Read article and do a 2-3pg summary in MLA format

o fulfill the potential of what Maxine Green (1988) describes as “a world lived in common with others,” our campuses must offer the opportunity for each of us to be touched by the lives of those different from us. We will never understand racism, class, social justice, international development, or the person sitting next to us without quietly listen- ing to the stories of those who experi- ence the world in different ways. But as psychologist George Kelly (1963) suggests, learning from experi- ence requires more than being in the vicinity of events when they occur.

Learning emerges from our capacity to construe those events and then to recon- strue them in transformative ways. On today’s culturally complicated campus- es, individuals are indeed in the presence of intercultural events, but more often than not, they are having an ethnocentric experience that they may be ill prepared to construe. We have long known that simply bringing different racial and cultural groups into contact may generate more heat than light (Pettigrew, 2000). De- pending on the readiness of the learners, our well-structured curriculum may fail to produce constructive interaction, much less the commitment to social jus- tice that we have designed it to produce.

Difficult dialogues about race, ethnicity, and other cultural differences are hin- dered when learners are developmentally unprepared to handle them (Bennett & Bennett, 2004). Educators also face new challenges both in teaching about culture, and in teaching across cultures. While culture is often addressed in the content of the curriculum, it is less frequently incor- porated into the process of teaching and learning. Thus, while we study the sociological consequences of racism, we may be ineffective in communicat- ing with the African-American col- league across the hall. While we may master Japanese literature, we may not be able to read between the lines when a Japanese student attempts to share a problem with us. In short, cultural knowledge does not equal intercultural competence. And being global citizens—seeing ourselves as members of a world community, as well as participants in our local contexts, knowing that we share the future with others—requires powerful forms of in- tercultural competence. Darla Deardorff conducted a study of intercultural scholars to develop an extended definition of intercultural competence and to examine appropriate strategies to assess such competence.

Her resulting article in the Journal of Studies in International Education (2006) identifies specific components of intercultural competence and provides recommendations for fostering it. It is vital to note the significance of the “inter” in “intercultural compe- tence.” Such competence bridges domes- tic and global diversity by focusing on patterns of interaction in a cultural con- text, whether within a country or across national borders. Intercultural com- munication is about negotiating shared meanings. Thus the study-abroad student needs to be interculturally competent, as does the student in a course on race, class, and gender. The growing global focus on de- veloping interculturally competent students, professionals, and citizens suggests five key trends for which there are associated resources. While there are outstanding materials grounded in other disciplines that address this issue, the primary focus of this review is to highlight the contribution of the inter- cultural perspective. The Intercultural Perspective The materials included in Resource Box 1 provide frameworks that comprise the “culture-general” or meta-cultural perspective that can be used to examine patterns in any culture, domestic or in- ternational. They cover core topics such as nonverbal communication, commu- nication styles, conflict styles, language Janet Bennett is executive director of the Intercultural Communication Institute (ICI), director of the ICI master’s in intercultural relations program, and book-review editor of the International Journal of Intercultural Relations . Riikka Salonen is a program as- sociate at the Intercultural Communication Institute, managing intercultural assessment and research services.

46 Change ● March / April 2007 R e s o u r c e R e v i e w I n t e r c u l t u r a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e N e w A m e r i c a n C a m p u s B y J a n e t M . B e n n e t t A N D R i i k k a S a l o n e n T Integrating Domestic and Global Diversity, Learn - ing Culture Experien - tially, and Teaching and Learning on the Cultur - ally Complicated Campus Boyacigiller, Nakiye A., Goodman, Richard A., & Phillips, Margaret E.

(Eds.). (2003). Crossing Cultures:

Insights from Master Teachers . New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group).

Cress, Christine M., Collier, Peter J., Reitenaur, Vicki L., & Associates (2005). Learning Through Serving: A Student Guidebook for Service-Learn - ing Across the Disciplines . Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Cornwell, Grant H., & Stoddard, Eve W. (1999). Globalizing Knowl - edge: Connecting International & In - tercultural Studies . Washington, DC:

Association of American Colleges & Universities.

Deardorff, Darla (2006, Fall).

“Identification and Assessment of Intercultural Competence as a Student Outcome of Internationalization.” Journal of Studies in International Education , 10(3), 241–266.

Green, Maxine (1988). The Dialec - tic of Freedom . New York: Teachers College Press.

