Literature Review

Sla ves o f t h e S ta te

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Sla v es o f t h e S ta te

Bla ck I n ca rc era tio n f r o m t h e C hain G an g t o t h e P en it e n tia ry

Dennis C hild s

Univ ers it y o f M in neso ta P re ss

Min neapolis

London

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ******

C hapte r 1 w as p re vio usly p ublis h ed a s “ ‘Y ou A in ’t S een N oth in ’ Y et’ :

Belo ved

, th e A meric an C hain G ang, a nd th e M id dle P assa ge R em ix ,”

Am eric a n Q uarte rly

6 1, n o. 2 ( J u ne

2 009): 2 71– 97; r e prin te d w it h p erm is sio n o f

Am eric a n Q uarte rly

P ortio ns o f c hapte r 3 w ere p re vio usly p ublis h ed a s “ A ngola , C onvic t L easin g, a nd th e A nnulm ent o f F re edom ,” in

Vio le n ce a nd th e B ody: R ace, G en der, a nd th e S ta te ,

e d.

A rtu ro A ld am a ( B lo om in gto n: I n dia na U niv ers it y P re ss, 2 003); r e prin te d b y p erm is sio n o f I n dia na U niv ers it y P re ss.

C opyrig ht 2 015 b y th e R egents o f th e U niv ers it y o f M in neso ta

A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed. N o p art o f th is p ublic atio n m ay b e r e pro duced, s to re d in a r e tr ie val s y ste m , o r tr a nsm it te d, in a ny f o rm o r b y a ny m eans, e le ctr o nic , m echanic al, p hoto copyin g,

r e cord in g, o r o th erw is e , w it h out th e p rio r w rit te n p erm is sio n o f th e p ublis h er.

P ublis h ed b y th e U niv ers it y o f M in neso ta P re ss

1 11 T hir d A venue S outh , S uit e 2 90

M in neapolis , M N 5 5401-2 520

h ttp :/ /w ww.u pre ss.u m n.e du

L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss C ata lo gin g-in -P ublic atio n D ata

C hild s, D ennis .

S la ves o f th e s ta te : b la ck in carc era tio n f ro m th e c hain g ang to th e p enit e ntia ry / D ennis C hild s.

I n clu des b ib lio gra phic al r e fe re nces a nd in dex.

I S B N 9 78-1 -4 529-4 364-0

1 . A fric an A meric an p ris o ners — His to ry . 2 . S la very — Unit e d S ta te s— His to ry . 3 . D is c rim in atio n in c rim in al ju stic e a dm in is tr a tio n— Unit e d S ta te s. 4 . U nit e d S ta te s— Race

r e la tio ns. I . T it le .

H V9471.C 473 2 015

3 65´.6 08996073— dc23

2 014019929

T he U niv ers it y o f M in neso ta is a n e qual- o pportu nit y e ducato r a nd e m plo yer.

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** For S ara nella a nd K ahlil, a nd a ll p ris o n s la ves p ast a nd p re se n t

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Con te n ts

I n tr o ducti o n. “ In hum an P unis h m ent” : T he

(U n)d ea d B ook

o f C hatte l C arc era lity

1 . “ Y ou A in ’t S een N oth in ’ Y et” :

Belo ved

a nd th e M id dle P assa ge C arc era l M odel

2 . “ E xcep t a s P unis h m ent f o r a C rim e”: T he T hir te enth A mend m ent a nd th e R eb ir th o f C hatte l I m pris o nm ent

3 . A ngo la P enite nti a ry : T he O nce a nd F utu re S la v e P la nta ti o n

4 . T he W arfa re o f N orth ern N eo sla v ery i n C heste r H im es’s

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

A ck now le d gm en ts

N ote s

I n dex

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** In tr o d uctio n

“In hum an P unis h m en t”

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** ******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The

(U n)d ea d B ook

o f C hatte l C arc era lit y

Sla very a nd f re edom

They is m ostly th e s a m e

No d if fe re nce h ard ly

Except in th e n am e.

—Georg ia c hain -g ang s o ng ( c . e arly 1 900s)

The a dm in is tr a to rs h ave s tr ip ped u s o f a ll b ut th e b are n ecessit ie s a nd a re n ow ta kin g th ose a ls o . T he b eatin g a nd r a pes d on’t h elp m atte rs e it h er. T he m ale g uard s

tr e at u s a s if w e w ere c hatte l.

—Eliz a beth B .,

Revo lu tio nary P ris o ners S pea k

( 1 999)

T HIS

BO OK

REPR ESE N TS

ATTEM PT

a t a nsw erin g a c all I fir s t h eard m any y ears a go a s a g ra d uate stu d ent liv in g in O akla nd ,

Califo rn ia — one e m itti n g fr o m a n a rti c le b y A ngela D av is e nti tl e d “ R acia liz e d P unis h m ent a nd P ris o n A boliti o n.” T he ra d ic al,

co unte r-h is to ric al d ir e cti v e I r e ceiv ed f r o m th is p ie ce i s c ry sta lliz e d m ost s u ccin ctl y a t a m om ent i n w hic h D av is d is ti n guis h es h er

neo -a b oliti o nis t e nco unte r w ith th e U .S . c arc era l s ta te f r o m th at o f M ic hel F oucault o n th e b asis o f th e c ultu ra lly a nd l e gally c ra fte d

“so ulle ss” c hara cte r o f th e c ap ti v e “ N egro ”:

If, a s F oucault s u ggests , th e lo cus o f th e n ew E uro pean m ode o f p unis h m ent s h ifte d fr o m th e b ody to th e s o ul,

bla ck sla v es in th e U S w ere la rg ely p erc eiv ed a s la ckin g a so ul th at m ig ht b e sh ap ed a nd tr a nsfo rm ed b y

punis h m ent.

With in th e in stitu tio n o f s la very, its e lf a fo rm o f in ca rc era tio n,

ra cia liz e d fo rm s o f p unis h m ent

dev elo ped a lo ngsid e th e e m erg ence o f th e p ris o n sy ste m w ith in a nd a s a n egati v e a ffir m ati o n o f th e “ fr e e

world .” . . . A s w hite m en a cq uir e d th e p riv ile ge to b e p unis h ed in w ays th at a ckno w le d ged th eir

eq uality a nd

th e r a cia liz e d u niv ers a lity o f l ib erty , th e p unis h m ent o f b la ck s la v es w as c o rp ore al, c o ncre te a nd p arti c ula r.

With in t h e i n stitu tio n o f s la very, i ts e lf a f o rm o f i n ca rc era tio n.

