o ne c an e asily s e e t h e d if fe re n ce b etw een th ese f o rc es b y c o nsid erin g t h e d if fe re n ce b etw een t h e s ta n din g o f th e d uke w hen h e h ad o nly t h e F re n ch , w hen h e h ad t h e O rs in i an d t h e V ite lli, a n d w hen h e r e lie d o nly o n h is o w n f o rc es a n d him se lf . H e g re w i n s ta tu re a t e ach s ta g e; a n d h e w as h eld i n r e al re sp ect o nly w hen e v ery one s a w t h at h e w as a b so lu te m aste r o f his a rm ie s.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" I d id n ot w an t t o d ep art f ro m r e cen t, I ta lia n e x am ple s, y et I d o not w an t t o i g nore H ie ro o f S yra cu se , o ne o f t h ose I m en tio ned befo re . A s I s a id t h en , w hen t h e S yra cu sa n s h ad g iv en h im co m man d o f t h eir a rm ie s h e i m med ia te ly r e aliz ed t h at t h e merc en arie s w ere u se le ss; t h ey w ere h ir e d t r o ops o rg an iz ed l ik e our I ta lia n m erc en arie s. I t s e em ed t o h im i m possib le e ith er t o keep t h em o r t o d is b an d t h em , s o h e h ad t h em a ll c u t t o p ie ces.

And t h en h e m ad e w ar w ith h is o w n, n ot w ith a lie n , s o ld ie rs . I would a ls o l ik e t o r e call t o m in d a n a lle g ory f ro m t h e O ld Testa m en t, w hic h i s r e le v an t t o m y a rg um en t. D av id o ffe re d S au l to g o a n d f ig ht G olia th , t h e P hilis tin e c h am pio n, a n d S au l, t o in sp ir e h im w ith c o ura g e, g av e h im h is o w n w eap ons a n d a rm our.

Hav in g t r ie d t h ese o n, D av id r e je cte d t h em , s a y in g t h at h e w ould be u nab le t o f ig ht w ell w ith t h em a n d t h ere fo re h e w an te d t o f a ce th e e n em y w ith h is s lin g a n d h is k nif e . I n s h ort, a rm our b elo ngin g to s o m eo ne e ls e e ith er d ro ps o ff y ou o r w eig hs y ou d ow n o r i s t o o tig ht. W hen C harle s V II, t h e f a th er o f K in g L ouis X I, h ad b y g ood fo rtu ne a n d p ro w ess l ib era te d F ra n ce f ro m t h e E nglis h , he re aliz ed t h e n eed t o h av e h is o w n a rm ed f o rc es, a n d s e t u p t h e militia c o m pose d o f m ounte d t r o ops a n d i n fa n tr y . S ubse q uen tly , his s o n K in g L ouis a b olis h ed t h e o rd in an ce g overn in g t h e i n fa n tr y an d s ta rte d t o h ir e S w is s s o ld ie rs ; a n d t h is m is ta k e, f o llo w ed b y oth ers , h as a s w e c an n ow s e e b een t h e c au se o f t h e d an gers th re ate n in g t h at k in gdom . T he i n cre ase d s ta n din g a llo w ed t h e Sw is s h as d em ora liz ed t h e r e st o f t h e a rm y; t h e i n fa n tr y h av e b een ab olis h ed a lto geth er, a n d t h e m ounte d t r o ops h av e b een m ad e dep en den t o n f o re ig n t r o ops, b ecau se b ein g a ccu sto m ed t o t a k e th e f ie ld a lo ng w ith t h e S w is s t h ey h av e c o m e t o b elie v e t h at with out t h em t h ey c an not w in a b attle . B ecau se o f t h is , t h e F re n ch are n o m atc h f o r t h e S w is s, a n d w ith out S w is s h elp f e el n o m atc h "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" fo r a n yone e ls e . S o F ra n ce h as m ad e u se o f a m ix ed f o rc e, p artly merc en ary a n d p artly c itiz en : t h is c o m bin atio n i s f a r b ette r t h an a pure ly a u xilia ry o r p ure ly m erc en ary f o rc e, a n d f a r i n fe rio r t o a citiz en a rm y. T he e x am ple o f F ra n ce s h ould b e e n ough, b ecau se th at k in gdom w ould b e u nbeata b le i f w hat C harle s h ad i n stitu te d had b een d ev elo ped o r m ain ta in ed . B ut m en a re s o i m pru den t t h at th ey t a k e u p a d ie t w hic h , a s i t t a ste s g ood t o s ta rt w ith , t h ey d o not r e aliz e i s p ois o nous, a p oin t I m ad e b efo re , w hen t a lk in g ab out w astin g f e v ers .

The p rin ce w ho d oes n ot d ete ct e v ils t h e m om en t t h ey a p pear i s la ck in g i n t r u e w is d om ; b ut f e w r u le rs h av e t h e a b ility t o d o s o . I f we c o nsid er w hat w as t h e s ta rt o f t h e d ow nfa ll o f t h e R om an em pir e , i t w ill b e f o und t h at i t w as s im ply w hen t h e G oth s s ta rte d to b e h ir e d a s m erc en arie s. T o t h at s m all b eg in nin g c an b e t r a ced th e e n erv atio n o f t h e f o rc es o f t h e R om an e m pir e . And t h e G oth s in herite d t h e p ro w ess w hic h t h e R om an s l o st.

I c o nclu de, t h ere fo re , t h at u nle ss i t c o m man ds i ts o w n a rm s n o prin cip ality i s s e cu re ; r a th er, i t i s d ep en den t o n f o rtu ne, s in ce th ere i s n o v alo ur a n d n o l o yalty t o d efe n d i t w hen a d vers ity co m es. W is e m en h av e a lw ay s h eld a n d b elie v ed : ’q uod n ih il s it ta m i n fir m um a ut i n sta bile q uam f a m a p ote n tia e n on s u a v i nix a ’.

* O ne’s o w n f o rc es a re c o m pose d o f a n a rm y o f o ne’s su bje cts o r a n a rm y o f c itiz en s o r d ep en dan ts ; a ll o th er f o rc es a re eith er m erc en arie s o r a u xilia rie s. I t i s e asy t o d is c o ver h ow t o org an iz e o ne’s o w n f o rc es i f o ne s tu die s t h e p re ced en ts s e t b y t h e fo ur r u le rs I n am ed a b ove, a n d i f o ne u nders ta n ds h ow P hilip , t h e fa th er o f A le x an der t h e G re at, a n d m an y o th er r e p ublic s a n d prin ces, h av e a rm ed a n d o rg an iz ed t h em se lv es: I w illin gly d efe r to t h e w is d om o f w hat t h ey i n stitu te d .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" * ‘ T hat n oth in g i s s o w eak o r u nsta b le a s a r e p uta tio n f o r p ow er whic h i s n ot b ase d o n o ne’s o w n f o rc es.’ "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XIV How a p rin ce s h ou ld o rg an iz e h is m ilitia A p rin ce, t h ere fo re , m ust h av e n o o th er o bje ct o r t h ought, n or a cq uir e s k ill i n a n yth in g, e x cep t w ar, i ts o rg an iz atio n, a n d i ts d is c ip lin e. T he a rt o f w ar i s a ll t h at i s e x pecte d o f a r u le r; a n d i t i s s o u se fu l t h at b esid es e n ab lin g h ere d ita ry p rin ces t o m ain ta in t h eir r u le i t f re q uen tly e n ab le s o rd in ary c itiz en s t o b eco m e r u le rs . O n t h e o th er h an d, w e f in d t h at p rin ces w ho h av e t h ought m ore o f t h eir p le asu re s t h an o f a rm s h av e l o st t h eir s ta te s. T he f ir s t w ay t o l o se y our s ta te i s t o n eg le ct t h e a rt o f w ar; t h e f ir s t w ay t o w in a s ta te i s t o b e s k ille d i n t h e a rt o f w ar.

Fra n cesc o S fo rz a, b ecau se h e w as a rm ed , f ro m b ein g a n o rd in ary c itiz en r o se t o b e d uke o f M ila n ; h is s o ns, b ecau se t h ey f le d t h e h ard sh ip s i n volv ed , s a n k t o b ein g o rd in ary c itiz en s a fte r b ein g d ukes. Y ou a re b ound t o m eet m is fo rtu ne i f y ou a re u narm ed b ecau se , a m ong o th er r e aso ns, p eo ple d esp is e y ou, a n d t h is , a s I s h all s a y l a te r o n, i s o ne o f t h e i n fa m ie s a p rin ce s h ould b e o n h is g uard a g ain st. T here i s s im ply n o c o m paris o n b etw een a m an w ho i s a rm ed a n d o ne w ho i s n ot. I t i s u nre aso nab le t o e x pect t h at a n a rm ed m an s h ould o bey o ne w ho i s u narm ed , o r t h at a n u narm ed m an s h ould r e m ain s a fe a n d s e cu re w hen h is s e rv an ts a re a rm ed . I n t h e l a tte r c ase , t h ere w ill b e s u sp ic io n o n t h e o ne h an d a n d c o nte m pt o n t h e o th er, m ak in g c o opera tio n i m possib le . S o a p rin ce w ho d oes n ot u nders ta n d w arfa re , a s w ell a s t h e o th er m is fo rtu nes h e i n vite s, c an not b e r e sp ecte d b y h is s o ld ie rs o r p la ce a n y t r u st i n t h em .

" * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" So h e m ust n ev er l e t h is t h oughts s tr a y f ro m m ilita ry e x erc is e s, whic h h e m ust p urs u e m ore v ig oro usly i n p eace t h an i n w ar.

These e x erc is e s c an b e b oth p hysic al a n d m en ta l. A s f o r t h e f ir s t, besid es k eep in g h is m en w ell o rg an iz ed a n d t r a in ed , h e m ust alw ay s b e o ut h untin g, s o a ccu sto m in g h is b ody t o h ard sh ip s a n d als o l e arn in g s o m e p ra ctic al g eo gra p hy: h ow t h e m ounta in s s lo pe, how t h e v alle y s o pen , h ow t h e p la in s s p re ad o ut. H e m ust s tu dy riv ers a n d m ars h es; a n d i n a ll t h is h e s h ould t a k e gre at p ain s. S uch know le d ge i s u se fu l i n t w o w ay s: f ir s t, i f h e o bta in s a c le ar unders ta n din g o f l o cal g eo gra p hy h e w ill h av e a b ette r unders ta n din g o f h ow t o o rg an iz e h is d efe n ce; a n d i n a d ditio n h is know le d ge o f a n d a cq uain ta n ce w ith l o cal c o nditio ns w ill m ak e i t easy f o r h im t o g ra sp t h e f e atu re s o f a n y n ew l o cality w ith w hic h he m ay n eed t o f a m ilia riz e h im se lf . F or e x am ple , t h e h ills a n d valle y s, t h e p la in s, t h e r iv ers , a n d t h e m ars h es o f T usc an y h av e certa in f e atu re s i n c o m mon w ith t h ose o f o th er p ro vin ces; s o w ith a k now le d ge o f t h e g eo gra p hy o f o ne p artic u la r p ro vin ce o ne c an easily a cq uir e k now le d ge o f t h e g eo gra p hy o f o th ers . T he p rin ce who l a ck s t h is k now le d ge a ls o l a ck s t h e f ir s t q ualif ic atio n o f a good c o m man der. T his k in d o f a b ility t e ach es h im h ow t o l o cate th e e n em y, w here t o t a k e u p q uarte rs , h ow t o l e ad h is a rm y o n t h e marc h a n d d ra w i t u p f o r b attle , a n d l a y s ie g e t o a t o w n t o t h e b est ad van ta g e.

Philo poem en , t h e l e ad er o f t h e A ch aean s, h as b een p ra is e d b y th e h is to ria n s f o r, a m ong o th er t h in gs, h av in g n ev er i n p eacetim e th ought o f a n yth in g e ls e e x cep t m ilita ry s tr a te g y. W hen h e w as i n th e c o untr y w ith h is f rie n ds, h e w ould o fte n s to p a n d i n vite a dis c u ssio n: i f t h e e n em y w ere o n t o p o f t h at h ill, a n d w e w ere dow n h ere w ith o ur a rm y, w hic h o f u s w ould h av e t h e a d van ta g e?

How w ould o ne e n gag e t h em w ith out b re ak in g r a n ks? I f w e "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" wan te d t o r e tr e at, h ow w ould w e h av e t o s e t a b out i t? I f t h ey re tr e ate d , h ow w ould w e b est p urs u e t h em ?

And, a s t h ey w en t a lo ng, h e e x pounded t o h is f rie n ds a ll t h e co ntin gen cie s t h at c an b efa ll a n a rm y; h e h eard t h eir o pin io n, gav e h is o w n, a n d c o rro bora te d i t w ith re aso ns. A s a r e su lt, becau se o f t h ese c o ntin uous s p ecu la tio ns, w hen h e w as l e ad in g his a rm ie s h e k new h ow t o c o pe w ith a ll a n d e v ery e m erg en cy .

As f o r i n te lle ctu al t r a in in g, t h e p rin ce m ust r e ad h is to ry , stu dyin g t h e a ctio ns o f e m in en t m en t o s e e h ow t h ey c o nducte d th em se lv es d urin g w ar a n d t o d is c o ver t h e r e aso ns f o r t h eir vic to rie s o r t h eir d efe ats , s o t h at h e c an a v oid t h e l a tte r a n d im ita te t h e f o rm er. A bove a ll, h e m ust r e ad h is to ry s o t h at h e c an do w hat e m in en t m en h av e d one b efo re h im : t a k en a s t h eir m odel so m e h is to ric al f ig ure w ho h as b een p ra is e d a n d h onoure d ; a n d alw ay s k ep t h is d eed s a n d a ctio ns b efo re t h em . I n t h is w ay , i t i s sa id , A le x an der t h e G re at i m ita te d A ch ille s; C aesa r i m ita te d Ale x an der; a n d S cip io , C yru s. A nd a n yone w ho r e ad s t h e l if e o f Cyru s, w ritte n b y X en ophon, w ill t h en s e e h ow m uch o f t h e g lo ry won b y S cip io c an b e a ttr ib ute d t o h is e m ula tio n o f C yru s, a n d how m uch , i n h is c h astity , c o urte sy , h um an ity , a n d g en ero sity , Scip io c o nfo rm ed t o t h e p ic tu re w hic h X en ophon d re w o f C yru s.

A w is e p rin ce m ust o bse rv e t h ese r u le s; h e m ust n ev er t a k e th in gs e asy i n t im es o f p eace, b ut r a th er u se t h e l a tte r a ssid uously , in o rd er t o b e a b le t o r e ap t h e p ro fit i n t im es o f a d vers ity . T hen , when h is f o rtu nes c h an ge, h e w ill b e f o und r e ad y t o r e sis t ad vers ity .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XV T he t h in gs f o r w hic h m en , a n d e sp ecia lly p rin ces, a re pra is e d o r b la m ed I t n ow r e m ain s f o r u s t o s e e h ow a p rin ce m ust r e g ula te h is c o nduct t o w ard s h is s u bje cts o r h is a llie s. I k now t h at t h is h as o fte n b een w ritte n a b out b efo re , a n d s o I h ope i t w ill n ot b e t h ought p re su m ptu ous f o r m e t o d o s o , a s, e sp ecia lly i n d is c u ssin g t h is s u bje ct, I d ra w u p a n o rig in al s e t o f r u le s. B ut s in ce m y i n te n tio n i s t o s a y s o m eth in g t h at w ill p ro ve o f p ra ctic al u se t o t h e i n quir e r, I h av e t h ought i t p ro per t o r e p re se n t t h in gs a s t h ey a re i n a r e al t r u th , r a th er t h an a s t h ey a re i m ag in ed . M an y h av e d re am ed u p r e p ublic s a n d p rin cip alitie s w hic h h av e n ev er i n t r u th b een k now n t o e x is t; t h e g ulf b etw een h ow o ne s h ould l iv e a n d h ow o ne d oes l iv e i s s o w id e t h at a m an w ho n eg le cts w hat i s a ctu ally d one f o r w hat s h ould b e d one m oves t o w ard s s e lf -d estr u ctio n r a th er t h an s e lf -p re se rv atio n. T he f a ct i s t h at a m an w ho w an ts t o a ct v ir tu ously i n e v ery w ay n ecessa rily c o m es t o g rie f a m ong s o m an y w ho a re n ot v ir tu ous. T here fo re i f a p rin ce w an ts t o m ain ta in h is r u le h e m ust b e p re p are d n ot t o b e v ir tu ous, a n d t o m ak e u se o f t h is o r n ot a cco rd in g t o n eed .