Kelly, George (1963). A Theory of Personality . New York: Norton.

Paige, R. Michael, Cohen, Andrew D., Kappler, Barbara, Chi, Julie C., & Lassegard, James P. (2002). Maximiz - ing Study Abroad: A Students’ Guide to Strategies for Language and Cul - ture Learning and Use . Minneapolis, MN: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, University of Minnesota.

Pedersen, Paul (2000). A Hand - book for Developing Multicultural Awareness . (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA:

American Counseling Association.

Pettigrew, Thomas F., & Tropp, Lin - da R. (2000). “Does Intergroup Contact Reduce Racial and Ethnic Prejudice Throughout the World?” In Stuart Os - kamp (Ed.), Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination (pp. 93–114). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Singelis, Theodore M. (Ed.).

(1998). Teaching About Culture, Eth - nicity, and Diversity: Exercises and Planned Activities . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Stringer, M. Donna, & Cassiday, Patricia A. (2003). 52 Activities for Exploring Value Differences . Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Yershova, Yelena, DeJaeghere, Joan, & Mestenhauser, Josef (2000, Spring). “Thinking Not as Usual:

Adding the Intercultural Perspective.” Journal of Studies in International Education, 4 (1), 39–78. Web and Other Resources: Diversity Resources by Association of American Colleges & Universities, www.diversityweb.org, www.aacu.

org/issues/diversity/index.cfm Hammer, Mitchell R. (2002). The Intercultural Conflict Style (ICS) Inventory . North Potomac, MD: Ham - mer Consulting.

Hammer, Mitchell R. (2003). The Intercultural Conflict Style (ICS) In - ventory Facilitator’s Manual . North Potomac, MD: Hammer Consulting.

Hammer Consulting, www.ham - merconsulting.org/product_ics.php.

Nipporica Associates, www.nip - porica.com The Thiagi Group, www.thiagi.

com What’s Up With Culture, www.

pacific.edu/sis/culture/  Resource Box II Publications The Intercultural Perspective Bennett, Janet M., & Bennett, Milton J. (2004). “Developing Inter - cultural Sensitivity: An Integrative Approach to Global and Domestic Diversity.” In Dan Landis, Janet M.

Bennett, & Milton J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of Intercultural Training (3rd ed., pp. 147–165). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bennett, Milton J. (Ed.) (1998).

Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication: Selected Readings .

Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. González, Alberto, Houston, Marsha, & Chen, Victoria (2004).

Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication: An Intercultural Anthology . (4th ed.).

Los Angeles: Roxbury. Lustig, Myron W., & Koester, Jolene (2006). Intercultural Com - petence: Interpersonal Communi - cation Across Cultures . (5th ed.).

Boston: Pearson (Allyn & Bacon). Martin, Judith N., & Nakayama, Thomas K. (2007). Intercultural Communication in Contexts . (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Samovar, Larry A., Porter, Richard E., & McDaniel, Edwin R.

(Eds.). (2006). Intercultural Com - munication: A Reader. (11th ed.).

Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Ting-Toomey, Stella (1999).

Communicating Across Cultures .

New York: Guilford. Web Resources: Intercultural Communication Institute, www.intercultural.org Society for Intercultural Educa - tion, Training, and Research – USA (SUSA), www.sietarusa.org  Resource Box I Change ● March/April 2007 47 48 Change ● March / April 2007 and culture, value patterns, prejudice and power, identity development, and cultural adaptation.

While there is no panacea for elimi - nating cultural misunderstanding, we can cultivate competence in order to communicate despite our differences.

The field of intercultural communication provides a particularly useful perspective for developing intercultural competence:

It aims to develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for effective and appropriate interactions across cultures. Milton Bennett’s Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication: Selected Readings (1998), a collection of clas - sic articles on the topics I’ve outlined, serves as an introduction to the basic concepts of the field, while Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen’s Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity and Communication: An Inter - cultural Anthology (2004) applies those concepts to the domestic diversity arena.

The following authors each approach the central topics in the field from a different perspective: Myron Lustig and Jolene Koester examine intercultural com - petence in Intercultural Competence:

Interpersonal Communication Across Cultures (2006); Judith Martin and Thomas Nakayama place the issue of intercultural communication in a variety of theoretical contexts in Intercultural Communication in Contexts (2007); and Stella Ting-Toomey, in Communicat - ing Across Cultures (1999), presents an advanced overview of intercultural concepts that takes into account both Western and Asian frames of reference.