I h ad r e ad m y F oucault b efo re e nco unte rin g th is h ugely s ig nific a nt

yet la rg ely unengaged bla ck ra d ic al ep is te m ic phra se ; befo re re ad in g

Sole d ad Bro th er

; befo re re ad in g A ssa ta Shakur’s

auto bio gra p hy; b efo re I f in ally r e co gniz e d th at T oni M orris o n’s

Belo ved

i s

not

s o le ly c o ncern ed w ith p re -1 865 f o rm ati o ns o f c hatte l

sla v ery ; b efo re m y in iti a l c o nv ers a ti o n w ith R obert H illa ry K in g o f th e “ A ngo la 3 ” fo llo w in g h is h ard -w on re le ase fr o m n early

th ir ty y ears o f s o lita ry c o nfin em ent; b efo re h earin g th e s p ectr a l n eo sla v e s o und in gs o f O dea M ath ew s a nd R obert P ete W illia m s;

befo re b ein g s u m moned to a n ati o nal w hite s u p re m acis t to uris t s ite s itu ate d a t th e th re sh o ld o f a f u lly o pera ti o nal e ig hte en-th o usa nd -

acre s la v e p la nta ti o n b y o ne o f i ts h is to ric ally a no nym ous a nd u ncere m onio usly b urie d b la ck c ap ti v es. W hile F oucault b are ly m akes

menti o n o f s la v ery in h is c o m pellin g h is to ry o f th e m odern p ris o n, th e w riti n gs, s o und in gs, a nd s u rv iv al p ra cti c es o f D av is a nd

co untl e ss o th er b la ck p ris o ners a nd f o rm er p ris o ners d efin e c hatte l s la v ery a s a p rim ord ia l a nd te nacio usly u nd ead c arc era l r e gim e

of Euro -A meric an m odern ity — as th e le gal, politi c al, arc hite ctu ra l, and cultu ra l lin chp in of ra cia l cap ita lis t m is o gynis t

im pris o nm ent i n th e U nite d S ta te s a s i t h as m orp hed f r o m th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld s a nd b arra co ons o f th e M id dle P assa ge, to th e p orta b le

boxcar c ages o f e arly J im C ro w a p arth eid , to th e c o ffin -s im ula ti n g b oxcar c ells o f to day’s p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x ( P IC ).

In d eed ,

when r e ad a s o ne o vera rc hin g, c ro ss-fe rti liz in g, a nd te m pora lly u nfix ed n etw ork o f r a cia l a nd s p ati a l te rro r, th e U .S . s y ste m o f m ass

im pris o nm ent r e p re se nts a c entu rie s-o ld r e gim e o f c hatte liz e d p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e th at b egan w ell b efo re th e te rm P IC w as

ev er u tte re d — a lib era l w hite s u p re m acis t m is o gynis t “ sh it- s te m ,” a s P ete r T osh m ig ht h av e d ub bed it, th at h as s u b m itte d a n a s y et

uncalc ula te d (n o r c o m ple te d ) n um ber o f b la ck p eo ple a nd o th er ra cia lly a nd c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d g ro up s to c o lle cti v iz e d n ata l

alie nati o n, e xcre m enta l i n te rn m ent, ( u n)p ro ducti v e f o rc ed l a b or, s e ria liz e d c o rp ore al r u p tu re , l e gally u nre d re ssa b le s e xual v io le nce,

co erc ed p erfo rm ance, a nd m anifo ld f o rm s o f d eath , r a ngin g f r o m th e s o cia l, to th e c iv il, to th e b io lo gic al.

Notw ith sta nd in g th e te nd ency w ith in U .S . ju rid ic al, le gis la ti v e, and penal la w to dis a v ow th e chatte l orig in s of m odern

in carc era ti o n, th ere h av e b een k ey m om ents in w hic h p ostb ellu m lib era l le gal d is c o urs e h as o ffe re d b old fa ce a rti c ula ti o n o f th e

sta te ’s e nsla v in g a nd m urd ero us b earin g to w ard

crim in ally a nd ra cia lly s ti g m ati z e d b odie s. In

Ruffin v. C om monw ea lth

(1 871),

Ju sti c e J . C hris ti a n s u p plie s j u st th is s o rt o f o pen d ecla ra ti o n o f th e l a w ’s r e -c hatte liz in g f u ncti o nality v is -à -v is f o rm er s la v es i n h is

oste nsib ly c o lo r-b lin d c o nstr u cti o n o f th e c iv illy d ead n o np ositi o n o f th e c rim in ally b ra nd ed f e lo n: “ H e h as, a s a c o nse q uence o f h is

crim e, n o t o nly f o rfe ite d h is l ib erty , b ut a ll h is p ers o nal r ig hts e xcep t th o se w hic h th e l a w i n i ts h um anity a cco rd s to h im . H e i s f o r

th e ti m e b ein g th e

sla ve o f t h e S ta te .

H e i s

civ ilite r m ortu us

[ c iv illy d ead ]; a nd h is e sta te , i f h e h as a ny, i s a d m in is te re d l ik e th at o f

a d ead m an.”

W hat w ould th e la w ’s in canta to ry p ro cla m ati o n o f p enal e nsla v em ent in r e sp ect to a ll c rim in ally b ra nd ed s u b je cts

mean fo r th o se bein gs w ho had been defin ed as m eta p hysic ally in co rrig ib le , le gally fu ngib le , and so cia lly dis p osa b le fo r

genera ti o ns b efo re 1 871? A s s u ggeste d i n D av is ’s d is c ussio n o f th e r a cia liz e d d im ensio ns o f c hatte l i m pris o nm ent, th e a b je ct s ta tu s

of c iv il d eath w ould b e ta ken to its z e ro d egre e a s p ostb ellu m w hite s u p re m acis t la w s e t its s ig hts o n th o se p uta ti v ely s o ulle ss

su b je cts w ho se s la v ery a nd s o cia l d eath r e ste d a t th e v ery f o und ati o n o f f r e e/w hite s o cia l, c iv il, a nd c ultu ra l l ife i n th e U nite d S ta te s

sin ce its in cep ti o n a s a g eno cid al c o lo ny o f th e B riti s h E m pir e . F ar fr o m re p re se nti n g a ju rid ic al a no m aly o r a n a nachro nis ti c

th ro w back to th e fe ud al o rig in s o f E uro -A meric an c o m mon la w ,

Ruffin

c o nsti tu te d a n a ll- to o-a ccura te ra cia l g o th ic o m en o f th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** te rro ris ti c tr a je cto rie s o f m odern im pris o nm ent a s it h as b een w aged a gain st fo rm er s la v es a nd p uta ti v ely “ fr e e” b la ck p eo ple —

fr o m c o nv ic t l e asin g, to c hain g angs, to p eo nage c am ps, to th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n, to th e p enite nti a ry . I n a tte m pti n g to o ffe r a n a p ertu re

of n ecro m anti c a d dre ss f o r th e ( liv in g) d ead o f U .S . n eo sla v ery , h o w ev er, th is b ook c o nsid ers w hat a m ounts to a c o lle cti v ely i s su ed

re fu ta ti o n o f th e o rg aniz in g fa sc is t lo gic w ith in J . C hris ti a n’s m atte r-o f- fa ct p ro no uncem ent o f th e c iv illy d ead s ta tu s o f th e p ris o n

sla v e; th at is , w hat th e s p ectr a l v oic es, te sti m onie s, a nd s u rv iv al p ra cti c es o f b la ck p ris o ners m ake c le ar is th at r a cia liz e d p ris o n

sla v ery h as h ad littl e to d o w ith th e a lle ged c rim in al a cts o f in d iv id ual b la ck p eo ple a nd e v ery th in g to d o w ith th e so cia lly

co nstr u cte d c rim e o f b ein g b orn b la ck ( o r I n d ig eno us o r b ro w n o r p oor) i n a p arth eid “ A meric a.”

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The

Tem pora l B oxes

o f N eo sla very

If, a s S aid iy a H artm an s u ggests , “ th e g ra nd n arra ti v e o f E m ancip ati o n c o nti n ues to h o ld s w ay o ver o ur i m agin ati o n,” n o tw ith sta nd in g

th e f o rm s o f c hatte liz e d l e gal a nd e xtr a le gal te rro r th at p ro life ra te d i n f r e ed om ’s w ake,

th en th e w riti n gs, te sti m onie s, s o und in gs, a nd

life w ays of bla ck neo sla v es fr o m 1865 to th e pre se nt offe r a nearly in exhausti b le , if la rg ely unheed ed , se t of gho stl y

dem ysti fic ati o ns o f th at ti m e-h o no re d m aste r n arra ti v e.