So l e av in g a sid e i m ag in ary t h in gs a b out a p rin ce, a n d r e fe rrin g o nly t o t h ose w hic h t r u ly e x is t, I s a y t h at w hen ev er m en a re d is c u sse d a n d e sp ecia lly p rin ces ( w ho a re m ore e x pose d t o v ie w ), t h ey a re j u dged f o r v ario us q ualitie s w hic h e arn t h em e ith er p ra is e o r c o ndem natio n. S om e, f o r e x am ple , a re h eld t o b e g en ero us, a n d " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" oth ers mis e rly ( I u se t h e T usc an w ord r a th er t h an t h e w ord av aric io us: w e a ls o c all a m an w ho i s m ean w ith w hat h e posse sse s, m is e rly , w here as a v aric io us a p plie s a ls o t o a m an w ho wan ts t o p lu nder o th ers ). S om e a re h eld t o b e b en efa cto rs , o th ers are c alle d g ra sp in g; s o m e c ru el, s o m e c o m passio nate ; o ne m an fa ith le ss, a n oth er f a ith fu l; o ne m an e ffe m in ate a n d c o w ard ly , an oth er f ie rc e a n d c o ura g eo us; o ne m an c o urte o us, a n oth er p ro ud; one m an l a sc iv io us, a n oth er c h aste ; o ne g uile le ss, a n oth er c ra fty ; one s tu bborn , a n oth er f le x ib le ; o ne g ra v e, a n oth er f riv olo us; o ne re lig io us, a n oth er s c ep tic al; a n d s o f o rth . I k now e v ery one w ill ag re e t h at i t w ould b e m ost l a u dab le i f a p rin ce p osse sse d a ll t h e qualitie s d eem ed t o b e g ood a m ong t h ose I h av e e n um era te d . B ut, becau se o f c o nditio ns i n t h e w orld , p rin ces c an not h av e t h ose qualitie s, o r o bse rv e t h em c o m ple te ly . S o a p rin ce h as o f n ecessity to b e s o p ru den t t h at h e k now s h ow t o e sc ap e t h e e v il r e p uta tio n atta ch ed t o t h ose v ic es w hic h c o uld l o se h im h is s ta te , a n d h ow t o av oid t h ose v ic es w hic h a re n ot s o d an gero us, i f h e p ossib ly c an ; but, i f h e c an not, h e n eed n ot w orry s o m uch a b out t h e l a tte r. A nd th en , h e m ust n ot f lin ch f ro m b ein g b la m ed f o r v ic es w hic h a re necessa ry f o r s a fe g uard in g t h e s ta te . T his i s b ecau se , t a k in g ev ery th in g i n to a cco unt, h e w ill f in d t h at s o m e o f t h e t h in gs t h at ap pear t o b e v ir tu es w ill, i f h e p ra ctis e s t h em , r u in h im , a n d s o m e of t h e t h in gs t h at a p pear t o b e v ic es w ill b rin g h im s e cu rity a n d pro sp erity .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XVI Gen ero sity a n d p arsim on y S o, s ta rtin g w ith t h e f ir s t o f t h e q ualitie s I e n um era te d a b ove, I s a y i t w ould b e s p le n did i f o ne h ad a r e p uta tio n f o r g en ero sity ; n one t h e l e ss i f y ou d o i n f a ct e arn a r e p uta tio n f o r g en ero sity y ou w ill c o m e t o g rie f. T his i s b ecau se i f y our g en ero sity i s g ood a n d s in cere i t m ay p ass u nnotic ed a n d i t w ill n ot s a v e y ou f ro m b ein g r e p ro ach ed f o r i ts o pposite . I f y ou w an t t o s u sta in a r e p uta tio n f o r g en ero sity , t h ere fo re , y ou h av e t o b e o ste n ta tio usly l a v is h ; a n d a p rin ce a ctin g i n t h at f a sh io n w ill s o on s q uan der a ll h is r e so urc es, o nly t o b e f o rc ed i n t h e e n d, i f h e w an ts t o m ain ta in h is r e p uta tio n, t o l a y e x cessiv e b urd en s o n t h e p eo ple , t o i m pose e x to rtio nate t a x es, a n d t o d o e v ery th in g e ls e h e c an t o r a is e m oney . T his w ill s ta rt t o m ak e h is s u bje cts h ate h im , a n d, s in ce h e w ill h av e i m poveris h ed h im se lf , h e w ill b e g en era lly d esp is e d . A s a r e su lt, b ecau se o f t h is g en ero sity o f h is , h av in g i n ju re d m an y a n d r e w ard ed f e w , h e w ill b e v uln era b le t o t h e f ir s t m in or s e tb ack , a n d t h e f ir s t r e al d an ger h e e n co unte rs w ill b rin g h im t o g rie f.

W hen h e r e aliz es t h is a n d t r ie s t o r e tr a ce h is p ath h e w ill i m med ia te ly b e r e p ute d a m is e r.

So b ecau se a p rin ce c an not p ra ctis e t h e v ir tu e o f g en ero sity i n s u ch a w ay t h at h e i s n ote d f o r i t, e x cep t t o h is c o st, h e s h ould i f h e i s p ru den t n ot m in d b ein g c alle d a m is e r. I n t im e h e w ill b e r e co gniz ed a s b ein g e sse n tia lly a g en ero us m an , s e ein g t h at b ecau se o f h is p ars im ony h is e x is tin g r e v en ues a re e n ough f o r h im , h e can d efe n d h im se lf a g ain st a n a g gre sso r, a n d h e c an " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" em bark o n c am paig ns w ith out b urd en in g t h e p eo ple . S o h e p ro ves him se lf g en ero us t o a ll t h ose f ro m w hom h e t a k es n oth in g, a n d th ey a re i n num era b le , a n d m is e rly t o w ard s a ll t h ose t o w hom h e giv es n oth in g, a n d t h ey a re f e w . I n o ur o w n t im es g re at t h in gs hav e b een a cco m plis h ed o nly b y t h ose w ho h av e b een h eld mis e rly , a n d t h e o th ers h av e m et d is a ste r. P ope J u liu s I I m ad e u se of a r e p uta tio n f o r g en ero sity t o w in t h e p ap acy b ut s u bse q uen tly he m ad e n o e ffo rt t o m ain ta in t h is r e p uta tio n, b ecau se h e w an te d to b e a b le t o f in an ce h is w ars . T he p re se n t k in g o f F ra n ce h as been a b le t o w ag e s o m an y w ars w ith out t a x in g h is s u bje cts ex cessiv ely o nly b ecau se h is l o ng-s ta n din g p ars im ony e n ab le d him t o m eet t h e a d ditio nal e x pen se s i n volv ed . W ere t h e p re se n t kin g o f S pain r e n ow ned f o r h is g en ero sity h e w ould n ot h av e sta rte d a n d s u ccessfu lly c o nclu ded s o m an y e n te rp ris e s.

So a p rin ce m ust t h in k l ittle o f i t, i f h e i n cu rs t h e n am e o f mis e r, s o a s n ot t o r o b h is s u bje cts , t o b e a b le t o d efe n d h im se lf , not t o b eco m e p oor a n d d esp ic ab le , n ot t o b e f o rc ed t o g ro w ra p acio us. M is e rlin ess i s o ne o f t h ose v ic es w hic h s u sta in h is r u le .

Som eo ne m ay o bje ct: C aesa r c am e t o p ow er b y v ir tu e o f h is gen ero sity , a n d m an y o th ers , b ecau se t h ey p ra ctis e d a n d w ere know n f o r t h eir g en ero sity , h av e r is e n t o t h e v ery h ig hest positio ns. M y a n sw er t o t h is i s a s f o llo w s. E ith er y ou a re a lr e ad y a prin ce, o r y ou a re o n t h e w ay t o b eco m in g o ne. I n t h e f ir s t c ase , your g en ero sity w ill b e t o y our c o st; i n t h e s e co nd, i t i s c erta in ly necessa ry t o h av e a r e p uta tio n f o r g en ero sity . C aesa r w as o ne o f th ose w ho w an te d t o esta b lis h h is o w n r u le o ver R om e; b ut i f , afte r h e h ad e sta b lis h ed i t, h e h ad r e m ain ed a liv e a n d n ot modera te d h is e x pen ditu re h e w ould h av e f a lle n f ro m p ow er.

Again , s o m eo ne m ay r e to rt: t h ere h av e b een m an y p rin ces w ho hav e w on g re at s u ccesse s w ith t h eir a rm ie s, a n d w ho h av e h ad t h e "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" re p uta tio n o f b ein g e x tr e m ely g en ero us. M y r e p ly t o t h is i s : t h e prin ce g iv es a w ay w hat i s h is o w n o r h is s u bje cts ’, o r e ls e w hat belo ngs t o o th ers . I n t h e f ir s t c ase h e s h ould b e f ru gal; i n t h e se co nd, h e s h ould i n dulg e h is g en ero sity t o t h e f u ll. T he p rin ce who c am paig ns w ith h is a rm ie s, w ho l iv es b y p illa g in g, s a ck in g, an d e x to rtio n, d is p ose s o f w hat b elo ngs t o a lie n s; a n d h e m ust b e open -h an ded , o th erw is e t h e s o ld ie rs w ould r e fu se t o f o llo w h im .

And y ou c an b e m ore l ib era l w ith w hat d oes n ot b elo ng t o y ou o r your s u bje cts , a s C aesa r, C yru s, a n d A le x an der w ere . G iv in g aw ay w hat b elo ngs t o s tr a n gers i n n o w ay a ffe cts y our s ta n din g a t hom e; r a th er i t i n cre ase s i t. Y ou h urt y ours e lf o nly w hen y ou g iv e aw ay w hat i s y our o w n. T here i s n oth in g s o s e lf -d efe atin g a s gen ero sity : i n t h e a ct o f p ra ctis in g i t, y ou l o se t h e a b ility t o d o s o , an d y ou b eco m e e ith er p oor a n d d esp is e d o r, s e ek in g t o e sc ap e poverty , r a p acio us a n d h ate d . A p rin ce m ust t r y t o a v oid , a b ove all e ls e , b ein g d esp is e d a n d h ate d ; a n d g en ero sity r e su lts i n y our bein g b oth . T here fo re i t i s w is e r t o i n cu r t h e r e p uta tio n o f b ein g a mis e r, w hic h b rin gs f o rth i g nom in y b ut n ot h atr e d , t h an t o b e fo rc ed b y s e ek in g a n am e f o r g en ero sity t o i n cu r a r e p uta tio n f o r ra p acity , w hic h b rin gs y ou h atr e d a s w ell a s i g nom in y.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XVII C ru elty a n d c o m passio n ; a n d w heth er i t i s b ette r t o b e lo ved t h an f e a re d , o r t h e r e verse T ak in g o th ers o f t h e q ualitie s I e n um era te d a b ove, I s a y t h at a p rin ce m ust w an t t o h av e a r e p uta tio n f o r c o m passio n r a th er t h an f o r c ru elty : n one t h e l e ss, h e m ust b e c are fu l t h at h e d oes n ot m ak e b ad u se o f c o m passio n. C esa re B org ia w as a cco unte d c ru el; n ev erth ele ss, t h is c ru elty o f h is r e fo rm ed t h e R om ag na, b ro ught i t u nity , a n d r e sto re d o rd er a n d o bed ie n ce. O n r e fle ctio n, i t w ill b e s e en t h at t h ere w as m ore c o m passio n i n C esa re t h an i n t h e F lo re n tin e p eo ple , w ho, t o e sc ap e b ein g c alle d c ru el, a llo w ed P is to ia t o b e d ev asta te d . S o a p rin ce m ust n ot w orry i f h e i n cu rs r e p ro ach f o r h is c ru elty s o l o ng a s h e k eep s h is s u bje cts u nite d a n d l o yal. B y m ak in g a n e x am ple o r t w o h e w ill p ro ve m ore c o m passio nate t h an t h ose w ho, b ein g t o o c o m passio nate , a llo w d is o rd ers w hic h l e ad t o m urd er a n d r a p in e. T hese n early a lw ay s h arm t h e w hole c o m munity , w here as e x ecu tio ns o rd ere d b y a p rin ce o nly a ffe ct i n div id uals . A n ew p rin ce, o f a ll r u le rs , f in ds i t i m possib le t o a v oid a r e p uta tio n f o r c ru elty , b ecau se o f t h e a b undan t d an gers i n here n t i n a n ew ly w on s ta te . V erg il, t h ro ugh t h e m outh o f D id o, s a y s:

Res d ura , e t r e g ni n ovita s m e t a lia c o gunt M olir i, e t l a te fin es c u sto de t u eri.

* N one t h e l e ss, a p rin ce m ust b e s lo w t o b elie v e a lle g atio ns a n d t o " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" ta k e a ctio n, a n d m ust w atc h t h at h e d oes n ot c o m e t o b e a fra id o f his o w n s h ad ow ; h is b eh av io ur m ust b e t e m pere d b y h um an ity an d p ru den ce s o t h at o ver-c o nfid en ce d oes n ot m ak e h im r a sh o r ex cessiv e d is tr u st m ak e h im u nbeara b le .

Fro m t h is a ris e s t h e f o llo w in g q uestio n: w heth er i t i s b ette r t o be l o ved t h an f e are d , o r t h e r e v ers e . T he a n sw er i s t h at o ne w ould lik e t o b e b oth t h e o ne a n d t h e o th er; b ut b ecau se i t i s d if fic u lt t o co m bin e t h em , i t i s f a r b ette r t o b e f e are d t h an l o ved i f y ou c an not be b oth . O ne c an m ak e t h is g en era liz atio n a b out m en : t h ey a re ungra te fu l, f ic k le , l ia rs , a n d d eceiv ers , t h ey s h un d an ger a n d a re gre ed y f o r p ro fit; w hile y ou t r e at t h em w ell, t h ey a re y ours . T hey would s h ed t h eir b lo od f o r y ou, r is k t h eir p ro perty , t h eir l iv es, th eir s o ns, s o l o ng, a s I s a id a b ove, a s d an ger i s r e m ote ; b ut w hen you a re i n d an ger t h ey t u rn a w ay . A ny p rin ce w ho h as c o m e t o dep en d e n tir e ly o n p ro m is e s a n d h as t a k en n o o th er p re cau tio ns en su re s h is o w n r u in ; f rie n dsh ip w hic h i s b ought w ith m oney a n d not w ith g re atn ess a n d n obility o f m in d i s p aid f o r, b ut i t d oes n ot la st a n d i t y ie ld s n oth in g. M en w orry l e ss a b out d oin g a n i n ju ry t o one w ho m ak es h im se lf l o ved t h an t o o ne w ho m ak es h im se lf fe are d . F or l o ve i s s e cu re d b y a b ond o f g ra titu de w hic h m en , wre tc h ed c re atu re s t h at t h ey a re , b re ak w hen i t i s t o t h eir ad van ta g e t o d o s o ; b ut f e ar i s s tr e n gth en ed b y a d re ad o f punis h m en t w hic h i s a lw ay s e ffe ctiv e.

The p rin ce m ust n one t h e l e ss m ak e h im se lf f e are d i n s u ch a way t h at, i f h e i s n ot l o ved , a t l e ast h e e sc ap es b ein g h ate d . F or fe ar i s q uite c o m patib le w ith a n a b se n ce of h atr e d ; a n d t h e p rin ce can a lw ay s a v oid h atr e d i f h e a b sta in s f ro m t h e p ro perty o f h is su bje cts a n d c itiz en s a n d f ro m t h eir w om en . I f, e v en s o , i t p ro ves necessa ry t o e x ecu te s o m eo ne, t h is i s t o b e d one o nly w hen t h ere is p ro per j u stif ic atio n a n d m an if e st r e aso n f o r i t. B ut a b ove a ll a "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" prin ce m ust a b sta in f ro m t h e p ro perty o f o th ers ; b ecau se m en so oner f o rg et t h e d eath o f t h eir f a th er t h an t h e l o ss o f t h eir patr im ony. I t i s a lw ay s p ossib le t o f in d p re te x ts f o r c o nfis c atin g so m eo ne’s p ro perty ; a n d a p rin ce w ho s ta rts t o l iv e b y r a p in e alw ay s f in ds p re te x ts f o r s e iz in g w hat b elo ngs t o o th ers . O n t h e oth er h an d, p re te x ts f o r e x ecu tin g s o m eo ne a re h ard er t o f in d a n d th ey a re s o oner g one.

How ev er, w hen a p rin ce i s c am paig nin g w ith h is s o ld ie rs a n d i s in c o m man d o f a l a rg e a rm y t h en h e n eed n ot w orry a b out h av in g a r e p uta tio n f o r c ru elty ; b ecau se , w ith out s u ch a r e p uta tio n, n o arm y w as e v er k ep t u nite d a n d d is c ip lin ed . A m ong t h e a d m ir a b le ach ie v em en ts o f H an nib al i s i n clu ded t h is : t h at a lth ough h e l e d a huge a rm y, m ad e u p o f c o untle ss d if fe re n t r a ces, o n f o re ig n cam paig ns, t h ere w as n ev er a n y d is se n sio n, e ith er a m ong t h e tr o ops t h em se lv es o r a g ain st t h eir l e ad er, w heth er t h in gs w ere goin g w ell o r b ad ly . F or t h is , h is i n hum an c ru elty w as w holly re sp onsib le . I t w as t h is , a lo ng w ith h is c o untle ss o th er q ualitie s, whic h m ad e h im f e are d a n d r e sp ecte d b y h is s o ld ie rs . I f i t h ad n ot been f o r h is c ru elty , h is o th er q ualitie s w ould n ot h av e b een en ough. T he h is to ria n s, h av in g g iv en l ittle t h ought t o t h is , o n t h e one h an d a d m ir e w hat H an nib al a ch ie v ed , a n d o n t h e o th er co ndem n w hat m ad e h is a ch ie v em en ts p ossib le .

That h is o th er q ualitie s w ould n ot h av e b een e n ough by th em se lv es c an b e p ro ved b y l o okin g a t S cip io , a m an u niq ue i n his o w n t im e a n d t h ro ugh a ll r e co rd ed h is to ry . H is a rm ie s mutin ie d a g ain st h im i n S pain , a n d t h e o nly r e aso n f o r t h is w as his e x cessiv e l e n ie n cy , w hic h a llo w ed h is s o ld ie rs m ore l ic en ce th an w as g ood f o r m ilita ry d is c ip lin e. F ab iu s M ax im us re p ro ach ed h im f o r t h is i n t h e S en ate a n d c alle d h im a c o rru pte r o f th e R om an l e g io ns. A gain , w hen t h e L ocria n s w ere p lu ndere d b y "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" one o f S cip io ’s o ffic ers , h e n eith er g av e t h em s a tis fa ctio n n or punis h ed h is o ffic er’s i n su bord in atio n; a n d t h is w as a ll b ecau se o f his b ein g t o o l e n ie n t b y n atu re . B y w ay o f e x cu se f o r h im s o m e se n ato rs a rg ued t h at m an y m en w ere b ette r a t n ot m ak in g mis ta k es t h em se lv es t h an a t c o rre ctin g t h em i n o th ers . B ut i n t im e Scip io ’s l e n ie n t n atu re w ould h av e s p oilt h is f a m e a n d g lo ry h ad he c o ntin ued t o i n dulg e i t d urin g h is c o m man d; w hen h e l iv ed under o rd ers f ro m t h e S en ate , h ow ev er, t h is f a ta l c h ara cte ris tic o f his w as n ot o nly c o nceale d b ut e v en b ro ught h im g lo ry .