Finally, now in its 11th edition, Intercul - tural Communication: A Reader (2006), by Larry Samovar, Richard Porter, and Edwin McDaniel features articles from both a culture-general perspective and a culture-specific point of view. For those interested in professional development in teaching, training, curriculum design, ethnic-identity de - velopment, or creating an intercultural campus, the Intercultural Communica - tion Institute (ICI) offers a summer program of workshops and seminars. In addition, ICI offers intercultural assess - ment, a master’s degree in cooperation with the University of the Pacific, and a resource library of more than 23,000 in - tercultural materials (www.intercultural.

org). Another such resource is the Soci - ety for Intercultural Education, Training and Research—USA (SUSA), which has an annual conference where profes - sionals share their applications of the intercultural perspective (www.sietarusa.

org). Integrating Domestic and Global Diversity The seemingly intractable stress between those committed to social trans - formation in America and those focused on global development presents itself as a core issue for interculturalists. Mutual accusations include being self-serving, uninformed at best, and insidious at worst. While some suggest that domestic inequities trump all global consider - ations, others counter that no issue is merely local. The current trend is to view the in - tersections among these contexts. A key resource on this topic is Globalizing Knowledge: Connecting International & Intercultural Studies (1999) by Grant H. Cornwell and Eve W. Stoddard.

They construct an intercultural frame - work around the often-dualistic debates between the domestic and the global perspectives: Is citizenship national or international in scope? Are we educat - ing patriots or cosmopolites? Is global development an inevitable necessity or inevitably fatal? If we think globally, do we oppress locally? By carefully constructing a complex, multilayered, contextualized framework, they make a persuasive case that globalizing educa - tion requires both/and, not either/or . The Web site of the Association of American Colleges and Universities (www. diversityweb.org) supports educators with further resources for this integra - tion. Resource Box 2 contains references to these materials. Janet M. Bennett and Milton J.

Bennett (2004) outline a developmen - tal model appropriate for teaching and training in a sequence based on learner readiness, in “Developing Intercultural Sensitivity: An Integrative Approach to Global and Domestic Diversity” (2004).

They suggest that early diversity efforts often placed the Western perspective at the center, where not only the content but also the process belied the core value of inclusivity. They note that sensitivity initiatives may often themselves be cul - turally insensitive. According to this model, individu - als respond to cultural differences in identifiable stages. In the first stage, those who see culture as a barrier tend to deny, resist, or minimize differences.

In the second, those who see culture as a resource tend to accept and appreciate differences. In order to create a cultur - ally competent campus, leaders need to create appropriate interventions to move people from the first to the second stage. Learning Experientially After a long effort to achieve cred - ibility, experiential learning has earned its rightful place in academic programs as a viable, even desirable, approach to putting theory into practice. Service learning has linked different cultural groups within the United States, as well as overseas. Study abroad has moved far from the grand tour to a smorgasbord of programs, short and long, in familiar and less-familiar destinations. The campus is increasingly used as a laboratory for intercultural and interracial dialogues.

Each of these contexts presents opportu - nities for the development and practice of intercultural competence, guided by educators prepared to infuse the curricu - lum with intercultural learning. In a recent text, Learning Through Serving: A Student Guidebook for Ser - While there is no panacea for eliminating cultural misunderstanding, we can cultivate competence in order to communicate despite our differences. vice Learning Across the Disciplines (2005), by Christine M. Cress, Peter J. Collier, Vicki L. Reitenauer, and as - sociates, the authors presume that com - munity-based learning places students in contact with diverse others and, therefore, that learners must attend to that aspect of their own development.

They provide the instructor with useful guidelines for designing and implement - ing effective service-learning programs.

(See Resource Box 2.) In the area of international education, the state of the art suggests three es - sential requirements for effective expe - riential learning: that it prepare learners to understand their own culture, that it facilitate their cultural learning abroad, and that it integrate that learning upon their return. Standard practice suggests a unified curriculum that attends to all three of these stages. The What’s Up With Culture? Web site (www.pacific.edu/sis/culture/) is an online cultural training resource for study abroad that contains modules for predeparture preparation, reentry, and resources for going abroad that are useful for instructors and students. R.