I w ant to b e c le ar h ere th at w hen I u se th e te rm

ghostly

I a m n o t s p eakin g

meta p ho ric ally . M y u se o f th e te rm is in k eep in g w ith A very G ord on’s p iv ota lly im porta nt a sse rti o n th at, in th e n am e o f s o cia l a nd

his to ric al ju sti c e fo r th e p erilo usly a liv e a nd th e d ese cra te d d ead , w e m ust a tte m pt to o ffe r

gra cio us, h osp ita ble , a nd a tte n tiv e

lis te n in g

to th e co untl e ss m ate ria l re v enants th at hav e accum ula te d und er th e lo ng-s ta nd in g crim in al re ig n o f ra cia l cap ita lis t

mis o gyny.

T his b ook c alls o ur a tte nti o n to h o w th e l a w ’s g o th ic tr a nsm uta ti o n o f l iv in g, n o m in ally r ig hts -b earin g, h um an b ein gs i n to

“sla v es o f th e s ta te ” h as p ro duced a n u nacco unte d -fo r e xcess in th e fo rm o f a s u b te rra nean p oeti c s, p oliti c s, a nd e p is te m ic s o f th e

liv in g d ead — an u nq uie tl y b urie d a sse m bla ge o f b la ck n eo sla v e s o und a nd th eo ry ( a nd l e gally d is a p peare d b odie s) th at c o nsti tu te s a

haunti n g

unhis to ric a l

c o unte r to th e w ell- e ntr e nched U .S . n ati o nal f a b le o f s la v ery ’s n in ete enth -c entu ry d em is e .

In a p ie ce e nti tl e d “ T eete rin g o n th e B rin k: B etw een D eath a nd L ife ,” th e b la ck ra d ic al p oliti c al p ris o ner M um ia A bu-J a m al

offe rs j u st th is s o rt o f s p ectr a l d is e nchantm ent o f th e f ic ti v e s la v ery /fr e ed om b ord erlin e. H e d oes s o b y o utl in in g th e d egre e to w hic h

co lle cti v iz e d n ata l a lie nati o n— one o f th e fo und ati o nal e le m ents o f w orld -h is to ric al sla v ery a nd so cia l d eath th at is p erfo rm ed

th ro ugh th e s la v e’s s y ste m ati c s e v era nce fr o m lo ved o nes— in sin uate d its e lf in to th e la te tw enti e th c entu ry fo r h im se lf a nd o th ers

who m h e d esc rib es a s b ein g “

en to m bed in a ju rid ic a l, p sy ch ic , a nd te m pora l b ox.

” H e e xp re sse s h o w th is c hatte liz in g te chniq ue

re su rfa ced th ro ugh th e s ta te ’s p ro sc rip ti o n o f f a m ilia l to uch f o r th o se i t h as b ra nd ed a s c o nd em ned f e lo ns:

The u lti m ate e ffe ct o f n o nco nta ct v is its is to w eaken, a nd fin ally to s e v er, fa m ily ti e s. T hro ugh th is p olic y a nd

pra cti c e th e s ta te s k illfu lly a nd i n te nti o nally d enie s th o se i t c o nd em ns a f u nd am enta l e le m ent a nd e xp re ssio n o f

hum anity — th at o f to uch a nd p hysic al c o nta ct— and slo w ly e ro des fa m ily ti e s a lr e ad y m ad e te nuo us b y th e

dis ta nce b etw een h o m e a nd th e p ris o n. T hus p ris o ners a re a s is o la te d p sy cho lo gic ally a s th ey a re te m pora lly

and s p ati a lly . B y s ta te a cti o n,

th ey b eco m e “ dea d” to th ose w ho k n ow a nd lo ve th em , a nd th ere fo re d ea d to

th em se lv es.

Fro m th e a b je ct l e gal p ositi o n o f b ein g c arg o ed w ith in a

j u rid ic a l, p sy ch ic , a nd t e m pora l b ox

s itu ate d in sid e P ennsy lv ania ’s d eath

ro w , th e im pris o ned b la ck r a d ic al in te lle ctu al th eo riz e s n eo sla v ery a s a r itu aliz e d p re d ic am ent o f liv in g d eath w ro ught th ro ugh th e

mutu ally c o nsti tu ti v e s ta te -te rro r m odaliti e s o f te m pora l d is lo cati o n, s tr u ctu ra l d ehum aniz a ti o n, a nd c o lle cti v iz e d n ata l a lie nati o n. I n

th is se nse , th e cellu la r zo ne o f liv in g b uria l, sta te -m urd er p re p ara ti o n, and fa m ilia l ru p tu re th at A bu-J a m al d esc rib es as th e

“te m pora l b ox” e nacts b oth a ti m e/b ody fr e eze — with th e d eath -s im ula ti n g r o uti n e o f im pris o nm ent in iti a ti n g a v ir tu al s to ppage o f

ti m e— and a ti m e/b ody w arp , w here in th e c iv il d eath o f p enal e nto m bm ent p erfo rm s h o rrify in g re p eti ti o n o f th e s o cia l d eath o f

chatte l e nsla v em ent.

H ere w e se e h o w A bu-J a m al’s th eo re ti c al v oic e, lik e th o se o f o th er in carc era te d b la ck ra d ic als su ch a s

Angela D av is , A ssa ta S hakur, S und ia ta A co li, G eo rg e J a ckso n, a nd H erm an W alla ce, c alls u p on u s to re co gniz e th e fa ct th at th e

bir th p la ce o f e p is te m ic a rti c ula ti o ns o f a nd a gain st n eo sla v ery h as n o t b een th e lib era l b ourg eo is a cad em y ( a n in sti tu ti o n c entr a lly

im plic ate d in th e c ro ss-g enera ti o nal m ass p ro ducti o n a nd c o nsu m pti o n o f c rim in ally ra cia liz e d h um an b ein gs), b ut th e sp ace o f

neo sla v ery its e lf. A s Jo y Ja m es a sse rts in h er g ro und bre akin g w ork o n (a nti ) p ris o n ra d ic alis m , th e n eo sla v e n arra ti v e, a nd th e

th eo re ti c al c o m ponent o f w hat s h e d esc rib es a s “ cap ti v e i n su rg ent a b oliti o nis m ,” th e te rm “ ‘p ub lic i n te lle ctu al’ e nco m passe s th e o ft-

fo rg o tte n ‘ p ris o n in te lle ctu al’ . L ik e h is o r h er v is ib le c o unte rp arts , th e im pris o ned in te lle ctu al r e fle cts u p on s o cia l m eanin g, e th ic s

and ju sti c e; o nly s /h e d oes s o in d ete nti o n c entr e s a nd p ris o ns w hic h fu ncti o n a s in te lle ctu al a nd p oliti c al s ite s u nauth o ris e d b y th e

sta te .”