So, o n t h is q uestio n o f b ein g l o ved o r f e are d , I c o nclu de t h at sin ce s o m e m en l o ve a s t h ey p le ase b ut f e ar w hen t h e p rin ce ple ase s, a w is e p rin ce s h ould r e ly o n w hat h e c o ntr o ls , n ot o n what h e c an not c o ntr o l. H e m ust o nly e n deav our, a s I s a id , t o esc ap e b ein g h ate d .

* ‘ H ars h n ecessity , a n d t h e n ew ness o f m y k in gdom , f o rc e m e t o do s u ch t h in gs a n d t o g uard m y f ro ntie rs e v ery w here .’ "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XVIII How p rin ces s h ou ld h on ou r t h eir w ord E very one r e aliz es h ow p ra is e w orth y i t i s f o r a p rin ce t o h onour h is w ord a n d t o b e s tr a ig htf o rw ard r a th er t h an cra fty i n h is d ealin gs; n one t h e l e ss c o nte m pora ry e x perie n ce s h ow s t h at p rin ces w ho h av e a ch ie v ed g re at t h in gs h av e b een t h ose w ho h av e g iv en t h eir w ord l ig htly , w ho h av e k now n h ow t o t r ic k m en w ith t h eir c u nnin g, a n d w ho, i n t h e e n d, h av e o verc o m e t h ose a b id in g b y h onest p rin cip le s.

You m ust u nders ta n d, t h ere fo re , t h at t h ere a re t w o w ay s o f f ig htin g: b y l a w o r b y f o rc e. T he f ir s t w ay i s n atu ra l t o m en , a n d t h e s e co nd t o b easts . B ut a s t h e f ir s t w ay o fte n p ro ves i n ad eq uate o ne m ust n eed s h av e r e co urs e t o t h e s e co nd. S o a p rin ce m ust u nders ta n d h ow t o m ak e a n ic e u se o f t h e b east a n d t h e m an . T he a n cie n t w rite rs t a u ght p rin ces a b out t h is b y a n a lle g ory , w hen t h ey d esc rib ed h ow A ch ille s a n d m an y o th er p rin ces o f t h e a n cie n t w orld w ere s e n t t o b e b ro ught u p b y C hir o n, t h e c en ta u r, s o t h at h e m ig ht t r a in t h em h is w ay . A ll t h e a lle g ory m ean s, i n m ak in g t h e t e ach er h alf b east a n d h alf m an , i s t h at a p rin ce m ust k now h ow t o a ct a cco rd in g t o t h e n atu re o f b oth , a n d t h at h e c an not s u rv iv e o th erw is e .

So, a s a p rin ce i s f o rc ed t o k now h ow t o a ct l ik e a b east, h e m ust l e arn f ro m t h e f o x a n d t h e l io n; b ecau se t h e l io n i s d efe n cele ss a g ain st t r a p s a n d a f o x i s d efe n cele ss a g ain st w olv es.

T here fo re o ne m ust b e a f o x i n o rd er t o r e co gniz e t r a p s, a n d a l io n t o f rig hte n o ff w olv es. T hose w ho s im ply a ct l ik e l io ns a re s tu pid .

" * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" So i t f o llo w s t h at a p ru den t r u le r c an not, a n d m ust n ot, h onour h is word w hen i t p la ces h im a t a d is a d van ta g e a n d w hen t h e r e aso ns fo r w hic h h e m ad e h is p ro m is e n o l o nger e x is t. I f a ll m en w ere good, t h is p re cep t w ould n ot b e g ood; b ut b ecau se m en a re wre tc h ed c re atu re s w ho w ould n ot keep t h eir w ord t o y ou, y ou need n ot k eep y our w ord t o t h em . A nd n o p rin ce e v er l a ck ed g ood ex cu se s t o c o lo ur h is b ad f a ith . O ne c o uld g iv e i n num era b le modern i n sta n ces o f t h is , s h ow in g h ow m an y p acts a n d p ro m is e s hav e b een m ad e n ull a n d v oid b y t h e b ad f a ith o f p rin ces: t h ose who h av e k now n b est h ow t o i m ita te t h e f o x h av e c o m e o ff b est.

But o ne m ust k now h ow t o c o lo ur o ne’s a ctio ns a n d t o b e a g re at lia r a n d d eceiv er. M en a re s o s im ple , a n d s o m uch c re atu re s o f cir c u m sta n ce, t h at t h e d eceiv er w ill a lw ay s f in d s o m eo ne r e ad y t o be d eceiv ed .

There i s o ne f re sh e x am ple I d o n ot w an t t o o m it. A le x an der V I nev er d id a n yth in g, o r t h ought o f a n yth in g, o th er t h an d eceiv in g men ; a n d h e a lw ay s f o und v ic tim s f o r h is d ecep tio ns. T here n ev er was a m an c ap ab le o f s u ch c o nvin cin g a sse v era tio ns, o r s o r e ad y to s w ear t o t h e t r u th o f s o m eth in g, w ho w ould h onour h is w ord le ss. N one t h e l e ss h is d ecep tio ns a lw ay s h ad t h e r e su lt h e in te n ded , b ecau se h e w as a p ast m aste r i n t h e a rt.

A p rin ce, t h ere fo re , n eed n ot n ecessa rily h av e a ll t h e g ood qualitie s I m en tio ned a b ove, b ut h e s h ould c erta in ly a p pear t o hav e t h em . I w ould e v en g o s o f a r a s t o s a y t h at i f h e h as t h ese qualitie s a n d a lw ay s b eh av es a cco rd in gly h e w ill f in d t h em harm fu l; i f h e o nly a p pears t o h av e t h em t h ey w ill r e n der h im se rv ic e. H e s h ould a p pear t o b e c o m passio nate , f a ith fu l t o h is word , k in d, g uile le ss a n d d ev out. A nd i n deed h e s h ould b e s o . B ut his d is p ositio n s h ould b e s u ch t h at, i f h e n eed s t o b e t h e o pposite , he k now s h ow . Y ou m ust r e aliz e t h is : t h at a p rin ce, a n d e sp ecia lly "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" a n ew p rin ce, c an not o bse rv e a ll t h ose t h in gs w hic h g iv e m en a re p uta tio n f o r v ir tu e, becau se i n o rd er t o m ain ta in h is s ta te h e i s ofte n f o rc ed t o a ct i n d efia n ce o f g ood f a ith , o f c h arity , o f kin dness, o f r e lig io n. A nd s o h e s h ould h av e a f le x ib le dis p ositio n, v ary in g a s f o rtu ne a n d c ir c u m sta n ces d ic ta te . A s I sa id a b ove, h e s h ould n ot d ev ia te f ro m w hat i s g ood, i f t h at i s possib le , b ut h e s h ould k now h ow t o d o e v il, i f t h at i s n ecessa ry .

A p rin ce, t h en , m ust b e v ery c are fu l n ot t o s a y a w ord w hic h does n ot s e em i n sp ir e d b y t h e f iv e q ualitie s I m en tio ned e arlie r.

To t h ose s e ein g a n d h earin g h im , h e s h ould a p pear a m an o f co m passio n, a m an o f g ood f a ith , a m an o f i n te g rity , a k in d a n d a re lig io us m an . A nd t h ere i s n oth in g s o i m porta n t a s t o s e em t o hav e t h is l a st q uality . M en i n g en era l j u dge b y t h eir e y es r a th er th an b y t h eir h an ds; b ecau se e v ery one i s i n a p ositio n t o w atc h , fe w a re i n a p ositio n t o c o m e i n c lo se t o uch w ith y ou. E very one se es w hat y ou a p pear t o b e, f e w e x perie n ce w hat y ou r e ally a re .

And t h ose f e w d are n ot g ain sa y t h e m an y w ho a re b ack ed b y t h e maje sty o f t h e s ta te . I n t h e a ctio ns o f a ll m en , a n d e sp ecia lly o f prin ces, w here t h ere i s n o c o urt o f a p peal, o ne j u dges b y t h e re su lt. S o l e t a p rin ce s e t a b out t h e t a sk o f c o nquerin g, a n d main ta in in g h is s ta te ; h is m eth ods w ill a lw ay s b e j u dged honoura b le a n d w ill b e u niv ers a lly p ra is e d . T he c o m mon p eo ple are a lw ay s i m pre sse d b y a p peara n ces a n d r e su lts . I n t h is c o nte x t, th ere a re o nly c o m mon p eo ple , a n d t h ere i s n o l e ew ay f o r t h e f e w when t h e m an y a re f ir m ly s u sta in ed . A c erta in c o nte m pora ry ru le r, w hom i t i s b ette r n ot t o n am e, n ev er p re ach es a n yth in g ex cep t p eace a n d g ood f a ith ; a n d h e i s a n e n em y o f b oth o ne a n d th e o th er, a n d i f h e h ad e v er h onoure d e ith er o f th em h e w ould hav e l o st e ith er h is s ta n din g o r h is s ta te m an y t im es o ver.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XIX The n eed t o a vo id c o n te m pt a n d h atr e d N ow , h av in g t a lk ed a b out t h e m ost i m porta n t o f t h e q ualitie s e n um era te d a b ove, I w an t t o d is c u ss t h e o th ers b rie fly u nder t h is g en era liz atio n: t h at t h e p rin ce s h ould , a s I h av e a lr e ad y s u ggeste d , d ete rm in e t o a v oid a n yth in g w hic h w ill m ak e h im h ate d a n d d esp is e d . S o l o ng a s h e d oes s o , h e w ill h av e d one w hat h e s h ould a n d h e w ill r u n n o r is k w hats o ev er i f h e i s r e p ro ach ed f o r t h e o th er v ic es I m en tio ned . H e w ill b e h ate d a b ove a ll i f , a s I s a id , h e i s r a p acio us a n d a g gre ssiv e w ith r e g ard t o t h e p ro perty a n d t h e w om en o f h is s u bje cts . H e m ust r e fra in f ro m t h ese . A s l o ng a s h e d oes n ot r o b t h e g re at m ajo rity o f t h eir p ro perty o r t h eir h onour, t h ey r e m ain c o nte n t. H e t h en h as t o c o nte n d o nly w ith t h e a m bitio n o f a f e w , a n d t h at c an b e d ealt w ith e asily a n d i n a v arie ty o f w ay s. H e w ill b e d esp is e d i f h e h as a r e p uta tio n f o r b ein g f ic k le , f riv olo us, e ffe m in ate , c o w ard ly , i r re so lu te ; a p rin ce s h ould a v oid t h is l ik e t h e p la g ue a n d s tr iv e t o d em onstr a te i n h is a ctio ns g ra n deu r, c o ura g e, s o brie ty , s tr e n gth . W hen s e ttlin g d is p ute s b etw een h is s u bje cts , h e s h ould e n su re t h at h is j u dgem en t i s i r re v ocab le ; a n d h e s h ould b e s o r e g ard ed t h at n o o ne e v er d re am s o f t r y in g t o d eceiv e o r t r ic k h im .

The p rin ce w ho s u cceed s i n h av in g h im se lf t h us r e g ard ed i s h ig hly e ste em ed ; a n d a g ain st a m an w ho i s hig hly e ste em ed c o nsp ir a cy i s d if fic u lt, a n d o pen a tta ck i s d if fic u lt, p ro vid ed h e i s r e co gniz ed a s a g re at m an , w ho i s r e sp ecte d b y h is s u bje cts . T here a re t w o t h in gs a p rin ce m ust f e ar: i n te rn al s u bvers io n f ro m h is " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" su bje cts ; a n d e x te rn al a g gre ssio n b y f o re ig n p ow ers . A gain st t h e la tte r, h is d efe n ce l ie s i n b ein g w ell a rm ed a n d h av in g g ood a llie s; an d i f h e i s w ell a rm ed h e w ill a lw ay s h av e g ood a llie s. I n ad ditio n, d om estic a ffa ir s w ill a lw ay s r e m ain u nder c o ntr o l pro vid ed t h at r e la tio ns w ith e x te rn al p ow ers a re u nder c o ntr o l a n d if i n deed t h ey w ere n ot d is tu rb ed b y a c o nsp ir a cy . E ven i f t h ere i s dis tu rb an ce a b ro ad , i f t h e p rin ce h as o rd ere d h is g overn m en t a n d liv ed a s I s a id , a n d i f h e d oes n ot c ap itu la te , h e w ill a lw ay s re p uls e e v ery o nsla u ght, j u st a s I s a id N ab is t h e S parta n d id . N ow , as f a r a s h is s u bje cts a re c o ncern ed , w hen t h ere i s n o d is tu rb an ce ab ro ad t h e p rin ce’s c h ie f f e ar m ust b e a s e cre t c o nsp ir a cy . H e c an ad eq uate ly g uard a g ain st t h is i f h e a v oid s b ein g h ate d o r s c o rn ed an d k eep s t h e p eo ple s a tis fie d : t h is , a s I h av e s a id a b ove a t l e n gth , is c ru cia l. O ne o f t h e m ost p ow erfu l s a fe g uard s a p rin ce c an h av e ag ain st c o nsp ir a cie s i s t o a v oid b ein g h ate d b y t h e p opula ce. T his is b ecau se t h e c o nsp ir a to r a lw ay s t h in ks t h at b y k illin g t h e p rin ce he w ill s a tis fy t h e p eo ple ; b ut i f h e t h in ks t h at h e w ill o utr a g e t h e peo ple , h e w ill n ev er h av e t h e c o ura g e t o g o a h ead w ith h is en te rp ris e , b ecau se t h ere a re c o untle ss o bsta cle s i n t h e p ath o f a co nsp ir a to r. A s e x perie n ce s h ow s, t h ere h av e b een m an y co nsp ir a cie s b ut f e w o f t h em h av e a ch ie v ed t h eir e n d. T his i s becau se t h e c o nsp ir a to r n eed s o th ers t o h elp h im , a n d t h ose h av e to b e m en w ho, h e b elie v es, a re d is g ru ntle d . B ut a s s o on a s h e re v eals h is m in d t o a man w ho i s d is sa tis fie d h e g iv es h im t h e mean s t o g et s a tis fa ctio n, b ecau se b y t e llin g a ll h e k now s t h e la tte r c an h ope t o o bta in a ll h e w an ts . S eein g t h e s u re p ro fit t o b e won b y i n fo rm in g, a n d t h e h ig hly d an gero us a n d d oubtf u l alte rn ativ e, a m an m ust b e e ith er a r a re f rie n d i n deed o r e ls e a n utte rly r e le n tle ss e n em y o f t h e p rin ce t o k eep f a ith w ith y ou. T o put i t b rie fly , I s a y t h at o n t h e s id e o f t h e c o nsp ir a to r t h ere i s "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" noth in g e x cep t f e ar, e n vy, a n d t h e t e rrif y in g p ro sp ect o f punis h m en t; o n t h e s id e o f t h e p rin ce t h ere i s t h e m aje sty o f govern m en t, t h ere a re l a w s, t h e r e so urc es o f h is f rie n ds a n d o f t h e sta te t o p ro te ct h im . A dd t o a ll t h ese t h e g oodw ill o f t h e p eo ple , an d i t i s u nth in kab le t h at a n yone s h ould b e s o r a sh a s t o c o nsp ir e .

For w here as i n t h e n orm al c o urs e o f e v en ts a c o nsp ir a to r h as cau se f o r f e ar b efo re h e a cts , i n t h is c ase h e h as c au se f o r f e ar afte rw ard s a s w ell, s e ein g t h at t h e p eo ple a re h ostile t o h im . H e will h av e a cco m plis h ed h is c rim e, a n d, b ecau se t h e p eo ple a re ag ain st h im , h e w ill h av e n o p la ce o f r e fu ge.

I c o uld g iv e c o untle ss i llu str a tio ns o f t h is ; b ut I w ill c o nte n t myse lf w ith j u st o ne, w hic h h ap pen ed i n t h e t im e o f o ur f a th ers .

The C an nesc h i c o nsp ir e d a g ain st a n d k ille d m esse r A nnib ale Ben tiv ogli, g ra n dfa th er o f t h e p re se n t A nnib ale , a n d p rin ce o f Bolo gna.

T here r e m ain ed a s h is h eir o nly m esse r G io van ni, w ho was s till i n s w ad dlin g c lo th es. I m med ia te ly t h is m urd er w as perp etr a te d , t h e p eo ple r o se u p a n d k ille d a ll t h e C an nesc h i. T hey were i n sp ir e d b y t h e g oodw ill t h at e x is te d f o r t h e H ouse o f Ben tiv oglio a t t h at p erio d. I t w as s o g re at t h at, a lth ough t h ere w as no m em ber o f t h e f a m ily l e ft i n B olo gna t o t a k e o ver t h e govern m en t o n t h e d eath o f Annib ale , t h e c itiz en s o f B olo gna, hearin g t h at t h ere w as s o m eo ne i n F lo re n ce w ho w as o f t h e Ben tiv oglio f a m ily b ut h ad u ntil t h en b een t h ought t o b e t h e s o n of a s m ith , w en t t h ere t o f in d h im . T hey e n tr u ste d h im w ith t h e govern m en t o f t h e c ity ; a n d h e r u le d u ntil G io van ni w as o ld en ough t o a ssu m e t h e g overn m en t h im se lf .