Michael Paige, Andrew D. Cohen, Bar - bara Kappler, Julie C. Chi, and James P. Lassegard (2002) recently revised their Maximizing Study Abroad: A Stu - dents’ Guide to Strategies for Language and Culture Learning and Use (2002).

Organized into units focusing on pre - departure, in-country, and post-study abroad, the text contains rich resources for the sojourner, as well as for the faculty or staff member guiding the program. For those facilitating intercultural/ interracial dialogues, Paul Pedersen’s Handbook for Developing Multicultural Awareness (2000) supplies conceptual background understanding, as well as a series of approaches and methods to enhance learning while constructively handling conflict. The Culturally Complicated Campus For the educator, daily interactions consistently involve adaptation to dif - ferent cultural styles. Most of us can no longer enter our classrooms confident that our learners will share our world - view, our cultural norms, or even our language. Campuses have traditionally privileged certain styles for teaching and learning, a process that is being trans - formed in today’s intercultural context.

Diversifying our cognitive styles, learn - ing styles, and communication styles has become an essential response to our diversified populations. “Thinking Not As Usual: Adding the Intercultural Perspective” (2002)—by Yelena Yershova, Joan DeJaeghere, and Josef Mestenhauser—addresses the is - sue of culturally influenced cognitive styles. Assessing the Western-based ap - proaches to intercultural competence, critical thinking, and comparative think - ing, they dispute the universality of Western analytical constructs. Resource Box 2 contains references to resources for cultural-learning activi - ties suitable for the university context.

For classroom and experiential learn - ing, see Crossing Cultures: Insights from Master Teachers , a 2003 collec - tion by Nakiye A. Boyacigiller, Richard A. Goodman, and Margaret E. Phillips, who gathered the educational modules used by senior educators. The Web site for the Thiagi Group: The Source for Training Games and Interactive Experi - ential Strategies (www.thiagi.com) fea - tures a wide variety of free teaching and training resources, including “frame - games”—content-free, creatively con - structed methods (frames) for achieving the full engagement of learners. In their collection 52 Activities for Exploring Value Differences (2003), Donna M.

Stringer and Patricia A. Cassiday have gathered strategies for teaching about deep values in both domestic and global contexts. Theodore M. Singelis has produced a thoughtful collection of well-designed, theoretically grounded methods in his compendium Teaching About Culture, Ethnicity, and Diversity (1998). The Web site for Nipporica Associates, www.

Nipporica.com, features a variety of learning tools, including a series of case studies entitled The Cultural Detective that focus on learning about values and interaction in specific cultures. Finally, faculty members teaching about conflict will find Mitchell Hammer’s Intercul - tural Conflict Style Inventory (2002, 2003) useful in exploring their students’ own styles as they participate in difficult dialogues. Assessing Intercultural Competence While excellent instruments exist for assessing campus climate and learning outcomes for diversity, not many instru - ments exist that assess the intercultural sensitivity or competence of students, faculty, and staff. R. Michael Paige, in his 2004 “Instrumentation in Inter - cultural Training,” provides a detailed review of the instruments commonly used to measure organizational climate, personal development, cultural identity, prejudice and racism, and intercultural competence. The instruments noted here are particularly appropriate for campus assessments (Resource Box 3):

• The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) is a widely used self- assessment tool that addresses a person’s ability to adapt to both domestic and international contexts. • The Global Competencies Inven - tory (GCI) assesses personal qualities associated with environments where there are cultural norms and behaviors different from one’s own. Based on per - sonality factors, this instrument can be used as part of an assessment process for a variety of functions. • The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) is a psychometric instru - Change ● March/April 2007 49 Most of us can no longer enter our classrooms confident that our learners will share our world- view, our cultural norms, or even ourlanguage. 50 Change ● March / April 2007 ment based on the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. Useful for program evaluation, the IDI can also be used for audience analysis and needs as - sessment. Intercultural Competence and Global Citizenship With global citizenship and civic engagement as core missions in higher education, intercultural competence becomes central across the disciplines.