How ev er, i f i n carc era te d a nd f o rm erly i m pris o ned b la ck r a d ic als s u ch a s A bu-J a m al, S hakur, A co li, D av is , J a ckso n, a nd W alla ce

re p re se nt r e la -ti v ely s u b m erg ed v oic es o f b la ck i n te lle ctu alis m a nd n eo -a b oliti o nis m , th en w hat te rm s d o w e h av e a t o ur d is p osa l to

desc rib e th e s o nic , w ritte n, p erfo rm ati v e, a nd r e sis ti v e p ra cti c es o f th e c o untl e ss h is to ric ally a no nym ous b la ck n eo sla v es w ho w ere

su b je cte d to c hatte lis m ’s p ost- 1 865 r e tu rn fo r g enera ti o ns b efo re th e a d vent o f th e 1 960s a nd 1 970s M ovem ent e ra ; w ho h av e u n-

Google -a b le n am es s u ch a s H arrie t P urd y, G assa w ay P ric e, J o hn M cE lr o y, J a m es B ru ce, a nd A ub ert L aC arlto n C ollin s; w ho se

sto rie s c anno t b e tr a ced b y w ay o f b ook b arc o des o r IS B N n um bers ; a nd w ho se te rro riz e d liv es a nd u ncere m onio us d eath s h av e

ra re ly b een c ate go riz e d a s “ p oliti c al,” “ ra d ic al,” o r “ in te lle ctu al” ? W as s o m eth in g lik e a th eo ry o f “ neo sla v ery ” p ro duced lo ng

befo re G eo rg e J a ckso n c o in ed a nd th eo riz e d th e

te rm w hile b ein g h eld d eep w ith in th e b ow els o f w hat h e d esc rib ed a s o ne o f

Califo rn ia ’s l a nd -b ase d s la v e s h ip s? I n w hat w ays w as th e n eo -a b oliti o nis t i m puls e th at w e r ig htl y a sso cia te w ith b la ck, I n d ig eno us,

Lati n a/o , a nd o th er a llie d r a d ic al fo rm ati o ns o f th e M ovem ent e ra p re fig ure d in th e c ultu re s a nd p oliti c s o f th o se s u b je cte d to th e

orig in al sy ste m s o f U .S . neo sla v ery su ch as th e chain gang, th e co nv ic t le ase cam p, th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n, and th e p ub lic ally

culti v ate d b ra nd s o f p riv ati z e d neo chatte lis m kno w n as p eo nage and crim in al su re ty ? W hat d o th e unre q uite d d ead o f p ris o n

sla v ery ’s p ast h av e to te ll u s a b out o ur c urre nt m om ent o f p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e, n am ely , s in ce e v ery o ne o f th e m ore th an 2 .3

millio n h um an b ein gs c urre ntl y e nto m bed u nd er to day’s P IC ( b oth d om esti c ally a nd g lo bally ) r e p re se nts n o th in g if n o t a r e new ed

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** dese cra ti o n of th e unnam ab le , unhera ld ed , and unro m anti c iz a b le casu alti e s of earlie r fo rm ati o ns of neo sla v ery ? H ere I am

su ggesti n g th e p ossib ility th at if in d eed th e d ead h av e y et to b e s a v ed fr o m th e d efilin g r e p eti ti o n o f th e r a v ages o f th e p ast w ith in

our c urre nt m om ent, th en th e p erilo us p re se nt is a ls o u ncle ar o f th e re -m em berin g a nd w ailin g, a nd p re se nce(s ) o f th o se w ho se

re m ain s lie b urie d w ith in th e u nm ark ed g ra v es o f a p ris o n p la nta ti o n s u garc ane fie ld a nd th e s e p ulc her-lik e te m pora l b oxes o f th e

maste r a rc hiv e.

One s u ch i n co m ple te ly i n te rre d v oic e o f e arly n eo sla v ery s ti ll c alls o ut f r o m a m ong a m ounta in -s iz e d p ile o f b oxes c o lle cte d a nd

file d a w ay b y th e U .S . D ep artm ent o f J u sti c e i n r e sp ect to i ts i n v esti g ati o n o f p eo nage c ase s f r o m 1 901 to 1 945— bla ck a p pariti o nal

te sti m ony f r o m L aro nia , G eo rg ia , i n th e f o rm o f a l e tte r a d dre sse d to P re sid ent T heo dore R oose v elt, i n O cto ber 1 903:

Mr. P re sid ent,

Dear S ir :

I w rit e y ou th is le tte r to in fo rm y ou th at m y h usb and ( J a ckso n M orris o n, c ol’ d ) is b ein g m ade to s e rv e a n u nla w fu l te rm a t C ol. J a m es M . S m it h ’s

cam p a t S m it h onia , G a., in O gle th orp e c ounty ,

Events o f th e c ase :

(1 ) H e w as s e nte nced a t C arn sv ille , G a. to th e [ c hain ] G ang f o r 1 2 m onth s f ro m S ept. 2 7th , 1 901, o r p ay a f in e o f $ 100.0 0.

(2 ) H e w as b ought o ut b y a M r. M ose J o rd an o f C orn er, G a. to w hom h e g ave 8 m onth s w hic h m ade 2 0 m onth s.

(3 ) M r. J o rd an, a fte r w ork in g M orris o n o nly tw o m onth s s o ld h im to C ol. J a m es M . S m it h , o n N ov. 3 0th , 1 901.

(4 ) C ol. S m it h a gre ed to lib era te M orris o n o n th e 3 0th d ay o f M ay 1 903.

(5 ) C ol. S m it h a ls o in duced m e to w ork b y s a yin g th at if I la bore d o n h is fa rm h e w ould p ay m e fo r m y w ork , o r e ls e h e w ould a llo w it to b e

cre dit e d to m y h usb and s e nts . in o rd er to s h orte n h is te rm , b ut h e d id n ot d o e it h er. I w ork ed f o r 1 8 m onth s h ard la bor a nd h e ( C ol. S m it h ) d id n ot p ay

me a nyth in g n eit h er d id c re dit a ny o f m y tim e to . . . th at o f m y h usb and.

(6 ) I w ent to C ol. C m it h ’s C am p o n N ov. 3 0th , 1 901, a nd s ta yed th ere till J u ly 7 th 1 903, a nd w ork ed a ll th e tim e a nd w hen I le ft h e to ok a ll o f m y

house hold p osse ssio ns.

(7 ) M y h usb and, J a ckso n M orris o n’s tim e e xpir e d o n M ay 3 0th 1 903, b ut S m it h w ould n ot tu rn h im f re e. H e, ( M orris o n) w ork ed o n till J u ly 7 th o n

whic h d ay h e le ft th e c am p.

(8 ) O n S ept. 11 , 1 903 h e, M orris o n, w as c aptu re d b y S m it h ’s sh erif f a nd c arrie d b ack to th e c am p a nd th en lo dged in th e L exin gto n ja il in

Ogle th orp e c ounty .

(9 ) C ol. S m it h in flic ts in hum an p unis h m ent o n th e p ers o n o f h is c onvic ts , a nd w hip s th em u nm erc if u lly .

(1 0) M r. P re sid ent, I a ppeal to y ou, a s th e E xecutiv e H ead o f o ur N atio n to p le ase d o so m eth in g fo r m y h usb and. W ill y ou p le ase c ause a n

in vestig atio n o f th at C am p to b e m ade in th e fu tu re , a nd w hile d oin g s o it w ill b e fo und th at th ere a re n um bers o f p ers o ns (b oth m en a nd w om en)

se rv in g a s s la ves th ere f o r m any m onth s a nd d ays a fte r th eir te rm s h ave e xpir e d. I h ave o ne c hild 3 y ears o ld a nd a m in g re at n eed o f m y h usb and’s

assis ta nce.