I c o nclu de, t h ere fo re , t h at w hen a p rin ce h as t h e g oodw ill o f t h e peo ple h e m ust n ot w orry a b out c o nsp ir a cie s; b ut w hen t h e p eo ple are h ostile a n d r e g ard h im w ith h atr e d h e m ust g o i n f e ar o f ev ery th in g a n d e v ery one. W ell- o rg an iz ed s ta te s a n d w is e p rin ces "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" hav e a lw ay s t a k en g re at p ain s n ot t o m ak e t h e n oble s d esp air , a n d to s a tis fy t h e p eo ple a n d k eep t h em c o nte n t; t h is i s o ne o f t h e most i m porta n t t a sk s a p rin ce m ust u nderta k e.

Am ong k in gdom s w hic h a re w ell o rg an iz ed a n d g overn ed , i n our o w n t im e, i s t h at o f F ra n ce: i t p osse sse s c o untle ss v alu ab le in stitu tio ns, o n w hic h t h e k in g’s f re ed om o f a ctio n a n d s e cu rity dep en d. T he f ir s t o f t h ese i s t h e p arlia m en t a n d i ts a u th ority . F or th e l a w giv er o f t h e F re n ch k in gdom , k now in g t h e a m bitio n a n d in so le n ce o f t h e p ow erfu l, j u dged i t n ecessa ry t h at t h ey s h ould b e re str a in ed b y h av in g a b it i n t h eir m outh s. O n t h e o th er h an d, h e wan te d t o p ro te ct t h e m asse s, k now in g h ow t h ey f e are d , a n d th ere fo re h ate d , t h e n oble s. H e d id n ot w an t t h is t o b e t h e partic u la r r e sp onsib ility o f t h e k in g, b ecau se h e w is h ed t o s a v e him f ro m b ein g r e p ro ach ed b y t h e n oble s f o r f a v ourin g t h e p eo ple an d b y t h e p eo ple f o r f a v ourin g t h e n oble s. S o h e i n stitu te d a n in dep en den t a rb ite r t o c ru sh t h e n oble s a n d f a v our t h e w eak , with out b rin gin g r e p ro ach o n t h e k in g. T here c o uld b e n o b ette r or more s e n sib le i n stitu tio n, n or o ne m ore e ffe ctiv e i n e n su rin g t h e se cu rity o f t h e k in g a n d t h e k in gdom .

Fro m t h is c an b e d ra w n a n oth er n ote w orth y c o nsid era tio n: t h at prin ces s h ould d ele g ate t o o th ers t h e e n actm en t o f u npopula r measu re s a n d k eep i n t h eir o w n h an ds t h e m ean s o f w in nin g fa v ours . A gain , I c o nclu de t h at a p rin ce s h ould v alu e t h e n oble s, but n ot m ak e h im se lf h ate d b y t h e p eo ple .

Man y w ho h av e s tu die d t h e l iv es a n d d eath s o f c erta in R om an em pero rs m ay p erh ap s b elie v e t h at t h ey p ro vid e e x am ple s co ntr a d ic tin g m y o pin io n; s o m e e m pero rs w ho l e d c o nsis te n tly worth y l iv es, a n d s h ow ed s tr e n gth o f c h ara cte r, n one t h e l e ss f e ll fro m p ow er, o r w ere e v en d one t o d eath b y t h eir o w n m en w ho co nsp ir e d a g ain st t h em . A s I w is h t o a n sw er t h ese o bje ctio ns, I "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" sh all d is c u ss t h e c h ara cte rs o f s o m e o f t h e e m pero rs , s h ow in g t h at th e r e aso ns f o r t h eir d ow nfa ll a re n ot d if fe re n t f ro m t h ose I h av e ad duced . I s h all s u bm it f o r c o nsid era tio n e x am ple s w hic h a re w ell know n t o s tu den ts o f t h e p erio d. I s h all a ls o r e str ic t m yse lf t o a ll th ose e m pero rs w ho c am e t o p ow er f ro m M arc u s t h e p hilo so pher to M ax im in us. T hese w ere : M arc u s A ure liu s, C om modus h is s o n, Pertin ax , J u lia n , S ev eru s, C ara calla h is s o n, M acrin us, Helio gab alu s, A le x an der, a n d M ax im in us.

Fir s t, i t i s t o b e n ote d t h at w here as o th er p rin ces h av e t o co nte n d o nly w ith t h e a m bitio n o f t h e n oble s a n d t h e i n so le n ce o f th e p eo ple , t h e R om an e m pero rs e n co unte re d a t h ir d d if fic u lty :

th ey h ad t o c o nte n d w ith t h e c ru elty a n d a v aric e o f t h e s o ld ie rs .

This w as a h ard t a sk a n d i t w as r e sp onsib le f o r t h e d ow nfa ll o f man y, s in ce i t w as d if fic u lt t o s a tis fy b oth t h e s o ld ie rs a n d t h e popula ce. The l a tte r, b ein g p eace-lo vin g, l ik ed u nad ven tu ro us em pero rs , w hile t h e s o ld ie rs l o ved a w arlik e r u le r, a n d o ne w ho was a rro gan t, c ru el, a n d r a p acio us. T hey w an te d h im t o t r e at t h e peo ple a cco rd in gly , s o t h at t h ey c o uld b e p aid m ore a n d c o uld giv e v en t t o t h eir o w n a v aric e a n d c ru elty . A s a r e su lt, t h ose em pero rs w ho d id n ot h av e t h e n atu ra l a u th ority o r t h e s ta n din g t o hold b oth t h e s o ld ie rs a n d t h e p opula ce i n c h eck a lw ay s c am e t o grie f. M ost o f t h em , e sp ecia lly t h ose w ho w ere n ew t o govern m en t, w hen t h ey r e co gniz ed t h e d if fic u lty o f s a tis fy in g th ese t w o d iv ers e e le m en ts , a p pease d t h e s o ld ie rs a n d d id n ot worry a b out i n ju rin g t h e p opula ce. T his p olic y w as n ecessa ry :

prin ces c an not h elp a ro usin g h atr e d i n s o m e q uarte rs , s o f ir s t t h ey must s tr iv e n ot t o b e h ate d b y a ll a n d e v ery c la ss o f s u bje ct; a n d when t h is p ro ves i m possib le , t h ey s h ould s tr iv e a ssid uously t o esc ap e t h e h atr e d o f t h e m ost p ow erfu l c la sse s. T here fo re t h ose em pero rs w ho, b ecau se t h ey w ere n ew m en , n eed ed o ut o f t h e "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" ord in ary s u pport, w ere m ore r e ad y t o t h ro w i n t h eir l o t w ith t h e so ld ie rs t h an w ith t h e p eo ple . N one t h e l e ss, t h is p ro ved t o b e ad van ta g eo us o r n ot d ep en din g o n w heth er t h e r u le r k new h ow t o main ta in h is s ta n din g w ith t h e t r o ops. N ow , f o r t h e r e aso ns g iv en ab ove, i t c am e a b out t h at M arc u s A ure liu s, P ertin ax , a n d Ale x an der, w ho a ll l iv ed u nad ven tu ro usly , w ho l o ved j u stic e, hate d c ru elty , w ere k in d a n d c o urte o us, a ll, M arc u s a p art, h ad a n unhap py e n d. M arc u s a lo ne w as h eld d urin g h is l if e a n d a fte r i n hig h e ste em , b ecau se h e s u cceed ed t o t h e e m pir e b y h ere d ita ry rig ht, a n d d id n ot h av e t o t h an k e ith er t h e s o ld ie rs o r t h e p opula ce fo r i t. T hen , a s h e p osse sse d m an y q ualitie s w hic h e arn ed h im gre at r e sp ect, a ll h is l if e h e s u cceed ed i n h old in g b oth o f t h ese i n ch eck a n d h e w as n ev er h ate d o r s c o rn ed . B ut P ertin ax c am e t o grie f i n t h e e arly s ta g es o f h is a d m in is tr a tio n; h e w as c re ate d em pero r a g ain st t h e w ill o f t h e s o ld ie rs , w ho h ad b een u se d t o liv in g l ic en tio usly u nder C om modus a n d s o c o uld n ot t o le ra te t h e decen cy w hic h P ertin ax w is h ed t o i m pose o n t h em . S o t h e em pero r m ad e h im se lf h ate d , a n d a ls o , s in ce h e w as a n o ld m an , sc o rn ed .

And h ere i t s h ould b e n ote d t h at o ne c an b e h ate d j u st a s m uch fo r g ood d eed s a s f o r e v il o nes; t h ere fo re , a s I s a id a b ove, a p rin ce who w an ts t o m ain ta in h is r u le i s o fte n f o rc ed n ot t o b e g ood, becau se w hen ev er t h at c la ss o f m en o n w hic h y ou b elie v e y our co ntin ued r u le d ep en ds i s c o rru pt, w heth er i t b e t h e p opula ce, o r so ld ie rs , o r n oble s, y ou h av e t o s a tis fy i t b y a d optin g t h e s a m e dis p ositio n; a n d t h en g ood d eed s a re y our e n em ie s. B ut l e t u s co m e t o A le x an der. H e w as a m an o f s u ch g oodness t h at, a m ong th e o th er t h in gs f o r w hic h h e i s g iv en c re d it, i t i s s a id t h at d urin g th e f o urte en y ears h e r e ig ned h e n ev er p ut a n yone t o d eath with out t r ia l. N one t h e l e ss, a s h e w as t h ought e ffe m in ate , a n d a "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" man w ho l e t h im se lf b e r u le d b y h is m oth er, h e c am e t o b e sc o rn ed , a n d t h e a rm y c o nsp ir e d a g ain st h im a n d k ille d h im .

Dis c u ssin g i n c o ntr a st t h e c h ara cte rs o f C om modus, S ev eru s, Anto niu s C ara calla , a n d M ax im in us, y ou w ill f in d t h em t o h av e been e x tr e m ely c ru el a n d r a p acio us. T o s a tis fy t h e s o ld ie rs , t h ere was n o k in d o f i n ju ry t h ey d id n ot i n flic t o n t h e p eo ple ; a n d a ll o f th em , e x cep t S ev eru s, c am e t o a n u nhap py e n d. S ev eru s w as a man of s u ch p ro w ess t h at, k eep in g t h e s o ld ie rs f rie n dly , e v en th ough t h e p eo ple w ere o ppre sse d b y h im , h e r e ig ned s u ccessfu lly to t h e e n d; t h is w as b ecau se h is p ro w ess s o i m pre sse d t h e s o ld ie rs an d t h e p eo ple t h at t h e l a tte r w ere i n a c erta in m an ner l e ft asto nis h ed a n d s tu pefie d a n d t h e f o rm er s ta y ed r e sp ectf u l a n d co nte n t.

Becau se w hat S ev eru s d id w as r e m ark ab le a n d o uts ta n din g f o r a n ew p rin ce, I w an t t o s h ow b rie fly h ow w ell h e k new h ow t o a ct th e p art o f b oth a f o x a n d a l io n, w hose n atu re s, a s I s a y a b ove, must b e i m ita te d b y a n ew p rin ce. K now in g t h e i n dole n ce o f t h e em pero r J u lia n , S ev eru s p ers u ad ed t h e t r o ops h e c o m man ded i n Sla v onia t o m arc h o n R om e t o a v en ge t h e d eath o f P ertin ax , w ho had b een p ut t o d eath b y t h e P ra eto ria n G uard s. U nder t h is pre te x t, w ith out a n y i n dic atio n t h at h e a sp ir e d t o t h e e m pir e , h e moved t h e a rm y a g ain st R om e; a n d h e a rriv ed i n I ta ly b efo re i t was k now n t h at h e h ad s e t o ut. W hen h e c am e, t h e S en ate , o ut o f fe ar, e le cte d h im e m pero r a n d p ut J u lia n t o d eath . A fte r t h is s ta rt, th ere r e m ain ed t w o o bsta cle s i n t h e w ay o f h is b eco m in g m aste r of a ll t h e s ta te : o ne w as i n A sia , w here P esc en niu s N ig er, co m man der o f t h e A sia tic a rm y, h ad h ad h im se lf p ro cla im ed em pero r; t h e o th er w as i n t h e w est, w here A lb in us a ls o a sp ir e d t o th e e m pir e . J u dgin g i t w as d an gero us t o s h ow h im se lf h ostile t o both o f t h em , S ev eru s d ecid ed t o a tta ck N ig er a n d t o t r ic k "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" Alb in us.

H e w ro te t o t h e l a tte r s a y in g t h at, h av in g b een e le cte d em pero r b y t h e S en ate , h e w is h ed t o s h are t h e h ig h r a n k w ith h im ; he s e n t h im t h e t itle o f C aesa r a n d, t h ro ugh a r e so lu tio n i n t h e Sen ate , h e m ad e h im c o -e m pero r. A lb in us t o ok a ll t h ese t h in gs a t th eir f a ce v alu e. B ut o nce Sev eru s h ad d efe ate d N ig er a n d p ut h im to d eath , a n d h ad p acif ie d t h e E ast, h e r e tu rn ed t o R om e a n d co m pla in ed i n t h e S en ate t h at A lb in us, n ot r e co gniz in g t h e fa v ours h e h ad r e ceiv ed f ro m h im , h ad t r e ach ero usly s o ught t o kill h im . B ecau se o f t h is , S ev eru s a d ded , i t w as n ecessa ry f o r h im to g o a n d p unis h s u ch i n gra titu de. H e t h en m arc h ed a g ain st h im i n Fra n ce, a n d t o ok f ro m h im h is s ta te a n d h is l if e .

So w hoev er c are fu lly s tu die s w hat t h is m an d id w ill f in d t h at h e had t h e q ualitie s o f a f e ro cio us l io n a n d a v ery c u nnin g f o x, a n d th at h e w as f e are d a n d r e sp ecte d b y e v ery one, y et n ot h ate d b y t h e tr o ops. A nd i t w ill n ot b e t h ought a n yth in g t o m arv el a t i f Sev eru s, a n u psta rt, p ro ved h im se lf a b le t o m ain ta in s u ch g re at pow er; b ecau se h is t r e m en dous p re stig e a lw ay s p ro te cte d h im fro m t h e h atr e d w hic h h is p lu nderin g h ad i n sp ir e d i n t h e p eo ple .

Now A nto nin us C ara calla , h is s o n, w as a ls o a m an o f s p le n did qualitie s w hic h a sto nis h ed t h e p eo ple a n d e n deare d h im t o t h e so ld ie rs ; h e w as a m ilita ry m an , c ap ab le o f a n y e x ertio n, a n d h e sc o rn ed s o ftn ess o f a n y k in d, a t t h e t a b le o r e ls e w here . T his w on him t h e d ev otio n o f t h e t r o ops. N one t h e l e ss, h is f e ro city a n d cru elty w ere s o g re at a n d u npara lle le d ( a fte r c o untle ss i n div id ual murd ers , h e p ut t o d eath g re at n um bers o f R om an s a n d a ll t h e citiz en s o f A le x an dria ) t h at h e b ecam e u niv ers a lly h ate d . E ven th ose c lo se st t o h im s ta rte d t o f e ar h im ; a n d a s a r e su lt h e w as kille d b y a c en tu rio n, w hen h e w as s u rro unded b y h is t r o ops. H ere it s h ould b e n ote d t h at p rin ces c an not e sc ap e d eath i f t h e a tte m pt is m ad e b y a f a n atic , b ecau se a n yone w ho h as n o f e ar o f d eath "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" him se lf c an s u cceed i n i n flic tin g i t; o n t h e o th er han d, t h ere i s l e ss need f o r a p rin ce t o b e a fra id , s in ce s u ch a ssa ssin atio ns a re v ery ra re . H ow ev er, t h e p rin ce s h ould r e str a in h im se lf f ro m i n flic tin g gra v e i n ju ry o n a n yone i n h is s e rv ic e w hom h e h as c lo se t o h im i n his a ffa ir s o f s ta te . T hat w as h ow A nto nin us e rre d . H e p ut t o death , w ith d is g ra ce, a b ro th er o f t h at c en tu rio n, w hom i n t u rn h e th re ate n ed e v ery d ay e v en t h ough s till r e ta in in g h im i n h is bodyguard . T his r a sh b eh av io ur w as c alc u la te d t o b rin g h im g rie f, as i n t h e e n d i t d id .

But l e t u s c o m e t o C om modus, f o r w hom r u lin g t h e e m pir e w as an e asy t a sk , s in ce b ein g t h e s o n o f M arc u s A ure liu s h e h eld i t b y here d ita ry r ig ht. H e h ad o nly t o f o llo w i n t h e f o ots te p s o f h is fa th er, a n d t h en h e w ould h av e s a tis fie d t h e s o ld ie rs a n d t h e peo ple . B ut, a s h e w as o f a c ru el, b estia l d is p ositio n, h e en deav oure d t o i n dulg e t h e s o ld ie rs a n d m ak e t h em d is so lu te , i n ord er t o e x erc is e h is r a p acity o n t h e p eo ple . O n t h e o th er h an d, h e fo rg ot h is d ig nity , o fte n d esc en ded i n to t h e a m phith eatr e s t o f ig ht with t h e g la d ia to rs , a n d d id o th er i g noble t h in gs h ard ly w orth y o f th e i m peria l m aje sty ; a s a r e su lt t h e s o ld ie rs c am e t o d esp is e h im .