Grant H. Cornwall and Eve W. Stoddard (1999) link the two agendas by sug - gesting that educational goals include “understanding diverse cultures and un - derstanding cultures as diverse ... [and] preparing for citizenship, both local and global” (Resource Box 2). They elabo - rate on this idea in their 2006 article “Freedom, Diversity and Global Leader - ship” (Resource Box 4). Researchers in business and manage - ment have produced multiple texts with a focus on the impact of culture in the orga - nizational context, as noted in Resource Box 4. Nancy J. Adler’s application of core intercultural notions to the structure and functions of organizations in Inter - national Dimensions of Organizational Behavior (2002) offers not only a con - ceptual overview but also engaging case studies. Mark E. Mendenhall, Torsten Kühlmann, and Günter Stahl offer chap - ters on global teams, leadership transfor - mation, assessment, and women leaders in their collection Developing Global Business Leaders: Policies, Process, and Innovations (2000).

Research in global leadership and managing cultural complexity of - fers insights to both those within and outside the corporate world. The com - prehensive Culture, Leadership and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies (2004) by Robert J. House, Paul Hanges, Mansour Javidan, Peter Dorfman, and Vipin Gupta offers sub - stantive information about worldwide value patterns that is useful to profes - sionals in any field. For pragmatic applications of in - tercultural concepts, P. Christopher Earley and Soon Ang, in their 2003 book Cultural Intelligence: Individual Interactions Across Cultures , have de - veloped a model of cultural intelligence that specifically addresses multicultural contexts. They review the cognitive, atti - tudinal, and behavioral bases of cultural intelligence and describe strategies for developing, assessing, and promoting it in organizations.

On the domestic front, Norma Carr- Ruffino has thoughtfully examined specific cultural groups in organizations in her 2003 text Managing Diversity:

People Skills for a Multicultural Work - place . By reviewing the history of each group, its experiences of prejudice, its cultural patterns, and recommended approaches to management, she has bridged issues of social justice, inter - cultural sensitivity, and organizational productivity. For those interested in locating re - sources for teaching in the area of do - mestic diversity, authors Lee Gardenswartz and Anita Rowe (1998) have developed conceptually grounded strategies for developing intercultural competence that are useful for practitio - ners as well as educators. (See also their 2003 collaboration with Patricia Digh and Martin Bennett in The Global Diver - sity Desk Reference .) Recent educational research sug - gests that for those desiring robust intercultural transformation on cam - puses, we must do more than simply be “in the vicinity of cultural events.” Intercultural competence is fostered through developmental opportunities, grounded in theory and facilitated expe - riences. Only then will learners be able to construe—and reconstrue—them to achieve shared meaning. Assessing Intercultur - al Competence Paige, R. Michael (2004).

“Instrumentation in Intercultural Training.” In Dan Landis, Janet M. Bennett, & Milton J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 85–128).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) , Colleen Kelley & Judith Meyers, Web:

www.pearsonps.com/Solutions/ PerformanceManagement/Organi - zationalSurveys/ The Global Competencies In - ventory (GCI), The Kozai Group, Web: www.kozaigroup.com/ inventories/inv.html The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI), Bennett, Milton J.

& Hammer, Mitchell R., IDI LLC, Web: www.intercultural.org  Resource Box III Linking Intercultural Competence to Global Leadership Adler, Nancy J. (2002). In - ternational Dimensions of Or - ganizational Behavior . (4th ed.).

Cincinnati, OH: South-Western.

Carr-Ruffino, Norma (2003).

Managing Diversity: People Skills for a Multicultural Workplace .

Boston: Pearson Custom.

Cornwell, Grant H., & Stoddard, Eve W. (2006, Spring).

“Freedom, Diversity, and Global Citizenship.” Liberal Education, 92( 2), 26–33.

Earley, P. Christopher, & Ang, Soon (2003). Cultural Intelligence: Individual Interac - tions Across Cultures. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Gardenswartz, Lee., & Rowe, Anita (1998). Managing Diversity:

A Complete Desk Reference and Planning Guide. (Rev. ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Gardenswartz, Lee., Rowe, Anita, Digh, Patricia, & Bennett, Martin (2003). The Global Diver - sity Desk Reference: Managing an International Workforce . San Fran - cisco: Jossey-Bass.

House, Robert J., Hanges, Paul J., Javidan, Mansour, Dorfman, Peter W., & Gupta, Vipin (Eds.).

(2004). Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mendenhall, Mark E., Kühlmann, Torsten M., & Stahl, Günter K. (Eds.). (2000). Develop - ing Global Business Leaders: Poli - cies, Processes, and Innovations .

Westport, CT: Greenwood.  Resource Box IV C ��