I h ave th e h onor to b e, S ir ,

Your o bedie nt S erv ant,

Menth a M orris o n, C ol’ d

We w ill n ev er k no w w heth er M enth a M orris o n a nd h er th re e-y ear-o ld c hild e v er s a w J a ckso n M orris o n a gain . W e w ill a ls o n ev er

kno w th e f u ll b re ad th o f u nsp eakab le te rro r th at i s m ad e to f a ll u nd er th e s ig n o f “ in hum an p unis h m ent” i n s e cti o n 9 o f M enth a’s te n-

poin t a p peal to th e p re sid ent o f th e U nite d S ta te s to “ d o s o m eth in g” a b out h er h usb and ’s ( a nd h er o w n) e nsla v em ent. W hat w e d o

kno w is th at b esid es w hat s h e d esc rib es a s th e m odern re in tr o ducti o n o f th e a nte b ellu m p uniti v e m easu re o f th e p la nta ti o n w hip ,

neo sla v es w ere ro uti n ely s u b je cte d to ra p e; “ lo ng-c hain in g,”

boxcar a nd s to ckad e “ ti g ht- p ackin g;” “ can’t to c an’t s e e” la b or a nd

te rro r in th e h o use , fie ld , o r m in e; c o fflin g o ver g re at d is ta nces; b lo odho und m aulin gs; o utr ig ht m urd er; a nd c o erc ed m usic al a nd

th eatr ic al p erfo rm ance. W hat w e als o kno w is th at— sim ila r to th e o verw helm in g m ajo rity o f case s in w hic h b la ck su b je cts

atte m pte d to m ake s u b sta nti v e u se o f la te n in ete enth - a nd e arly tw enti e th -c entu ry le gal p ro sc rip ti o ns o f (fic ti v e) d eb t p eo nage—

executi v e, le gis la ti v e, a nd ju rid ic al a re nas o f U .S . lib era l w hite s u p re m acis t la w u lti m ate ly d id a b so lu te ly n o th in g to re d re ss th e

grie v ances o f M enth a M orris o n, h er h usb and , a nd th eir n ew ly fa th erle ss c hild . In fa ct, a s n o te d a b ove in r e fe re nce to

Ruffin ,

th ese

bra nches o f U .S . n ati o nal la w a nd g o vern ance a re c entr a lly im plic ate d in e ach o f th e h o rrify in g re gim es o f p ub lic a nd p riv ate

neo sla v ery th at o ccurre d a t p la ces s u ch a s J a m es S m ith ’s tw enty -th o usa nd -a cre i n d ustr ia liz e d n eo sla v e p la nta ti o n ( o th erw is e k no w n

as “ S m ith o nia ”), th e “ G ang” th at J a ckso n M orris o n w as a b le to a v oid o nly b y b ein g c o nv erte d i n to f u ngib le c o urth o use c hatte l, a nd

th e j a il i n w hic h h e w as h eld a fte r a tte m pti n g to e sc ap e f r o m th e n eo pla nta ti o n. I n d eed , a s I d is c uss i n c hap te r 2 , th e v ery d ocum ent

th at s ig nale d th e d e j u re l ib era ti o n o f A fr ic an s la v es s o m e th ir ty -s ix y ears b efo re J a ckso n M orris o n’s a rre st a nd c o urtr o om “ sa le ” i n

1901— th e T hir te enth A mend m ent to th e U .S . C onsti tu ti o n— actu ally s e rv ed a s th e s in e q ua n o n o f h is p enal e nsla v em ent a nd th at o f

unto ld num bers o f o th er p uta ti v ely “fr e e” b la ck p eo ple . A s M enth a M orris o n’s grip pin g entr e aty m akes cle ar, th e

sla very or

in vo lu nta ry s e rv itu de a s p unis h m en t fo r a c rim e

e xcep ti o n w ith in th e “ E m ancip ati o n A mend m ent” a llo w ed c o urth o use s o f J im

Cro w a p arth eid to fu ncti o n a s v ir tu al a ucti o n b lo cks in w hic h c rim in ally b ra nd ed b la ck p eo ple w ere e ith er d is a p peare d to th e

pub lic p ro fite erin g v enues o f th e c hain g ang, th e le v ee c am p, a nd th e s ta te p ris o n p la nta ti o n, o r in w hic h, lik e J a ckso n M orris o n,

th ey w ere s u b m itte d to th e d esig ns o f e nte rp ris in g w hite p la nte rs a nd i n d ustr ia lis ts w ho c o uld l ite ra lly p urc hase , l e ase , o r s u b le ase

th e b odie s o f b la ck m en, w om en, a nd c hild re n th ro ugh th e p ub lic ally b ro kere d “ p riv ate ” m achin ati o ns o f c o nv ic t le asin g, p eo nage,

th e “ fin e/fe e s y ste m ,” a nd c rim in al s u re ty .

The p ostb ellu m e xp erie nce o f ra cia liz e d c rim in al s a ncti o n th at th e M orris o ns e nd ure d , a s w ell a s a n u nta b ula ta b le n um ber o f

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** oth er b la ck p eo ple , s p eaks to th e ro uti n iz e d m anner b y w hic h w hite s u p re m acis t ju rid ic al, s ta tu to ry , a nd p enal la w c o nju re d th e

no m in ally f r e e b la ck c iv il s u b je ct i n to a c rim in aliz e d , n ata lly a lie nate d , a nd f u ngib le c o m modity .

I n d eed , n o tw ith sta nd in g th e o th er

ho rrify in g a sp ects o f M enth a M orris o n’s te sti m ony,

one is str u ck b y th e u tte rly b anal n atu re o f h er g estu re s to w ard th e a rre st,

co nv ic ti o n, c o urth o use sa le , a nd p riv ate su b le asin g o f h er h usb and ’s “ co l’ d ” b ody/fle sh a s w ould -b e c hain -g ang p ris o ner a nd

fic ti v ely i n d eb te d p eo n. H ow d oes th e r a th er m atte r-o f- fa ct n atu re o f h er “ re m em ory ” o f h er h usb and b ein g a rre ste d , s e nte nced to th e

chain gang, only to be “b ought” and “so ld ” to a pris o n pla nta ti o n as a pie ce of crim in ally bra nd ed m erc hand is e alte r our

und ers ta nd in g o f th e liv in g h is to ry o f s o uth ern n eo sla v ery ?

If th e T hir te enth A mend m ent w as th e p rim ary le gal w eap on o f b la ck

neo sla v ery , th en w hat w ere th e id eo lo gic ally d ete rm in in g fa cto rs th at a llo w ed fo r th e p ro fits a nd p le asu re s a sso cia te d w ith th e

aucti o nin g, le asin g, and su b le asin g o f b la ck b odie s in th e co urth o use , th e p la nta ti o n fie ld , and th e co al m in e in th e age o f

em ancip ati o n?

Stu d ie s o f th e so uth ern p ostb ellu m tu rn to “ co nv ic t la b or” h av e o fte n e xp la in ed th e u np re ced ente d d em ogra p hic sh ift in th e

South ’s o ffic ia l s p aces o f in carc era ti o n th at o ccurre d a fte r th e C iv il W ar— with th e n um ber o f o ffic ia lly im pris o ned b la ck p eo ple

in cre asin g fr o m le ss th an o ne p erc ent b efo re 1 861 to a s m uch a s 9 0 p erc ent in c erta in c o unti e s a nd s ta te s a fte r 1 865— in te rm s o f

politi c al e co no m y. A cco rd in g to th is l in e o f a naly sis , th e m ove to p ris o n s la v ery f u lfille d th e n eed f o r th e r e cup era ti o n o f a f o rm erly

ensla v ed l a b or f o rc e a nd th e r e sto ra ti o n a nd m odern iz a ti o n o f a w ar-to rn a nd “ b ackw ard ” s o uth ern e co no m y.