So, b ein g h ate d o n t h e o ne s id e a n d s c o rn ed o n t h e o th er, h e f e ll vic tim t o a c o nsp ir a cy w hic h e n ded i n h is d eath .

It n ow r e m ain s f o r u s t o d esc rib e t h e c h ara cte r o f M ax im in us.

He w as a v ery w arlik e m an , a n d t h e t r o ops, b ein g s ic k o f t h e effe m in acie s o f A le x an der, w hom I d is c u sse d a b ove, e le cte d h im em pero r a fte r A le x an der’s d eath . H e d id n ot h old t h e e m pir e f o r lo ng, b ecau se t w o t h in gs m ad e h im h ate d a n d d esp is e d : f ir s t, h e was o f t h e l o w est o rig in s, h av in g o nce b een a s h ep herd i n T hra ce (th is w as w ell k now n t o e v ery body a n d l o w ere d h im i n ev ery one’s e y es); s e co nd, a t h is a ccessio n h e p ut o ff g oin g t o Rom e t o b e f o rm ally h aile d a s e m pero r, a n d h e i m pre sse d p eo ple "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" as b ein g e x tr e m ely s a v ag e b ecau se h e i n flic te d m an y c ru eltie s th ro ugh h is p re fe cts i n R om e a n d i n o th er p arts o f t h e e m pir e . A s a r e su lt, t h ere w as a u niv ers a l u psu rg e o f i n dig natio n a g ain st h im becau se o f h is m ean b ir th , a n d a n u psu rg e o f h atr e d c au se d b y fe ar o f h is f e ro city . F ir s t A fric a r e b elle d , a n d t h en t h e S en ate w ith th e s u pport o f a ll t h e p eo ple o f R om e. A ll I ta ly c o nsp ir e d a g ain st him . T he c o nsp ir a cy w as j o in ed b y h is o w n t r o ops w ho, w hen th ey w ere b esie g in g A quile ia a n d f in din g d if fic u ltie s i n t a k in g t h e to w n, s ic k en ed o f h is c ru elty ; s e ein g h ow m an y e n em ie s h e h ad th ey f e are d h im l e ss, a n d t h ey k ille d h im .

I d o n ot w an t t o d is c u ss H elio gab alu s, o r M acrin us, o r J u lia n , who w ere t h oro ughly d esp is e d a n d t h ere fo re d id n ot l a st l o ng.

In ste ad I s h all c o nclu de b y s a y in g t h at c o nte m pora ry p rin ces a re le ss t r o uble d b y t h is p ro ble m o f h av in g t o t a k e e x tr a o rd in ary measu re s t o s a tis fy t h e s o ld ie rs . T hey d o h av e t o g iv e t h em s o m e co nsid era tio n; b ut n otw ith sta n din g t h is t h e p ro ble m i s s o on se ttle d , b ecau se p rin ces t o day d o n ot p osse ss s ta n din g a rm ie s whic h , l ik e t h e a rm ie s o f t h e R om an E m pir e , h av e b eco m e f ir m ly esta b lis h ed i n t h e g overn m en t a n d a d m in is tr a tio n o f c o nquere d te rrito rie s. S o i f i n R om an t im es i t w as n ecessa ry t o s a tis fy t h e dem an ds o f t h e s o ld ie rs r a th er t h an t h ose o f t h e p eo ple , t h is w as becau se t h e s o ld ie rs h ad m ore p ow er t h an t h e p eo ple . I n o ur o w n tim es i t i s n ecessa ry f o r a ll r u le rs , e x cep t t h e T urk a n d t h e S ulta n , to c o ncilia te t h e p eo ple r a th er t h an t h e s o ld ie rs , b ecau se t h e peo ple a re t h e m ore p ow erfu l. I m ak e a n ex cep tio n o f t h e T urk , becau se t h at r u le r m ain ta in s a s ta n din g a rm y o f t w elv e t h ousa n d in fa n tr y a n d f if te en t h ousa n d c av alr y , e sse n tia l t o t h e s e cu rity a n d str e n gth o f h is k in gdom ; a n d s o h e m ust s u bord in ate e v ery o th er co nsid era tio n t o t h at o f r e ta in in g t h eir l o yalty . S im ila rly , t h e Sulta n ’s d om in io n i s c o m ple te ly i n t h e h an ds o f h is s o ld ie rs , a n d "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" he a ls o , w ith out r e g ard f o r t h e p eo ple , m ust m ak e s u re o f t h eir alle g ia n ce t o h im . Y ou s h ould n ote t h at t h e S ulta n ’s s ta te d if fe rs fro m a ll t h e o th er p rin cip alitie s, b ein g s im ila r t o t h e p ap acy , whic h c an not b e c alle d e ith er a h ere d ita ry o r a n ew p rin cip ality . I t is n ot t h e s o ns o f t h e f o rm er r u le r w ho i n herit a n d b eco m e r u le rs but t h e o ne e le cte d b y t h ose w ith t h e a u th ority t o d o s o . A s t h is sy ste m i s a n a n cie n t o ne i t c an not b e c la ssif ie d a m ong t h e n ew prin cip alitie s. T here a re n one o f t h e d if fic u ltie s e n co unte re d i n a new p rin cip ality ; a lth ough t h e p rin ce i s n ew , t h e i n stitu tio ns o f t h e sta te a re o ld , a n d t h ey a re d ev is e d t o a cco m modate h im a s i f h e were t h e h ere d ita ry r u le r.

But l e t u s g o b ack t o t h e s u bje ct. I s a y t h at w hoev er f o llo w s m y arg um en t w ill r e aliz e t h at t h e d ow nfa ll o f t h e e m pero rs I men tio ned w as c au se d b y e ith er h atr e d o r s c o rn . H e w ill a ls o re co gniz e w hy i t h ap pen ed t h at, s o m e o f t h em b eh av in g o ne w ay an d s o m e o f t h em a n oth er, i n b oth c ase s o ne e n ded h ap pily a n d th e r e st c am e t o g rie f. A s t h ey w ere n ew p rin ces, i t w as u se le ss an d d is a str o us f o r P ertin ax a n d A le x an der t o w an t t o i m ita te Marc u s A ure liu s, w ho s u cceed ed b y h ere d ita ry r ig ht; s im ila rly i t was f a ta l f o r C ara calla , C om modus, a n d M ax im in us t o i m ita te Sev eru s, s in ce t h ey l a ck ed t h e p ro w ess t o f o llo w i n h is f o ots te p s.

There fo re , a n ew prin ce i n a n ew p rin cip ality c an not i m ita te t h e actio ns o f M arc u s A ure liu s, n or i s h e b ound t o f o llo w t h ose o f Sev eru s. R ath er, h e s h ould s e le ct f ro m S ev eru s t h e q ualitie s necessa ry t o e sta b lis h h is s ta te , a n d f ro m M arc u s A ure liu s t h ose whic h a re c o nduciv e t o i ts m ain te n an ce a n d g lo ry a fte r i t h as b een sta b iliz ed a n d m ad e s e cu re .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XX W heth er f o rtr e sse s a n d m an y o f t h e o th er p re se n t- d ay e x ped ie n ts t o w hic h p rin ces h ave r e co u rse a re u se fu l o r not T o k eep a s e cu re h old o n t h eir s ta te s s o m e p rin ces h av e d is a rm ed t h eir s u bje cts ; s o m e h av e k ep t t h e t o w ns s u bje ct t o t h em d iv id ed ; s o m e h av e p urp ose ly f o ste re d a n im osity a g ain st t h em se lv es; s o m e h av e e n deav oure d t o w in o ver t h ose w ho w ere i n itia lly s u sp ect; s o m e h av e p ut u p f o rtr e sse s; s o m e h av e r a zed t h em t o t h e g ro und.

I t i s i m possib le t o g iv e a f in al v erd ic t o n a n y o f t h ese p olic ie s, u nle ss o ne e x am in es t h e p artic u la r c ir c u m sta n ces o f t h e s ta te s i n w hic h s u ch d ecis io ns h av e h ad t o b e t a k en . N one t h e l e ss, I s h all a s f a r a s p ossib le d is c u ss t h e m atte r i n g en era liz atio ns.

Now , n o n ew p rin ce h as e v er a t a n y t im e d is a rm ed h is s u bje cts ; r a th er, w hen h e h as f o und t h em u narm ed h e h as a lw ay s g iv en t h em a rm s. T his i s b ecau se b y a rm in g y our s u bje cts y ou a rm y ours e lf ; t h ose w ho w ere s u sp ect b eco m e l o yal, a n d t h ose w ho w ere l o yal n ot o nly r e m ain s o b ut a re c h an ged f ro m b ein g m ere ly y our s u bje cts t o b ein g y our p artis a n s. T hen , a s i t i s i m possib le to a rm e v ery body, w hen y ou h av e g iv en t h is p riv ile g e t o s o m e y ou c an d eal m ore s e v ere ly w ith t h e o th ers . A nd t h is d is c rim in atio n w ill, w hen i t i s u nders to od, p ut t h e f o rm er u nder m ore o f a n o blig atio n; t h e o th ers w ill e x cu se y ou, j u dgin g t h at i t i s n ecessa ry f o r t h ose w ho r u n m ore r is k s a n d i n cu r g re ate r o blig atio ns t o b e t r e ate d m ore f a v oura b ly . B ut a s s o on a s y ou d is a rm y our s u bje cts " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" you s ta rt t o o ffe n d t h em , s h ow in g w heth er t h ro ugh c o w ard ic e o r su sp ic io n t h at y ou m is tr u st t h em ; a n d o n e ith er s c o re h atr e d i s aro use d a g ain st y ou.

Then , s in ce y ou c an not s ta y u narm ed , y ou a re f o rc ed t o h av e re co urs e t o m erc en ary t r o ops, w hose c h ara cte r i s a s I d esc rib ed ab ove. A nd e v en i f t h ese m erc en arie s w ere r e lia b le , t h ey c o uld not b e s u ffic ie n tly s o t o p ro te ct y ou a g ain st p ow erfu l e n em ie s a n d ag ain st s u bje cts y ou d is tr u st. S o, a s I s a id , a n ew p rin ce i n a n ew prin cip ality a lw ay s a rm s h is s u bje cts ; a n d h is to ry i s f u ll o f ex am ple s o f t h is .

But w hen a p rin ce a cq uir e s a s ta te w hic h i s a n nex ed t o h is orig in al p rin cip ality , l ik e a n ew l im b, t h en h e m ust d is a rm h is n ew su bje cts , e x cep t f o r t h ose w ho w ere h is p artis a n s. E ven t h ey , a s tim e a n d o pportu nity a llo w , m ust b e m ad e w eak a n d e ffe m in ate , an d m atte rs m ust b e s o a rra n ged t h at t h ro ughout y our d om in io ns only y our o w n s o ld ie rs , s e rv in g n ear y ou i n y our o rig in al dom in io n, a re a rm ed .

Our a n cesto rs , a n d t h ose w ho w ere c o nsid ere d t o b e w is e , w ere accu sto m ed t o s a y t h at i t w as n ecessa ry t o c o ntr o l P is to ia b y mean s o f f a ctio ns a n d P is a b y m ean s o f f o rtr e sse s; s o t h ey fo ste re d s tr if e i n v ario us o f t h eir s u bje ct t o w ns, s o a s t o c o ntr o l th em m ore e asily . I n t h ose day s w hen t h ere w as s ta b ility o f a s o rt in I ta ly , t h is w as d oubtle ss s e n sib le ; b ut I d o n ot t h in k i t m ak es a good r u le t o day . I d o n ot b elie v e t h at a n y g ood a t a ll e v er c o m es of d is se n sio n. O n t h e c o ntr a ry , o n t h e a p pro ach o f t h e e n em y, citie s w hic h a re s o d iv id ed i n ev ita b ly s u ccu m b a t o nce; t h e weak er f a ctio n w ill a lw ay s g o o ver t o t h e i n vad er, a n d t h e o th er will n ot b e a b le t o h old o ut.

The V en etia n s, i n flu en ced I b elie v e b y t h e c o nsid era tio ns I gav e a b ove, f o ste re d t h e G uelf a n d G hib ellin e f a ctio ns i n t h eir "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" su bje ct c itie s. A lth ough t h ey n ev er a llo w ed b lo odsh ed , y et t h ey fo ste re d t h ese d is c o rd s s o t h at t h e c itiz en s, t a k en u p w ith t h eir ow n d is se n sio ns, m ig ht n ev er c o m bin e a g ain st t h em . B ut, a s w e hav e s e en , t h is d id n ot t u rn o ut a s t h ey h ad p la n ned , b ecau se w hen th e V en etia n s w ere r o ute d a t V ailà o ne f a ctio n i m med ia te ly su m moned u p c o ura g e a n d t o ok t h e w hole s ta te f ro m t h em . S uch meth ods, t h ere fo re , a rg ue f o r w eak ness o n t h e p art o f t h e p rin ce.

In a s tr o ng p rin cip ality s u ch d is se n sio ns a re n ev er a llo w ed . T hey pro fit t h e p rin ce o nly i n t im es o f p eace, w hen h e c an m ak e u se o f th em t o h an dle h is s u bje cts m ore e asily ; b ut w hen w ar c o m es t h e weak ness o f t h is p olic y i s r e v eale d .

There i s n o d oubt t h at a p rin ce’s g re atn ess d ep en ds o n h is tr iu m phin g o ver d if fic u ltie s a n d o ppositio n. S o f o rtu ne, e sp ecia lly when s h e w an ts t o b uild u p t h e g re atn ess o f a n ew p rin ce, w hose need t o a cq uir e s ta n din g i s m ore p re ssin g t h an t h at o f a h ere d ita ry ru le r, f in ds e n em ie s f o r h im a n d e n co ura g es t h em t o t a k e t h e f ie ld ag ain st h im , s o t h at h e m ay h av e c au se t o t r iu m ph o ver t h em a n d asc en d h ig her o n t h e l a d der h is f o es h av e p ro vid ed . M an y, th ere fo re , b elie v e t h at w hen h e h as t h e ch an ce a n a b le p rin ce sh ould c u nnin gly f o ste r s o m e o ppositio n t o h im se lf s o t h at b y overc o m in g i t h e c an e n han ce h is o w n s ta tu re .

Prin ces, e sp ecia lly n ew o nes, h av e f o und m en w ho w ere su sp ect a t t h e s ta rt o f t h eir r u le m ore l o yal a n d m ore u se fu l t h an th ose w ho, a t t h e s ta rt, w ere t h eir t r u ste d f rie n ds. P an dolf o Petr u cci, r u le r o f S ie n a, g overn ed h is s ta te m ore w ith t h e s u pport of t h ose w ho h ad b een s u sp ect t h an w ith t h at o f t h e o th ers . B ut here g en era liz atio n i s i m possib le , b ecau se c ir c u m sta n ces v ary . I sh all s a y j u st t h is : a p rin ce w ill n ev er h av e a n y d if fic u lty i n win nin g o ver t h ose w ho w ere i n itia lly h is e n em ie s, w hen t h ey a re su ch t h at t h ey n eed s o m eo ne t o l e an u pon. A nd t h ey a re a ll t h e "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" more f o rc ed t o s e rv e h im l o yally i n asm uch a s t h ey r e aliz e t h at i t i s more n ecessa ry f o r t h em t o w ip e o ut w ith t h eir a ctio ns t h e b ad opin io n h e h ad f o rm ed o f t h em ; a n d s o t h e p rin ce f in ds t h em m ore use fu l t h an t h ose w ho f e el t h em se lv es s o s e cu re i n h is s e rv ic e t h at th ey n eg le ct h is i n te re sts .

Sin ce i t i s r e le v an t t o t h e s u bje ct, I s h all r e m in d p rin ces w ho hav e r e cen tly s e iz ed a s ta te f o r t h em se lv es t h ro ugh s u pport g iv en fro m w ith in t h at t h ey s h ould c are fu lly r e fle ct o n t h e m otiv es o f th ose w ho h elp ed t h em . I f t h ese w ere n ot b ase d o n a n atu ra l affe ctio n f o r t h e n ew p rin ce, b ut r a th er o n d is c o nte n t w ith t h e ex is tin g g overn m en t, h e w ill r e ta in t h eir f rie n dsh ip o nly w ith co nsid era b le d if fic u lty a n d e x ertio n, b ecau se i t w ill b e i m possib le fo r h im i n h is t u rn t o s a tis fy t h em . I f w e c are fu lly e x am in e t h e re aso ns f o r t h is , w ith e x am ple s t a k en f ro m a n cie n t a n d m odern tim es, i t w ill b e f o und t h at a p rin ce f a r m ore e asily w in s t h e frie n dsh ip o f t h ose w ho w ere f o rm erly s a tis fie d with t h e e x is tin g govern m en t, a n d s o w ere h ostile t o h im t h en , t h an o f t h ose w ho, becau se t h ey w ere d is sa tis fie d , b ecam e h is f rie n ds a n d f a v oure d his o ccu patio n.

Prin ces, i n o rd er t o h old t h eir d om in io ns m ore s e cu re ly , h av e been a ccu sto m ed t o b uild f o rtr e sse s, w hic h a ct a s a c u rb o n t h ose who m ay p lo t r e b ellio n a g ain st t h em , a n d w hic h p ro vid e a s a fe re fu ge f ro m s u dden a tta ck . I a p pro ve o f t h is p olic y , b ecau se i t h as been u se d f ro m t h e t im e o f t h e a n cie n t w orld . N one t h e l e ss, i n our o w n t im e, m esse r N ic co lò V ite lli s a w f it t o r a ze t w o f o rtr e sse s in C ittà d i C aste llo , i n o rd er t o m ain ta in h is h old t h ere .

Guid obald o, d uke o f U rb in o, a fte r h e r e tu rn ed t o t h e d om in io n fro m w hic h C esa re B org ia h ad c h ase d h im , r a zed t o t h e g ro und a ll th e f o rtr e sse s i n h is p ro vin ce, i n t h e b elie f t h at b y d oin g s o i t would b e m ore d if fic u lt f o r h im t o l o se t h e s ta te a g ain ; w hen t h ey "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" re tu rn ed t o B olo gna, t h e B en tiv oglio f o llo w ed a s im ila r p olic y . S o we s e e t h at f o rtr e sse s a re u se fu l o r n ot d ep en din g o n cir c u m sta n ces; a n d i f t h ey a re b en efic ia l i n o ne d ir e ctio n, t h ey a re harm fu l i n a n oth er. I t c an b e p ut l ik e t h is : t h e p rin ce w ho i s m ore afra id o f h is o w n p eo ple t h an o f f o re ig n i n te rfe re n ce s h ould b uild fo rtr e sse s; b ut t h e p rin ce w ho f e ars f o re ig n i n te rfe re n ce m ore t h an his o w n p eo ple s h ould f o rg et a b out t h em . T he c astle o f M ila n , built b y F ra n cesc o S fo rz a, h as c au se d a n d w ill c au se m ore upris in gs a g ain st t h e H ouse o f S fo rz a t h an a n y o th er s o urc e o f dis tu rb an ce. S o t h e b est f o rtr e ss t h at e x is ts i s t o a v oid b ein g h ate d by t h e p eo ple . I f y ou h av e f o rtr e sse s a n d y et t h e p eo ple h ate y ou th ey w ill n ot s a v e y ou; o nce t h e p eo ple h av e t a k en u p a rm s t h ey will n ev er l a ck o uts id e h elp . I n o ur o w n t im e, t h ere i s n o i n sta n ce of a f o rtr e ss p ro vin g i ts w orth t o a n y r u le r, e x cep t i n t h e c ase o f th e c o unte ss o f F orlì, a fte r h er c o nso rt, c o unt G ir o la m o, h ad b een kille d . I n h er c ase t h e f o rtr e ss g av e h er a r e fu ge a g ain st t h e a ssa u lt of t h e p opula ce, w here s h e c o uld w ait f o r s u cco ur f ro m M ila n a n d th en r e co ver t h e s ta te . C ir c u m sta n ces w ere s u ch t h at t h e p eo ple co uld n ot o bta in s u pport f ro m o uts id e. B ut s u bse q uen tly f o rtr e sse s pro ved o f l ittle w orth e v en t o h er, w hen C esa re B org ia a tta ck ed her a n d t h en h er h ostile s u bje cts j o in ed f o rc es w ith t h e i n vad er. S o th en a s b efo re i t w ould h av e b een s a fe r f o r h er t o h av e a v oid ed th e e n m ity o f t h e p eo ple t h an t o h av e h ad f o rtr e sse s. S o, a ll t h in gs co nsid ere d , I c o m men d t h ose w ho e re ct f o rtr e sse s a n d t h ose w ho do n ot; a n d I c en su re a n yone w ho, p uttin g h is t r u st i n f o rtr e sse s, does n ot m in d i f h e i s h ate d b y t h e p eo ple .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XXI How a p rin ce m ust a ct t o w in h on ou r N oth in g b rin gs a p rin ce m ore p re stig e t h an g re at c am paig ns a n d s tr ik in g d em onstr a tio ns o f h is p ers o nal a b ilitie s. I n o ur o w n t im e w e h av e F erd in an d o f A ra g on, t h e p re se n t k in g o f S pain . H e c an b e r e g ard ed a s a n ew p rin ce, b ecau se f ro m b ein g a w eak k in g h e h as r is e n t o b ein g, f o r f a m e a n d g lo ry , t h e f ir s t k in g o f C hris te n dom . I f y ou s tu dy h is a ch ie v em en ts , y ou w ill f in d t h at t h ey w ere a ll m ag nif ic en t a n d s o m e o f t h em u npara lle le d . A t t h e s ta rt o f h is r e ig n h e a tta ck ed G ra n ad a; a n d t h is c am paig n l a id t h e f o undatio n o f h is p ow er. F ir s t, h e e m bark ed o n i t u ndis tr a cte d , a n d w ith out f e ar o f i n te rfe re n ce; he u se d i t t o e n gag e t h e e n erg ie s o f t h e b aro ns o f C astile w ho, a s t h ey w ere g iv in g t h eir m in ds t o t h e w ar, h ad n o m in d f o r c au sin g t r o uble a t h om e.

I n t h is w ay , w ith out t h eir r e aliz in g w hat w as h ap pen in g, h e i n cre ase d h is s ta n din g a n d h is c o ntr o l o ver t h em . H e w as a b le t o s u sta in h is a rm ie s w ith m oney f ro m t h e C hurc h a n d t h e p eo ple , a n d, b y m ean s o f t h at l o ng w ar, t o l a y a g ood f o undatio n f o r h is s ta n din g a rm y, w hic h h as s u bse q uen tly w on h im r e n ow n. I n a d ditio n, i n o rd er t o b e a b le t o u nderta k e e v en g re ate r c am paig ns, s till m ak in g u se o f r e lig io n, h e t u rn ed h is h an d t o a p io us w ork o f c ru elty w hen h e c h ase d o ut t h e M oris c o s a n d r id h is k in gdom o f t h em ; t h ere c o uld n ot h av e b een a m ore p itif u l o r s tr ik in g e n te rp ris e . U nder t h e s a m e c lo ak o f r e lig io n h e a ssa u lte d A fric a; h e s ta rte d h is c am paig n i n I ta ly ; h e h as r e cen tly a tta ck ed F ra n ce. T hus h e h as a lw ay s p la n ned a n d c o m ple te d g re at p ro je cts , w hic h h av e a lw ay s " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" kep t h is s u bje cts i n a s ta te o f s u sp en se a n d w onder, a n d i n te n t o n th eir o utc o m e. A nd h is m oves h av e f o llo w ed c lo se ly u pon o ne an oth er i n s u ch a w ay t h at h e h as n ev er a llo w ed t im e a n d opportu nity i n b etw een t im es f o r p eo ple t o f o ste r c o nsp ir a cie s ag ain st h im .

It i s a ls o v ery p ro fita b le f o r a p rin ce t o g iv e s tr ik in g dem onstr a tio ns o f h is c ap ab ilitie s i n r e g ard t o g overn m en t a t hom e, s im ila r t o t h ose w hic h a re a ttr ib ute d t o m esse r B ern ab ò o f Mila n ; i n t h e e v en t t h at s o m eo ne a cco m plis h es s o m eth in g ex cep tio nal, f o r g ood o r e v il, i n c iv il l if e , h e s h ould b e r e w ard ed or p unis h ed i n a w ay t h at s e ts e v ery one t a lk in g. A bove a ll, i n a ll his d oin gs a p rin ce m ust e n deav our t o w in t h e r e p uta tio n o f b ein g a g re at m an o f o uts ta n din g a b ility .

A p rin ce a ls o w in s p re stig e f o r b ein g a t r u e f rie n d o r a t r u e en em y, t h at i s , f o r r e v ealin g h im se lf w ith out a n y r e se rv atio n i n fa v our o f o ne s id e a g ain st a n oth er. T his p olic y i s a lw ay s m ore ad van ta g eo us t h an n eu tr a lity . F or i n sta n ce, i f t h e p ow ers neig hbourin g o n y ou c o m e t o b lo w s, e ith er t h ey a re s u ch t h at, i f one o f t h em c o nquers , y ou w ill b e i n d an ger, o r t h ey a re n ot. I n eith er c ase i t w ill a lw ay s b e t o y our a d van ta g e t o d ecla re y ours e lf an d t o w ag e a v ig oro us w ar; b ecau se , i n t h e f ir s t c ase , i f y ou d o not d ecla re y ours e lf y ou w ill a lw ay s b e a t t h e m erc y o f t h e co nquero r, m uch t o t h e p le asu re a n d s a tis fa ctio n o f t h e o ne w ho has b een b eate n , a n d y ou w ill h av e n o j u stif ic atio n n or a n y w ay t o obta in p ro te ctio n o r r e fu ge. T he c o nquero r d oes n ot w an t d oubtf u l frie n ds w ho d o n ot h elp h im w hen h e i s i n d if fic u ltie s; t h e l o se r re p udia te s y ou b ecau se y ou w ere u nw illin g t o g o, a rm s i n h an d, an d t h ro w i n y our l o t w ith h im .

Antio ch us w en t i n to G re ece, a t t h e i n vita tio n o f t h e A eto lia n s, to d riv e o ut t h e R om an s. H e s e n t e n voys t o t h e A ch aean s, w ho "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" were f rie n ds o f t h e R om an s, t o e n co ura g e t h em t o s ta n d a sid e; f o r th eir p art, t h e R om an s s ta rte d p ers u ad in g t h e A ch aean s t o f ig ht with t h em . T he m atte r c am e t o b e d eb ate d i n t h e c o uncil o f t h e Ach aean s, w here t h e a m bassa d or o f A ntio ch us w as u rg in g t h em to r e m ain n eu tr a l. T o t h is , t h e R om an l e g ate r e p lie d : ’Q uod a ute m is ti d ic u nt n on i n te rp onen di v o s b ello , n ih il m agis a lie n um r e b us vestr is e st; s in e g ra tia , s in e d ig nita te , p ra em iu m v ic to ris e ritis .’ * It i s a lw ay s t h e c ase t h at t h e o ne w ho i s n ot y our f rie n d w ill re q uest y our n eu tr a lity , a n d t h at t h e o ne w ho i s y our f rie n d w ill re q uest y our a rm ed s u pport. P rin ces w ho a re i r re so lu te u su ally fo llo w t h e p ath o f n eu tr a lity i n o rd er t o e sc ap e i m med ia te d an ger, an d u su ally t h ey c o m e t o g rie f. B ut w hen y ou b old ly d ecla re y our su pport f o r o ne s id e, t h en i f t h at s id e c o nquers , e v en t h ough t h e vic to r i s p ow erfu l a n d y ou a re a t h is m erc y , h e i s u nder a n oblig atio n t o y ou a n d h e h as c o m mitte d h im se lf t o f rie n dly t ie s with y ou; a n d m en a re n ev er s o u nprin cip le d a s t o d eal h ars h ly an d u ngra te fu lly w ith y ou i n t h is i n sta n ce. T hen a g ain , v ic to rie s are n ev er s o o verw helm in g t h at t h e c o nquero r d oes n ot h av e t o sh ow s o m e s c ru ple s, e sp ecia lly r e g ard in g j u stic e. I f o n t h e o th er han d y our a lly i s d efe ate d , h e w ill s h elte r y ou; h e w ill h elp y ou while h e c an , a n d y ou b eco m e a sso cia te s w hose j o in t f o rtu nes may w ell c h an ge f o r t h e b ette r. N ow , i n t h e s e co nd c ase , w hen t h e co m bata n ts a re s u ch t h at y ou n eed h av e n o f e ar o f t h e v ic to r, t h ere is a ll t h e m ore r e aso n t o s u pport o ne s id e o r t h e o th er. I n t h is w ay you h elp d estr o y o ne c o m bata n t w ith t h e h elp o f t h e o th er, w ho would b e h elp in g h im h im se lf i f h e w ere w is e . I f y ou a re t h e vic to rs , y our a lly i s a t y our m erc y , a n d w ith y our h elp i t i s im possib le f o r h im n ot t o w in .

Here i t i s t o b e n ote d t h at a p rin ce s h ould n ev er j o in i n a n ag gre ssiv e a llia n ce w ith s o m eo ne m ore p ow erfu l t h an h im se lf , "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" unle ss i t i s a m atte r o f n ecessity , a s I s a id a b ove. T his i s b ecau se i f you a re t h e v ic to rs , y ou e m erg e a s h is p ris o ner; a n d p rin ces sh ould d o t h eir u tm ost t o e sc ap e b ein g a t t h e m erc y o f o th ers . T he Ven etia n s j o in ed w ith F ra n ce a g ain st t h e d uke o f M ila n , a n d t h ey co uld h av e e sc ap ed m ak in g t h is a llia n ce, w hic h p ro ved t h eir undoin g. B ut w hen s u ch a n a llia n ce c an not b e a v oid ed ( a s w as t h e case w ith t h e F lo re n tin es w hen t h e p ope a n d S pain l e d t h eir arm ie s a g ain st L om bard y) t h en t h e p rin ce s h ould s u pport o ne s id e or a n oth er f o r t h e r e aso ns g iv en a b ove. T hen , n o g overn m en t sh ould e v er i m ag in e t h at i t c an a lw ay s a d opt a s a fe c o urs e ; r a th er, it s h ould r e g ard a ll p ossib le c o urs e s o f a ctio n a s r is k y. T his i s t h e way t h in gs a re : w hen ev er o ne t r ie s t o e sc ap e o ne d an ger o ne r u ns in to a n oth er. P ru den ce c o nsis ts i n b ein g a b le t o a sse ss t h e n atu re of a p artic u la r t h re at a n d i n a ccep tin g t h e l e sse r e v il.

A p rin ce s h ould a ls o s h ow h is e ste em f o r t a le n t, a ctiv ely en co ura g in g a b le m en , a n d h onourin g t h ose w ho e x cel i n t h eir pro fe ssio n. T hen h e m ust e n co ura g e h is c itiz en s s o t h at t h ey c an go p eaceab ly a b out t h eir b usin ess, w heth er i t b e t r a d e o r ag ric u ltu re o r a n y o th er h um an o ccu patio n. O ne m an s h ould n ot be a fra id o f i m pro vin g h is p osse ssio ns, l e st t h ey b e t a k en a w ay fro m h im , o r a n oth er d ete rre d b y h ig h t a x es f ro m s ta rtin g a n ew busin ess. R ath er, t h e p rin ce s h ould b e r e ad y t o r e w ard m en w ho wan t t o d o t h ese t h in gs a n d a n yone w ho e n deav ours i n a n y w ay t o in cre ase t h e p ro sp erity o f h is c ity o r h is s ta te . A s w ell a s t h is , a t su ita b le t im es o f t h e y ear h e s h ould e n te rta in t h e p eo ple w ith sh ow s a n d f e stiv itie s. A nd s in ce e v ery c ity i s d iv id ed i n to g uild s or f a m ily g ro ups, h e s h ould p ay a tte n tio n t o t h ese , m eet t h em fro m t im e t o t im e, a n d g iv e a n e x am ple o f c o urte sy a n d munif ic en ce, w hile a ll t h e t im e, n one t h e l e ss, f u lly m ain ta in in g th e d ig nity o f h is p ositio n, b ecau se t h is s h ould n ev er b e w an tin g "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" in a n yth in g.

* ‘ N oth in g i s m ore c o ntr a ry t o y our i n te re sts t h an t h eir a d vic e, th at y ou s h ould n ot i n te rv en e i n t h e w ar; y ou w ill b eco m e t h e priz e o f t h e v ic to r, w ith out f a v our o r d ig nity .’ "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XXII A p rin ce’s p erso n al s ta ff T he c h oosin g o f m in is te rs i s a m atte r o f n o l ittle i m porta n ce f o r a p rin ce; a n d t h eir w orth d ep en ds o n t h e s a g acity o f t h e p rin ce h im se lf . T he f ir s t o pin io n t h at i s f o rm ed o f a r u le r’s i n te llig en ce i s b ase d o n t h e q uality o f t h e m en h e h as a ro und h im . W hen t h ey a re c o m pete n t a n d l o yal h e c an a lw ay s b e c o nsid ere d w is e , b ecau se h e h as b een a b le t o r e co gniz e t h eir c o m pete n ce a n d t o k eep t h em l o yal. B ut w hen t h ey a re o th erw is e , t h e p rin ce i s a lw ay s o pen t o a d vers e c ritic is m ; b ecau se h is f ir s t m is ta k e h as b een i n t h e c h oic e o f h is m in is te rs .

No o ne w ho k new m esse r A nto nio d a V en afro a s t h e m in is te r o f P an dolf o P etr u cci, p rin ce o f S ie n a, c o uld b ut c o nclu de t h at t h ere fo re P an dolf o w as h im se lf a m an o f g re at a b ility . T here a re t h re e k in ds o f i n te llig en ce: o ne k in d u nders ta n ds t h in gs f o r i ts e lf , t h e s e co nd a p pre cia te s w hat o th ers c an u nders ta n d, t h e t h ir d u nders ta n ds n eith er f o r i ts e lf n or t h ro ugh o th ers . T his f ir s t k in d i s e x celle n t, t h e s e co nd g ood, a n d t h e t h ir d k in d u se le ss. S o i t f o llo w s t h at P an dolf o , i f h e d id n ot h av e t h e f ir s t k in d o f i n te llig en ce, a t l e ast h ad t h e s e co nd. I f a p rin ce h as t h e d is c ern m en t t o r e co gniz e t h e g ood o r b ad i n w hat a n oth er s a y s o r d oes, e v en t h ough h e h as n o a cu m en h im se lf , h e c an s e e w hen h is m in is te r’s a ctio ns a re g ood o r b ad , a n d h e c an p ra is e o r c o rre ct a cco rd in gly ; i n t h is w ay , t h e m in is te r c an not h ope t o d eceiv e h im a n d s o t a k es c are n ot t o g o w ro ng.