T he u lti m ate m essa ge

of th is i n te rp re ti v e f r a m ew ork h as b een: i f r a cis m w as a n i m porta nt i m med ia te /lo cal f a cto r i n th e n ew s o uth ern p ris o n s y ste m , th en

th e n ati o nal a nd g lo bal m acro eco no m ic fa cto rs o f c ap ita lis t p ro fit a nd in d ustr ia l m odern iz a ti o n w ere its d ete rm in ant h is to ric al

fo rc es. H ow ev er, M orris o n’s u nhis to ric al a cco unt o f th e c o urth o use a ucti o nin g o f h er h usb and c alls u p on u s to re co gniz e th at th e

co rp ore al e co no m ie s o f w hite s u p re m acy a nd b la ck f u ngib ility r e p re se nte d f u nd am enta l c o nd iti o ns o f p ossib ility f o r th e f o rm ati o ns

of te rro r, s u b je cti o n, a nd g eno cid al d om in ati o n th at b la ck p eo ple h av e e nd ure d u nd er c o nv ic t le asin g, th e c hain g ang, th e p ris o n

pla nta ti o n, f ic ti v e-d eb t p eo nage, a nd th e p enite nti a ry . T o i n v oke S ylv ia W ynte r, th e l ib era l w hite s u p re m acis t c ultu ra l m anufa ctu re o f

bla ckness a s

meta physic a l a fflic tio n

w as th e s o cia l a nd p hilo so phic al e d ific e u p on w hic h s o uth ern c ap ita lis t n eo sla v ery w as b uilt

and th e i d eo lo gic al d riv in g f o rc e b ehin d th e r o uti n iz e d d is a p peara nce a nd r e ensla v em ent o f n o m in ally “ fr e e” b la ck c iv il s u b je cts .

Menth a M orris o n’s te sti m ony i llu str a te s h o w th e i n hum an q uality o f p ostb ellu m p unis h m ent w as a p ro duct o f th e n ati o nally p ro je cte d

onto lo gic al m yth o s o f th e “ N egro ” o r “ N ig ger” a s

in co rrig ib le a nd

in hum an b ein g

—a fa ta l, m ate ria l, a nd so cia lly d ete rm in in g

fa b le th at h ad b een fo rg ed a t la w a nd c usto m fo r h und re d s o f y ears b efo re h er h us-b and ’s c o urth o use a ucti o nin g.

F in ally , th e fa ct

th at J a ckso n M orris o n’s c rim in ally b ra nd ed a nd s o ld b ody e nd ed u p b ein g c o ffle d to a g eo gra p hy o f r a cia l i n te rn m ent th at h ad b een

in o pera ti o n s in ce w ell b efo re th e C iv il W ar u nd erlin es h o w th e s u p pose d h is to ric al s h ift in p enal d em ogra p hy th at o ccurre d a fte r

1865 w as n o t re ally so m uch o f a sh ift a t a ll— th at A fr ic ans h ad fa ced m ass in hum an p unis h m ent a nd in d ustr ia liz e d p la nta ti o n

im pris o nm ent o n g ro und s s u ch a s S m ith o nia , P arc hm an ( M is sis sip pi) , a nd “ A ngo la ” ( L ouis ia na) fo r g enera ti o ns b efo re th e o penly

decla re d tu rn to “ N egro c o nv ic t l a b or.”

Giv en h er a ll- to o-a cute l iv ed u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e w ays i n w hic h th e U .S . s y ste m o f i n hum an p unis h m ent d id i n d eed a m ount to a

pre d ic am ent o f d e j u re r e ensla v em ent f o r h er o w n f a m ily a nd o th ers w ith in h er c ir c le , w e c an i m agin e th at M enth a M orris o n k new

fu ll w ell th at th ere w as littl e c hance th at a s in gle “ C ol’ d ” w om an’s m is siv e to o ne o f th e m ost p ow erfu l w hite m en o n th e p la net

would y ie ld a nyth in g m ore th an i t d id . H ow ev er, i t i s o ur r e co gniti o n o f h er l ik ely u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e v ery i m possib ility o f h er ta sk

of c allin g o n n ati o nal w hite s u p re m acis t la w to fr e e h er h usb and fr o m lo cal w hite s u p re m acis t la w th at u nd erlin es th e h aunti n g

fu tu re -o rie nta ti o n o f th e neo -a b oliti o nis t ap peal th at can sti ll b e heard em itti n g fr o m her le tte r w ell o ver a centu ry afte r its

co m positi o n. A s tr id ent b la ck a p pariti o nal d em and o n th e n eo sla v ery p re se nt fr o m d eep w ith in th e n eo sla v ery p ast c an b e h eard

most c le arly in s e cti o n 1 0—

Will y o u p le a se c a use a n in vestig atio n o f th at C am p to b e m ade in th e fu tu re , a nd w hile d oin g s o it

will b e f o und t h at t h ere a re n um bers o f p erso ns ( b oth m en a nd w om en ) s e rv in g a s s la ves t h ere .

I f M orris o n’s a p peal c an b e ta ken

as l e ss o f a d ead l e tte r th an a n u nd ead i n d ic tm ent o f a p ast th at h as n ev er p eris h ed , o f a l iv in g H is to ry th at c o nti n ues to s e e m assiv e

num bers o f p erso ns

(

both m en a nd w om en

[ a nd g end er-n o nco nfo rm in g p eo ple ])

se rv in g a s s la ves

in m odern liv in g d eath c am ps

su ch a s th o se th at c urre ntl y e nto m b o ne o ut o f e v ery n in e b la ck m en i n th e U nite d S ta te s b etw een th e a ges o f tw enty a nd th ir ty -fo ur

—or th e sc o re s o f im mig ra nt d ete nti o n c am ps th at n o w lin e “ A meric a’s ” h yp erm ilita riz e d a nd im peria lly e re cte d b ord er w ith

Mexic o — th en it fo rc es u s to u nd ers ta nd th at fo rm ati o ns o f th e d egre e to w hic h fo rm ati o ns o f c hatte liz e d im pris o nm ent su ch a s

Sm ith o nia (G eo rg ia ), C um min s (A rk ansa s), B anner M in e (A la b am a), P arc hm an (M is sis sip pi) , a nd A ngo la (L ouis ia na) a re n o t

anachro nis ti c fig m ents o f so uth ern

white su p re m acis t e xcep ti o nalis m o r p re m odern a nachro nis m , b ut le gal, m eth o dolo gic al, a nd

cultu ra l fo und ati o ns o f th e c urre nt U .S . m ass p ro ducti o n, c o nsu m pti o n, a nd in hum an p unis h m ent o f in carc era te d b la ck, In d ig eno us,

bro w n, p oor, a nd M uslim b odie s.

Here I w ant to c la rify th at m y e ngagem ent w ith th e n eo -a b oliti o nis t d em and o f th o se s u ch a s M orris o n, A bu-J a m al, a nd D av is f o r

us to r e co gniz e th e v ic io us c o nti n uiti e s o f r a cia liz e d i n carc era ti o n a s i t h as r e ached a cro ss th e w ell- e ntr e nched b ound arie s o f l ib era l

bourg eo is h is to ric al p erio diz a ti o n is n o t a n a rg um ent fo r a fla tte nin g o r e lid in g o f p oliti c al, e xp erie nti a l, o r so cia l d iffe re nce

betw een th e p ast a nd p re se nt o f U .S . ra cia l g eno cid e. R ath er, th e a p pariti o nal v oic es o f s la v es o f th e s ta te d em and th at w e p ay

se rio us a tte nti o n to th e w ays i n w hic h th e c hatte l p rin cip le h as i n fu se d th e s o cia lity o f b la ck f r e ed om f r o m th e m om ent o f i ts d e j u re

bir th .