But a s f o r h ow a p rin ce c an a sse ss h is m in is te r, h ere is a n " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" in fa llib le g uid e: w hen y ou s e e a m in is te r t h in kin g m ore o f h im se lf th an o f y ou, a n d s e ek in g h is o w n p ro fit i n e v ery th in g h e d oes, su ch a o ne w ill n ev er b e a g ood m in is te r, y ou w ill n ev er b e a b le t o tr u st h im . T his i s b ecau se a m an e n tr u ste d w ith t h e t a sk o f govern m en t m ust n ev er t h in k o f h im se lf b ut o f t h e p rin ce, a n d must n ev er c o ncern h im se lf w ith a n yth in g e x cep t t h e p rin ce’s affa ir s . T o k eep h is m in is te r u p t o t h e m ark t h e p rin ce, o n h is s id e, must b e c o nsid era te t o w ard s h im , m ust p ay h im h onour, e n ric h him , p ut h im i n h is d eb t, s h are w ith h im b oth h onours a n d re sp onsib ilitie s. T hus t h e m in is te r w ill s e e h ow d ep en den t h e i s o n th e p rin ce; a n d t h en h av in g r ic h es a n d h onours t o t h e p oin t o f su rfe it h e w ill d esir e n o m ore ; h old in g s o m an y o ffic es, h e c an not but f e ar c h an ges. W hen , t h ere fo re , r e la tio ns b etw een p rin ces a n d th eir m in is te rs a re o f t h is k in d, t h ey c an h av e c o nfid en ce i n e ach oth er; w hen t h ey a re o th erw is e , t h e r e su lt i s a lw ay s d is a str o us f o r one o r t h e o th er o f t h em .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XXIII How f la tte re rs m ust b e s h unned T here i s o ne i m porta n t s u bje ct I d o n ot w an t t o p ass o ver, t h e m is ta k e w hic h p rin ces c an o nly w ith d if fic u lty a v oid m ak in g i f t h ey a re n ot e x tr e m ely p ru den t o r d o n ot c h oose t h eir m in is te rs w ell. I a m r e fe rrin g t o f la tte re rs , w ho s w arm i n t h e c o urts . M en a re s o h ap pily a b so rb ed i n t h eir o w n a ffa ir s a n d i n dulg e i n s u ch s e lf d ecep tio n t h at i t i s d if fic u lt f o r t h em n ot t o f a ll v ic tim t o t h is p la g ue; a n d s o m e e ffo rts t o p ro te ct o nese lf f ro m fla tte re rs i n volv e t h e r is k o f b eco m in g d esp is e d . T his i s b ecau se t h e o nly w ay t o s a fe g uard y ours e lf a g ain st f la tte re rs i s b y l e ttin g p eo ple u nders ta n d t h at y ou a re n ot o ffe n ded b y t h e t r u th ; b ut i f e v ery one c an s p eak t h e t r u th t o y ou t h en y ou l o se r e sp ect. S o a s h re w d p rin ce s h ould a d opt a m id dle w ay , c h oosin g w is e m en f o r h is g overn m en t a n d a llo w in g o nly t h ose t h e f re ed om t o s p eak t h e t r u th t o h im , a n d t h en o nly c o ncern in g m atte rs o n w hic h h e a sk s t h eir o pin io n, a n d n oth in g e ls e . B ut h e s h ould a ls o q uestio n t h em t h oro ughly a n d l is te n t o w hat t h ey s a y ; t h en h e s h ould m ak e u p h is o w n m in d, b y h im se lf . A nd h is a ttitu de t o w ard s h is c o uncils a n d t o w ard s e ach o ne o f h is a d vis e rs s h ould b e s u ch t h at t h ey w ill r e co gniz e t h at t h e m ore f re ely t h ey s p eak o ut t h e m ore a ccep ta b le t h ey w ill b e. A part f ro m t h ese , t h e p rin ce s h ould h eed n o o ne; h e s h ould p ut t h e p olic y a g re ed u pon i n to e ffe ct s tr a ig ht a w ay , a n d h e s h ould a d here t o i t r ig id ly . A nyone w ho d oes n ot d o t h is i s r u in ed b y f la tte re rs o r i s c o nsta n tly c h an gin g h is m in d b ecau se o f c o nflic tin g a d vic e: a s a r e su lt h e i s h eld i n l o w e ste em .

" * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" I w an t t o g iv e a m odern i llu str a tio n o f t h is a rg um en t. B is h op Luca, i n t h e s e rv ic e o f M ax im ilia n t h e p re se n t e m pero r, s a id o f his m aje sty t h at h e n ev er c o nsu lte d a n ybody a n d n ev er d id t h in gs as h e w an te d t o ; t h is h ap pen ed b ecau se h e d id t h e o pposite o f what I s a id a b ove. T he e m pero r i s a s e cre tiv e m an , h e d oes n ot te ll a n yone o f h is p la n s, a n d h e a ccep ts n o a d vic e. B ut a s s o on a s he p uts h is p la n s i n to e ffe ct, a n d t h ey c o m e t o b e k now n, t h ey meet w ith o ppositio n f ro m t h ose a ro und h im ; a n d t h en h e i s o nly to o e asily d iv erte d f ro m h is p urp ose . T he r e su lt i s t h at w hate v er he d oes o ne d ay i s undone t h e n ex t, w hat h e w an ts o r p la n s t o d o is n ev er c le ar, a n d n o r e lia n ce c an b e p la ced o n h is d ecis io ns.

A p rin ce m ust, t h ere fo re , n ev er l a ck a d vic e. B ut h e m ust t a k e i t when h e w an ts t o , n ot w hen o th ers w an t h im t o ; i n deed , h e m ust dis c o ura g e e v ery one f ro m t e n derin g a d vic e a b out a n yth in g u nle ss it i s a sk ed f o r. A ll t h e s a m e, h e s h ould b e a c o nsta n t q uestio ner, an d h e m ust l is te n p atie n tly t o t h e t r u th r e g ard in g w hat h e h as in quir e d a b out. M ore o ver, i f h e f in ds t h at a n yone f o r s o m e r e aso n hold s t h e t r u th b ack h e m ust s h ow h is w ra th . A nd t h ough m an y su ppose t h at a p rin ce m ay r ig htly b e e ste em ed s h re w d n ot b ecau se he i s s o h im se lf b ut b ecau se o f t h e q uality o f t h ose t h ere t o a d vis e him , t h ey a re u ndoubte d ly m is ta k en . F or t h is i s a n i n fa llib le r u le :

a p rin ce w ho i s n ot h im se lf w is e c an not b e w ell a d vis e d , u nle ss h e hap pen s t o p ut h im se lf i n t h e h an ds o f o ne i n div id ual w ho l o oks afte r a ll h is a ffa ir s a n d i s a n e x tr e m ely s h re w d m an . I n t h is c ase , he m ay w ell b e g iv en g ood a d vic e, b ut h e w ould n ot l a st l o ng becau se t h e m an w ho g overn s f o r h im w ould s o on d ep riv e h im o f his s ta te . B ut w hen s e ek in g a d vic e o f m ore t h an o ne p ers o n a prin ce w ho i s n ot h im se lf w is e w ill n ev er g et u nan im ity i n h is co uncils o r b e a b le t o r e co ncile t h eir v ie w s. E ach c o uncillo r w ill co nsu lt h is o w n i n te re sts ; a n d t h e p rin ce w ill n ot k now h ow t o "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" co rre ct o r u nders ta n d t h em . T hin gs c an not b e o th erw is e , s in ce men w ill a lw ay s d o b ad ly b y y ou u nle ss t h ey a re f o rc ed t o b e vir tu ous. S o t h e c o nclu sio n i s t h at g ood a d vic e, w hom ev er i t co m es f ro m , d ep en ds o n t h e s h re w dness o f t h e p rin ce w ho s e ek s it, a n d n ot t h e s h re w dness o f t h e p rin ce o n g ood a d vic e.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XXIV Why t h e I ta lia n p rin ces h ave l o st t h eir s ta te s I f h e c are fu lly o bse rv es t h e r u le s I h av e g iv en a b ove, a n ew p rin ce w ill a p pear t o h av e b een l o ng e sta b lis h ed a n d w ill q uic k ly b eco m e m ore s a fe a n d s e cu re i n h is g overn m en t t h an i f h e h ad b een r u lin g h is s ta te f o r a l o ng t im e. T he a ctio ns o f a n ew p rin ce a ttr a ct m uch m ore a tte n tio n t h an t h ose o f a h ere d ita ry r u le r; a n d w hen t h ese a ctio ns a re m ark ed b y p ro w ess t h ey , f a r m ore t h an r o yal b lo od, w in m en o ver a n d c ap tu re t h eir a lle g ia n ce. T his i s b ecau se m en a re w on o ver b y t h e p re se n t f a r m ore t h an b y t h e p ast; a n d w hen t h ey d ecid e t h at w hat i s b ein g d one h ere a n d n ow i s g ood, t h ey c o nte n t t h em se lv es w ith t h at a n d d o n ot g o l o okin g f o r a n yth in g e ls e . I n deed i n t h at c ase t h ey w ould d o a n yth in g t o d efe n d t h eir p rin ce, p ro vid ed h e h im se lf i s n ot d efic ie n t i n o th er t h in gs. T hus t h e n ew p rin ce w ill h av e a t w ofo ld g lo ry , i n h av in g f o unded a n ew s ta te a n d i n h av in g a d orn ed a n d s tr e n gth en ed i t w ith g ood l a w s, s o und d efe n ces, r e lia b le a llie s, a n d i n sp ir in g l e ad ers h ip , j u st a s t h e o ne w ho i s b orn a p rin ce a n d l o se s h is s ta te t h ro ugh i n co m pete n ce i s s h am ed t w ic e o ver.

Let u s c o nsid er t h ose I ta lia n r u le rs , s u ch a s t h e k in g o f N ap le s, t h e d uke o f M ila n , a n d s o f o rth w ho h av e l o st t h eir s ta te s i n o ur o w n t im es. I f w e d o s o , w e s h all f in d t h at t h ey s h are d , f ir s t, a c o m mon w eak ness i n r e g ard t o t h eir m ilita ry o rg an iz atio ns, f o r t h e r e aso ns f u lly d is c u sse d a b ove. T hen , i t w ill b e f o und t h at s o m e o f t h em i n cu rre d t h e h ostility o f t h e p eo ple o r, i f t h ey h ad t h e peo ple o n t h eir s id e, t h ey d id n ot k now h ow t o k eep t h e " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" alle g ia n ce o f t h e n oble s. I f t h ey a re n ot u nderm in ed i n o ne o f th ese w ay s, s ta te s w hic h a re r o bust e n ough t o k eep a n a rm y i n t h e fie ld c an not b e l o st. P hilip o f M aced on ( n ot t h e f a th er o f Ale x an der b ut t h e o ne w ho w as c o nquere d b y T itu s Q uin tiu s) ru le d a m in or d om in io n i n c o m paris o n w ith t h e g re atn ess o f t h e Rom an s w ho a tta ck ed h im w ith G re ek a u xilia rie s. N one t h e l e ss, as h e w as a m ilita ry m an , w ho k new h ow t o c o nte n t t h e p eo ple an d k eep t h e a lle g ia n ce o f t h e n oble s, h e s u sta in ed t h e w ar a g ain st th em f o r m an y y ears ; a n d a lth ough a t t h e e n d h e l o st c o ntr o l o f so m e c itie s, h e s till k ep t h is k in gdom .

So t h ese p rin ces o f o urs , w hose p ow er h ad b een e sta b lis h ed man y y ears , m ay n ot b la m e f o rtu ne f o r t h eir l o sse s. T heir o w n in dole n ce w as t o b la m e, b ecau se , h av in g n ev er i m ag in ed w hen tim es w ere q uie t t h at t h ey c o uld c h an ge ( a n d t h is i s a c o m mon fa ilin g o f m an kin d, n ev er t o a n tic ip ate a s to rm w hen t h e s e a i s calm ), w hen a d vers ity c am e t h eir f ir s t t h oughts w ere o f f lig ht a n d not o f r e sis ta n ce. T hey h oped t h at t h e p eo ple , r e v olte d b y t h e outr a g es o f t h e c o nquero r, w ould r e call t h em . N ow t h is p olic y , when a ll e ls e f a ils , i s a ll t o t h e g ood. B ut i t i s w ro ng t o h av e neg le cte d o th er p re cau tio ns i n t h at h ope: w e d o n ot f in d m en fa llin g d ow n j u st b ecau se t h ey e x pect t o f in d s o m eo ne h elp in g th em u p. I t m ay n ot h ap pen ; a n d, i f i t d oes h ap pen , i t l e av es y ou unsa fe b ecau se y our e x ped ie n t w as c o w ard ly a n d n ot b ase d o n your o w n a ctio ns. T he o nly s o und, s u re , a n d e n durin g m eth ods o f defe n ce a re t h ose b ase d o n y our o w n a ctio ns a n d p ro w ess.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XXV H ow f a r h um an a ffa ir s a re g overn ed b y f o rtu ne, a n d how f o rtu ne c a n b e o ppose d I a m n ot u naw are t h at m an y h av e h eld a n d h old t h e o pin io n t h at e v en ts a re c o ntr o lle d b y f o rtu ne a n d b y G od i n s u ch a w ay t h at t h e p ru den ce o f m en c an not m odif y t h em , i n deed , t h at m en h av e n o i n flu en ce w hats o ev er. B ecau se o f t h is , t h ey w ould c o nclu de t h at t h ere i s n o p oin t i n s w eatin g o ver t h in gs, b ut t h at o ne s h ould s u bm it t o t h e r u lin gs o f c h an ce. T his o pin io n h as b een m ore w id ely h eld i n o ur o w n t im es, b ecau se o f t h e g re at c h an ges a n d v aria tio ns, b ey ond h um an i m ag in in g, w hic h w e h av e e x perie n ced a n d e x perie n ce e v ery d ay . S om etim es, w hen t h in kin g o f t h is , I h av e m yse lf i n clin ed t o t h is s a m e o pin io n. N one t h e l e ss, s o a s n ot t o r u le o ut o ur f re e w ill, I b elie v e t h at i t i s p ro bab ly t r u e t h at f o rtu ne i s t h e a rb ite r o f h alf t h e t h in gs w e d o, l e av in g t h e o th er h alf o r s o t o b e c o ntr o lle d b y o urs e lv es. I c o m pare f o rtu ne t o o ne o f t h ose v io le n t r iv ers w hic h , w hen t h ey a re e n ra g ed , f lo od t h e p la in s, t e ar d ow n t r e es a n d b uild in gs, w ash s o il f ro m o ne p la ce t o d ep osit i t i n a n oth er. E very one f le es b efo re t h em , e v ery body y ie ld s t o t h eir i m petu s, t h ere i s n o p ossib ility o f r e sis ta n ce. Y et a lth ough s u ch i s t h eir n atu re , i t d oes n ot f o llo w t h at w hen t h ey a re f lo w in g q uie tly o ne c an not t a k e p re cau tio ns, c o nstr u ctin g d ykes a n d e m ban km en ts s o t h at w hen t h e r iv er i s i n f lo od t h ey w ould k eep t o o ne c h an nel o r t h eir i m petu s b e l e ss w ild a n d d an gero us.

S o i t i s w ith f o rtu ne. S he s h ow s h er p ote n cy w here t h ere i s n o " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" well- re g ula te d pow er t o r e sis t h er, a n d h er i m petu s i s f e lt w here sh e k now s t h ere a re n o e m ban km en ts a n d d ykes b uilt t o r e str a in her. I f y ou c o nsid er I ta ly , t h e t h eatr e o f t h ose c h an ges a n d varia tio ns I m en tio ned , w hic h f ir s t a p peare d h ere , y ou w ill s e e th at s h e i s a c o untr y w ith out e m ban km en ts a n d w ith out d ykes: f o r if I ta ly h ad b een a d eq uate ly r e in fo rc ed , l ik e G erm an y, S pain , a n d Fra n ce, e ith er t h is f lo od w ould n ot h av e c au se d t h e g re at c h an ges it h as, o r i t w ould n ot h av e s w ep t i n a t a ll.

I w an t w hat I h av e s a id t o s u ffic e, i n g en era l t e rm s, o n t h e questio n o f h ow t o o ppose f o rtu ne. B ut, c o nfin in g m yse lf n ow t o partic u la r c ir c u m sta n ces, I s a y t h at w e s e e t h at s o m e p rin ces flo uris h o ne d ay a n d c o m e t o g rie f t h e n ex t, w ith out a p pearin g t o hav e c h an ged i n c h ara cte r o r a n y o th er w ay . T his I b elie v e a ris e s, fir s t, f o r t h e r e aso ns d is c u sse d a t l e n gth e arlie r o n, n am ely , t h at th ose p rin ces w ho a re u tte rly d ep en den t o n f o rtu ne c o m e t o g rie f when t h eir f o rtu ne c h an ges. I a ls o b elie v e t h at t h e o ne w ho a d ap ts his p olic y t o t h e t im es p ro sp ers , a n d l ik ew is e t h at t h e o ne w hose polic y c la sh es w ith t h e d em an ds o f t h e t im es d oes n ot. I t c an b e obse rv ed t h at m en u se v ario us m eth ods i n p urs u in g t h eir o w n pers o nal o bje ctiv es, t h at i s g lo ry a n d r ic h es. O ne m an p ro ceed s with c ir c u m sp ectio n, a n oth er i m petu ously ; o ne u se s v io le n ce, an oth er s tr a ta g em ; o ne m an g oes a b out t h in gs p atie n tly , a n oth er does t h e o pposite ; a n d y et e v ery one, f o r a ll t h is d iv ers ity o f meth od, c an r e ach h is o bje ctiv e. I t c an a ls o b e o bse rv ed t h at w ith tw o c ir c u m sp ect m en , o ne w ill a ch ie v e h is e n d, t h e o th er n ot; a n d lik ew is e t w o m en s u cceed e q ually w ell w ith d if fe re n t m eth ods, one o f t h em b ein g c ir c u m sp ect a n d t h e o th er i m petu ous. This re su lts f ro m n oth in g e ls e e x cep t t h e e x te n t t o w hic h t h eir m eth ods are o r a re n ot s u ite d t o t h e n atu re o f t h e t im es. T hus i t h ap pen s th at, a s I h av e s a id , t w o m en , w ork in g i n d if fe re n t w ay s, c an "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" ach ie v e t h e s a m e e n d, a n d o f t w o m en w ork in g i n t h e s a m e w ay one g ets w hat h e w an ts a n d t h e o th er d oes n ot. T his a ls o e x pla in s why p ro sp erity i s e p hem era l; b ecau se i f a m an b eh av es w ith patie n ce a n d c ir c u m sp ectio n a n d t h e t im e a n d c ir c u m sta n ces a re su ch t h at t h is m eth od i s c alle d f o r, h e w ill p ro sp er; b ut i f t im e a n d cir c u m sta n ces c h an ge h e w ill b e r u in ed b ecau se h e d oes n ot ch an ge h is p olic y . N or d o w e f in d a n y m an s h re w d e n ough t o know h ow t o a d ap t h is p olic y i n t h is w ay ; e ith er b ecau se h e can not d o o th erw is e t h an w hat i s i n c h ara cte r o r b ecau se , h av in g alw ay s p ro sp ere d b y p ro ceed in g o ne w ay , h e c an not p ers u ad e him se lf t o c h an ge. T hus a m an w ho i s c ir c u m sp ect, w hen cir c u m sta n ces d em an d i m petu ous b eh av io ur, i s u neq ual t o t h e ta sk , a n d s o h e c o m es t o g rie f. I f h e c h an ged h is c h ara cte r acco rd in g t o t h e t im e a n d c ir c u m sta n ces, t h en h is f o rtu ne w ould not c h an ge.