A gain , i n th e s p ir it o f p urp ose fu l r e p eti ti o n, th e i n se p ara b ility o f f r e ed om a nd r e ensla v em ent i s a nalo giz e d m ost a ud acio usly

with in th e J a nus-h ead ed la nguage o f th e v ery le gal d ocum ent th at is a d verti s e d a s th e g enesis o f b la ck c iv il p ers o nho od a nd th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** exti n guis h m ent o f “ N egro ” c hatte lh o od. M y re ad in g o f lib era l le gality a nd m odern ra cia liz e d c arc era lity th ro ugh th e th eo re ti c al,

ep is te m olo gic al, a nd p ed ago gic al g uid ance o f n eo sla v es p ast a nd p re se nt p re su p pose s a c o ncentr ic /a ccum ula ti v e v ie w o f h is to ry

ra th er th an a lin ear/s e q uenti a l o ne— an e xp erie nti a lly in fo rm ed c o ncep ti o n o f th e d ynam ic in te rfa cin g o f p enal ti m e, ra cia liz e d

carc era l sp ace, a nd te rro riz e d b la ck u nfr e e e xp erie nce th at d is c ern s g rim c o ngru ence in th e v ery p la ces th at th e lib era l w hite

su p re m acis t sta te im pla nts th e so cia lly se d ucti v e illu sio n o f p ro gre ss a nd th e re p re ssiv e id eo lo gic al m achin ery o f “ p ostr a cia l”

am nesia .

T he a d am ant r e fu sa l o f th e l ib era l w hite n ati o nalis t n arra ti v e o f p ro gre ss th at u nfo ld s w ith in th is b ook d oes n o t tr e at th e

past a nd p re se nt a s h o m olo gic al ( o r e xactl y th e s a m e); r a th er, i t r e p re se nts a p oliti c ally i n te re ste d u nv eilin g o f th e g o th ic p re se nce o f

chatte l s la v ery a t th e m ate ria l s u b str a tu m o f U .S . m odern ity — a p re se nce th at e m bodie s n o t a “ p re m odern ” o r “ p re cap ita lis t” m ode

of p ro ducti o n, b ut a n u nd ead s o urc e o f m odern s o cia l r e p ro ducti o n a nd th e g enealo gic al m atr ix o f o ur c urre nt c ata str o phe o f m ass

in hum an ento m bm ent. W hen enco unte re d in th is lig ht, th e v oic es heard th ro ugho ut th is b ook ulti m ate ly sig nal ho w th e ra cia l

cap ita lis t m is o gynis t s ta te h as s u b je cte d m illio ns o f b la ck p eo ple a nd o th er r a cia lly a nd c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d p eo ple s to c o nd iti o ns

th at r e nd er th e d iffe re nces b etw een p ast a nd p re se nt m odes o f d om in ati o n v ir tu ally i n d ecip hera b le , i f n o t c o m ple te ly n o nexis te nt.

Robert P ete W illia m s b ecko ns u s fu rth er in to n ecessa ry re cko nin g w ith th e v erti g in o us c o nti n uiti e s o f th e

th en

o f “ so uth ern ”

pris o n s la v ery a nd B la ck A tl a nti c c hatte l s la v ery , a nd th e

now

o f U .S . (in te r)n ati o nal p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e, in “ P ris o ner’s

Talk in g B lu es,” a s o ng h e p erfo rm ed o n a d ay in th e la te 1 950s w hile h eld c ap ti v e a t th e la st o f th e p ris o n p la nta ti o ns m enti o ned

ab ove— Louis ia na’s “ A ngo la ”— an e ig hte en-th o usa nd -a cre p lo t o f f e rti le M is sis sip pi r iv er-b otto m l a nd th at h as o pera te d a s a s la v e

pla nta ti o n s in ce th e e arly n in ete enth c entu ry a nd n o w s e rv es a s th e l a rg est m axim um -s e curity p ris o n i n th e c o untr y :

Lord , I f e el s o b ad s o m etim e,

Seem s lik e th at I ’m w eakenin ’ e very d ay.

You k now I ’v e b egin to g re y s in ce I g ot h ere

Well a w hole lo t o f w orry in ’ c ausin ’ th at

But I c an f e el m yse lf w eakenin ’

I d on’t k eep w ell n o m ore . . . I k eeps s ic kly .

I ta kes a lo t o f m edic in e b ut it d on’t lo ok lik e it d o n o g ood.

All I h ave to d o is p ra y, th at’s th e o nly th in g th at’ ll h elp m e h ere .

One f o ot in th e g ra ve it lo ok lik e

And th e o th er o ne o ut.

Som etim e it lo ok lik e m y b est d ays, g otta b e m y la st d ays.

Som etim es I f e el lik e I ’m a n ever s e e, m y lit tle o l’ k id s a nym ore .

But if I d on’t e ver s e e ‘ e m n o m ore , le ave ‘ e m in th e h ands o f G od. . . .

In a w ay, I w as g la d m y p oor m oth er h ad ’ c ease d’

because s h e s u ffe re d w it h h eart tr o uble , a nd tr o uble b ehin d m e

su re w ould h ave w ent h ard w it h h er.

But if s h e w ere liv in ’, I c ould c all o n h er s o m etim e.

But m y o l’ f a th er d ead to o.

That m ake m e, b e m oth erle ss a nd f a th erle ss. . . .

Lord m y w orry , s u re c arry in ’ m e d ow n

Lord m y w orry , s u re is c arry in ’ m e d ow n

Som etim e I f e el lik e, b aby, c om mit tin ’ s u ic id e

Yah, s o m etim e I f e el, f e el lik e c om mit tin ’ s u ic id e

I g ot th e n erv e, if I ju st h ad s o m eth in ’ to d o it w it h .

I’m g oin ’ d ow n s lo w , s o m eth in ’ w ro ng w it h m e.

Yes, I ’m g oin ’ d ow n s lo w , s o m eth in ’ w ro ng w it h m e.

As w ith M enth a M orris o n a nd M um ia A bu-J a m al, th e b la ck a p pariti o nal w ord s o f W illia m s illu m in ate th e d egre e to w hic h th e

exp erie nce o f n eo sla v ery sh uttl e s th e liv in g, b re ath in g, lo vin g su b je ct to a n in su ffe ra b le life /d eath b ord erla nd — a zo ne o f c iv il

murd er e re cte d th ro ugh th e le gal in te rfa cin g o f n ata l a lie nati o n a nd ra cia liz e d c rim in al s a ncti o n. E xcep t in W illia m s’s c ase , th e

in te nsity o f th e n eo sla v e’s w ritte n a rti c ula ti o n o f th e e xp erie nces o f f a m ilia l r u p tu re a nd p la nta ti o n te rro r i s h eig hte ned b y th e a d ded

aesth eti c d im ensio ns o f D elta -in fle cte d “ w orrie d n o te s” a nd th e h aunti n g c ho ru s-lik e to nes o f a tw elv e-s tr in g g uita r. In lis te nin g to

th e re co rd in g, o ne is im med ia te ly str u ck b y th e w ays in w hic h th e se m anti c d ep th , ep is te m ic fo rc e, and sp ectr a l urg ency o f

Willia m s’s s e lf- a d dre sse d d ir g e a re fe lt a s m uch, if n o t m ore , in th e w heeze s o f h is th ro at a nd th e r e v erb era ti n g to nes o f h is g uita r

(m ela ncho lic s o und s th at h o ver a t th e m arg in s o f n early e v ery ly ric al lin e) th an in th e w ord s th em se lv es. In fa ct, th ese e le m ents o f

no nv erb al p ris o n sla v e c o m munic ati o n w ork to p ro duce a c lo aked e xp ansio n o f m eanin g ra th er th an a tr a nsp are nt e xp osu re o f

meanin g.