Pope J u liu s I I w as i m petu ous i n e v ery th in g; a n d h e f o und t h e tim e a n d c ir c u m sta n ces s o f a v oura b le t o h is w ay o f p ro ceed in g th at h e a lw ay s m et w ith s u ccess. C onsid er h is f ir s t c am paig n, ag ain st B olo gna, w hen m esse r G io van ni B en tiv ogli w as s till liv in g. T he V en etia n s m is tr u ste d i t: s o d id t h e k in g o f S pain ; a n d Ju liu s w as s till a rg uin g a b out t h e e n te rp ris e w ith F ra n ce. N one t h e le ss, w ith t y pic al f o rc efu ln ess a n d i m petu osity , h e l a u nch ed t h e ex ped itio n i n p ers o n. T his m ove d is c o ncerte d a n d a rre ste d S pain an d t h e V en etia n s, t h e l a tte r b ecau se t h ey w ere a fra id a n d t h e fo rm er b ecau se o f t h e k in g’s a m bitio n to r e co nquer a ll t h e kin gdom o f N ap le s. O n t h e o th er h an d, h e d re w t h e k in g o f F ra n ce afte r h im . T his w as b ecau se t h e k in g, s e ein g J u liu s g o i n to a ctio n, an d a n xio us f o r h is s u pport i n s u bduin g t h e V en etia n s, d ecid ed h e co uld n ot r e fu se h im t r o ops w ith out d oin g h im a m an if e st dis se rv ic e. W ith t h at i m petu ous m ove o f h is , t h ere fo re , J u liu s "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" ach ie v ed w hat n o o th er p ontif f, w ith t h e u tm ost h um an p ru den ce, would h av e a ch ie v ed . B ecau se h ad J u liu s d ela y ed s e ttin g o ut f ro m Rom e u ntil a ll h is p la n s a n d n eg otia tio ns w ere c o m ple te d , a s a n y oth er p ontif f w ould h av e d one, h e w ould n ev er h av e s u cceed ed .

The k in g o f F ra n ce w ould h av e f o und a h undre d a n d o ne e x cu se s, an d t h e o th ers w ould h av e i n sp ir e d J u liu s w ith a h undre d a n d o ne fe ars . I s h all n ot d is c u ss h is o th er d eed s, w hic h w ere a ll l ik e t h is an d w hic h a ll m et w ith s u ccess. T he b re v ity o f h is p ontif ic al l if e did n ot l e t h im e x perie n ce t h e c o ntr a ry . I f t h ere h ad c o m e a t im e when i t w as n ecessa ry f o r h im t o a ct w ith c ir c u m sp ectio n h e would h av e c o m e t o g rie f: h e w ould n ev er h av e a cte d o th er t h an in c h ara cte r.

I c o nclu de, t h ere fo re , t h at a s f o rtu ne i s c h an geab le w here as men a re o bstin ate i n t h eir w ay s, m en p ro sp er s o l o ng a s f o rtu ne an d p olic y a re i n a cco rd , a n d w hen t h ere i s a c la sh t h ey f a il. I h old str o ngly t o t h is : t h at i t i s b ette r t o b e i m petu ous t h an c ir c u m sp ect; becau se f o rtu ne i s a w om an a n d i f s h e i s t o b e s u bm is siv e i t i s necessa ry t o b eat a n d c o erc e h er. E xperie n ce s h ow s t h at s h e i s more o fte n s u bdued b y m en w ho d o t h is t h an b y t h ose w ho a ct co ld ly . A lw ay s, b ein g a w om an , s h e f a v ours y oung m en , b ecau se th ey a re l e ss c ir c u m sp ect a n d m ore a rd en t, a n d b ecau se t h ey co m man d h er w ith g re ate r a u dacity .

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" XXVI Exh orta tio n t o l ib era te I ta ly f r o m t h e b arb aria n s A fte r d elib era tin g o n a ll t h e t h in gs d is c u sse d a b ove, I a sk ed m yse lf w heth er i n p re se n t- d ay I ta ly t h e t im es w ere p ro pitio us t o h onour a n ew p rin ce, a n d w heth er t h e c ir c u m sta n ces e x is te d h ere w hic h w ould m ak e i t p ossib le f o r a p ru den t a n d c ap ab le m an t o i n tr o duce a n ew o rd er, b rin gin g h onour t o h im se lf a n d p ro sp erity t o a ll t h e I ta lia n s. W ell, I b elie v e t h at s o m an y t h in gs c o nsp ir e t o f a v our a n ew p rin ce, t h at I c an not i m ag in e t h ere e v er w as a t im e m ore s u ita b le t h an t h e p re se n t. A nd i f , a s I s a id , t h e I s ra elite s h ad t o b e e n sla v ed i n E gypt f o r M ose s t o e m erg e a s t h eir f o rc efu l l e ad er; i f t h e P ers ia n s h ad t o b e o ppre sse d b y t h e M ed es s o t h at t h e g re atn ess o f C yru s c o uld b e r e co gniz ed ; i f t h e A th en ia n s h ad t o b e s c atte re d t o d em onstr a te t h e e x celle n ce o f T hese u s: t h en , a t t h e p re se n t t im e, i n o rd er t o d is c o ver t h e w orth o f a n I ta lia n s p ir it, I ta ly h ad t o b e b ro ught t o h er p re se n t e x tr e m ity . S he h ad t o b e m ore e n sla v ed t h an t h e H eb re w s, m ore o ppre sse d t h an t h e P ers ia n s, m ore w id ely s c atte re d t h an t h e A th en ia n s; l e ad erle ss, l a w le ss, c ru sh ed , d esp oile d , t o rn , o verru n; s h e h ad t o h av e e n dure d e v ery k in d o f d eso la tio n.

And a lth ough b efo re n ow t h ere w as a m an i n w hom s o m e s p ark s e em ed t o s h ow t h at h e w as o rd ain ed b y G od t o r e d eem t h e c o untr y , n one t h e l e ss i t w as s e en h ow a fte rw ard s, a t t h e v ery h eig ht o f h is c are er, h e w as r e je cte d b y f o rtu ne. S o n ow , l e ft l if e le ss, I ta ly i s w aitin g t o s e e w ho c an b e t h e o ne t o h eal h er w ounds, p ut a n en d t o t h e s a ck in g o f L om bard y, t o e x to rtio n i n " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" th e K in gdom a n d i n T usc an y, a n d c le an se t h ose s o re s w hic h h av e now b een f e ste rin g f o r s o l o ng. S ee h ow I ta ly b ese ech es G od t o se n d s o m eo ne t o s a v e h er f ro m t h ose b arb aro us c ru eltie s a n d outr a g es; s e e h ow e ag er a n d w illin g t h e c o untr y i s t o f o llo w a ban ner, i f o nly s o m eo ne w ill r a is e i t. A nd a t t h e p re se n t t im e i t i s im possib le t o s e e i n w hat s h e c an p la ce m ore h ope t h an i n y our illu str io us H ouse , w hic h , w ith i ts f o rtu ne a n d p ro w ess, f a v oure d by G od a n d b y t h e C hurc h , o f w hic h i t i s n ow t h e h ead , c an l e ad Ita ly t o h er s a lv atio n. T he t a sk w ill n ot b e v ery h ard , i f y ou w ill call t o m in d t h e a ctio ns a n d l iv es o f t h e m en I h av e m en tio ned .

These m en m ay b e e x cep tio nal a n d r e m ark ab le ; t h ey w ere m en none t h e l e ss, a n d e ach o f t h em h ad l e ss o pportu nity t h an i s offe re d n ow . T heir e n te rp ris e w as n eith er m ore j u st n or e asie r, an d G od w as n o m ore t h eir f rie n d t h an h e i s y ours . T here i s g re at ju stic e i n o ur c au se : ’iu stu m e n im e st b ellu m q uib us n ecessa riu m , et p ia a rm a u bi n ulla n is i i n a rm is s p es e st’ . * T here i s t h e g re ate st re ad in ess, a n d w here t h at i s s o t h ere c an not b e g re at d if fic u lty , pro vid ed o nly y our H ouse w ill e m ula te t h e m eth ods o f t h ose I hav e s in gle d o ut f o r a d m ir a tio n. A s w ell a s t h is , u nheard -o f wonders a re t o b e s e en , p erfo rm ed b y G od: t h e s e a i s d iv id ed , a clo ud h as s h ow n y ou t h e w ay , w ate r h as g ush ed f ro m t h e r o ck , i t has r a in ed m an na; a ll t h in gs h av e c o nsp ir e d t o y our g re atn ess.

The r e st i s u p t o y ou. G od d oes n ot w an t t o d o e v ery th in g Him se lf , a n d t a k e a w ay f ro m u s our f re e w ill a n d o ur s h are o f t h e glo ry w hic h b elo ngs t o u s.

It i s n ot t o b e m arv elle d a t t h at n one o f t h e I ta lia n s I h av e nam ed h as s u cceed ed i n d oin g w hat, i t i s h oped , y our i llu str io us House w ill d o, o r t h at i n s o m an y r e v olu tio ns i n I ta ly a n d s o m an y martia l c am paig ns i t h as a lw ay s s e em ed t h at o ur m ilita ry p ro w ess has b een e x tin guis h ed . T his i s b ecau se t h e o ld m ilita ry s y ste m s "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" were b ad a n d t h ere h as b een n o o ne w ho k new h ow t o e sta b lis h a new o ne. A nd n oth in g b rin gs a m an g re ate r h onour t h an t h e n ew la w s a n d n ew i n stitu tio ns h e e sta b lis h es. W hen t h ese a re s o undly base d a n d b ear t h e m ark o f g re atn ess, t h ey m ak e h im r e v ere d a n d ad m ir e d . N ow , i n I ta ly t h e o pportu nitie s a re n ot w an tin g f o r th oro ugh r e o rg an iz atio n. H ere w e w ould f in d g re ate r p ro w ess am ong t h ose w ho f o llo w , w ere i t n ot l a ck in g a m ong t h e l e ad ers .

Look a t t h e d uels a n d t h e c o m bats b etw een a f e w , h ow t h e I ta lia n s are s u perio r i n s tr e n gth , i n s k ill, i n i n ven tiv en ess; b ut w hen i t i s a matte r o f a rm ie s, t h ey d o n ot c o m pare . A ll t h is i s b ecau se o f t h e weak ness o f t h e l e ad ers . T hose w ho a re c ap ab le a re n ot o bey ed .

Every one i m ag in es h e i s c o m pete n t, a n d h ith erto n o o ne h as h ad th e c o m pete n ce t o d om in ate t h e o th ers b y h is p ro w ess a n d g ood fo rtu ne. A s a r e su lt o f t h is , o ver s o l o ng a t im e, i n s o m an y w ars durin g t h e p ast t w en ty y ears , w hen t h ere h as b een a n a ll- Ita lia n arm y i t h as a lw ay s g iv en a b ad a cco unt o f i ts e lf , a s w itn ess t h e battle s o f T aro , t h en A le ssa n dria , C ap ua, G en oa, V ailà , B olo gna, an d M estr e .

There fo re i f y our i llu str io us H ouse w an ts t o e m ula te t h ose em in en t m en w ho s a v ed t h eir c o untr ie s, b efo re a ll els e i t i s esse n tia l f o r i t, a s t h e r ig ht b asis f o r e v ery c am paig n, t o r a is e a citiz en a rm y; f o r t h ere c an b e n o m ore l o yal, m ore t r u e, o r b ette r tr o ops. T ak en s in gly , t h ese t r o ops a re g ood; a ctin g a s a u nite d arm y, w hen t h ey f in d t h em se lv es u nder t h e c o m man d o f t h eir o w n prin ce a n d h onoure d a n d m ain ta in ed b y h im , t h ey a re s till b ette r.

It i s n ecessa ry , t h ere fo re , t o r a is e s u ch a n a rm y, i n o rd er t o b ase our d efe n ce a g ain st t h e i n vad ers o n I ta lia n s tr e n gth . A lth ough t h e Sw is s a n d S pan is h i n fa n tr y m ay b e c o nsid ere d f o rm id ab le , n one th e l e ss t h ere a re f a u lts i n b oth w hic h w ould e n ab le a t h ir d k in d o f arm y n ot o nly t o h old t h em i n b attle b ut t o b e s u re o f c o nquerin g.

"* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" The S pan ia rd s c an not w ith sta n d c av alr y , a n d t h e S w is s h av e c au se to f e ar i n fa n tr y m en w ho m eet t h em i n c o m bat w ith a dete rm in atio n e q ual t o t h eir o w n. T hus i t h as b een f o und, a n d ex perie n ce w ill p ro ve, t h at t h e S pan ia rd s c an not w ith sta n d F re n ch cav alr y a n d t h e S w is s s u ccu m b t o S pan is h i n fa n tr y . T here m ay hav e b een n o c o m ple te d em onstr a tio n o f t h is l a tte r a sse rtio n, b ut th ere w as s o m e i n dic atio n o f i ts t r u th a t t h e b attle o f R av en na, where S pan is h i n fa n tr y t r o ops c la sh ed w ith t h e G erm an batta lio ns, w hic h a d opt t h e s a m e l in e o f b attle a s t h e S w is s. I n t h e en co unte r, t h e S pan ia rd s, m ak in g g ood u se o f t h eir b uck le rs , w ith gre at a g ility t h ru st t h eir w ay b etw een a n d u nder t h e G erm an pik es, a n d a tta ck ed w ith i m punity w hile t h e G erm an s w ere defe n cele ss. I f i t h ad n ot b een f o r t h e c av alr y w hic h c h arg ed th em , t h e S pan ia rd s w ould h av e a n nih ila te d t h e G erm an s. S o, hav in g g ra sp ed t h e d efe cts o f t h ese S w is s a n d S pan is h i n fa n tr y , you c an d ev elo p a n ew t y pe, c ap ab le o f w ith sta n din g c av alr y a n d undau nte d b y o th er i n fa n tr y . T his w ill b e en su re d b y r a is in g n ew arm ie s a n d e m plo yin g n ew f o rm atio ns. I t i s t h in gs o f t h is k in d whic h , w hen n ew ly i n tr o duced , b rin g a n ew p rin ce g re atn ess a n d pre stig e.

In o rd er t h ere fo re t h at I ta ly , a fte r s o l o ng a t im e, m ay b eh old i ts sa v io ur, t h is o pportu nity m ust n ot b e l e t s lip . A nd I c an not ex pre ss w ith w hat l o ve h e w ould b e w elc o m ed i n a ll t h ose pro vin ces w hic h h av e s u ffe re d f ro m t h ese f o re ig n i n undatio ns, with w hat t h ir s t f o r v en gean ce, w ith w hat r e so lu te l o yalty , w ith what d ev otio n a n d t e ars . W hat d oors w ould b e c lo se d t o h im ?

What p eo ple w ould d en y h im t h eir o bed ie n ce? W hat e n vy s h ould sta n d i n h is w ay ? W hat I ta lia n w ould r e fu se h im a lle g ia n ce? T his barb aro us t y ra n ny s tin ks i n e v ery one’s n ostr ils . L et y our illu str io us H ouse u nderta k e t h is t a sk , t h ere fo re , w ith t h e c o ura g e "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" an d h ope w hic h b elo ng t o j u st e n te rp ris e s, s o t h at, u nder y our sta n dard , o ur c o untr y m ay b e e n noble d , a n d u nder y our a u sp ic es what P etr a rc h s a id m ay c o m e t o p ass:

Vertu e ‘ g ain st f u ry s h all a d van ce t h e f ig ht, And i t i ’ t h ’ c o m bate s o one s h all p ut t o f lig ht:

For t h ’ o ld R om an e v alo ur i s n ot d ead , Nor i n t h ’ I ta lia n s b re sts e x tin guis h ed .

* ‘ B ecau se a n ecessa ry w ar i s a j u st w ar a n d w here t h ere i s h ope only i n a rm s, t h ose a rm s a re h oly .’ "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" " * ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******" "* ***** D EM O - w ww.e b ook-c o nverte r.c o m *******"