H ere , a s in m y la te r d is c ussio ns o f b la ck in carc era te d p erfo rm ance, I a m s u ggesti n g h o w o ur a tte nti v e lis te nin g to th e

aesth eti c a nd p oliti c al r e m ain s o f th e d ead a nd l iv in g d ead m ust ta ke i n to a cco unt th e f a ct th at th e f u ll r a nge o f u nhis to ric al m eanin g,

ped ago gic al p urp ose , a nd te rro riz e d e xp erie nce h eld w ith in th eir so und in gs, te sti m onie s, a nd su rv iv al p ra cti c es is n ecessa rily

unav aila b le to u s, e v en a s w e a ccep t th e u rg ent r e sp onsib ility o f h earin g a nd a cti n g u p on w hat th ese s p ecte rs o f n eo sla v ery s ti ll n eed

to s a y.

In th is r e sp ect, th e w ord s o f S aid iy a H artm an, f o llo w in g E douard G lis sa nt, r e gard in g th e o pacity , o r r e sis ti v e n o ntr a nsp are ncy, o f

th e s o ngs th at is su ed fr o m th e “ o rc hestr a te d a m use m ents ” o f th e c hatte l s la v e a re v ita lly in str u cti v e fo r o ur e ngagem ent w ith th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** puniti v e p erfo rm ances o f th e p ris o n s la v e:

[T ]h e sig nific ance of opacity [is ] pre cis e ly th at w hic h enab le s so m eth in g in excess of th e orc hestr a te d

am use m ents o f th e e nsla v ed a nd w hic h s im ila rly tr o ub le s th e d is ti n cti o ns b etw een jo y a nd s o rro w a nd to il a nd

le is u re . F or th is o pacity , th e s u b te rra nean

and v eile d c hara cte r o f s la v e s o ng m ust b e c o nsid ere d in r e la ti o n to

th e d om in ati v e im positi o n o f tr a nsp are ncy a nd th e d egra d in g h yp er-v is ib ility o f th e e nsla v ed , a nd , b y th e s a m e

to ken, s u ch c o ncealm ent s h o uld b e c o nsid ere d a f o rm o f r e sis ta nce.

The d ir e ct r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een th e h yp erv is ib ility o f th e e nsla v ed a nd th e r e cesse d s e m anti c a sp ects o f c hatte liz e d p erfo rm ance i s

fu nd am enta lly g erm ane to o ur u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e c ir c um sc rib ed , fr a ught, a nd p ain ed c hara cte ris ti c s o f p ostb ellu m b la ck p ris o ner

perfo rm ance i n s p aces s u ch a s th e A ngo la p ris o n p la nta ti o n, o r “ T he F arm ,” a s i t i s e up hem is ti c ally a nd p asto ra lly d esig nate d b y th e

sta te . In d eed th is d ynam ic is re d ole nt in th e v ery m om ent o f n eo sla v e a b oliti o nis t s o und th at W illia m s p ro duced in “ P ris o ner’s

Talk in g B lu es.” T hat i s , a s m uch a s w e a re a b le to g le an a r e d re ssiv e o r r e sis ti v e q uality i n W illia m s’s s o nic r e nam in g, r e d efin in g,

and re cla m ati o n o f his exp erie nce o f im pris o nm ent— with his v oic e and guita r p erfo rm in g a co unte r-c o nju ra ti o n o f th e le gal

narra ti v e o f “ N egro ” c rim in ality a nd i n hum an i n co rrig ib ility i n to a b la ck a p pariti o nal s to ry o f k id nap pin g, n eo sla v ery , l iv in g d eath ,

and s ta te c rim in ality

—th e c o nd iti o ns in w hic h th e fie ld re co rd in g w as m ad e lim n th e lo ng-s ta nd in g im bric ati o ns o f (n eo )s la v e

perfo rm ance a nd p unis h m ent, l e is u re a nd te rro r, a nd i m pris o ned p riv ile ge a nd p uniti v e s u ffe ra nce th at H artm an c harts s o m aste rfu lly

Scen es o f S ubje ctio n.

H ere w hat I a m g estu rin g to w ard a re th e w ays in w hic h th e m ela ncho lic s tr a in s h eard o n th e W illia m s

re co rd in g w ere a s a ttr ib uta b le to th e v exed c o nd iti o ns u nd er w hic h th ey w ere p ro duced a s to th e o th er h o rrify in g r e gim ents o f b la ck

neo sla v e la b or th at th e s in ger e nd ure d o n “ T he F arm .” S pecific ally , o n th e d ay th at “ P ris o ner’s T alk in g B lu es” w as r e co rd ed , a nd

Willia m s w as o rd ere d o ut o f th e c ane fie ld s, to le av e h is d om esti c d uti e s in th e h o use o f a n A ngo la p ris o n p la nta ti o n g uard , o r to

te m pora rily s u sp end s o m e o th er q uo ti d ia n n eo pla nta ti o n ta sk , a nd to ld to g ra b h o ld o f h is tw elv e-s tr in g g uita r a nd s in g fo r a w hite

fo lk lo ric p ris o n p la nta ti o n to uris t, th e b lu es m aestr o w as fu ncti o nin g in a r o le th at h ad b een e sta b lis h ed o n th e p la nta ti o n s in ce th e

nin ete enth c entu ry — th at o f “ m usic al s la v e.” I n d eed , o n th at d ay i n th e l a te 1 950s, R obert P ete W illia m s w as th e l a te st i n a l o ng l in e

of b la ck s u b je cts w ho h ad b een a llo tte d th e p erv ers e p riv ile ge o f e nte rta in in g w hite f o lk lo ric a nd n o nacad em ic to uris ts , p oliti c ia ns,

lo cal to w nsp eo ple , fe llo w p ris o ners , a nd p ris o n-g uard fa m ilie s a nd th eir g uests a t th e p la nta ti o n— th e m ost fa m ous o f w ho m w ere

Willia m s a nd H ud die L ed bette r ( a ka L ead B elly ), w ho w ere

“d is c o vere d ” a t th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n a s a fo lk a nd b lu es p ro dig y b y

Jo hn a nd A la n L om ax i n th e e arly 1 930s.

While th e i n carc era te d p erfo rm ances o f W illia m s a nd L ead B elly h av e a tta in ed s o m eth in g o f a l e gend ary s ta tu s w ith in h is to rie s o f

blu es a nd fo lk m usic , th e re la ti o nsh ip b etw een s u ch m om ents o f w hite a cad em ic p ris o n p la nta ti o n e njo ym ent a nd “ d is c o very ” to

sp ecta cle s o f co erc ed p erfo rm ance d urin g chatte l sla v ery has go ne co m ple te ly unm enti o ned . B y o utl in in g th e w ays in w hic h

perfo rm ati v e “p riv ile ge” and p uniti v e re cre ati o n hav e b een d ep lo yed as centr a l m echanis m s o f p ris o n m anagem ent, p erv ers e

ple asu re , a nd fr e e w hite c iv il su b je ct fo rm ati o n, I c o nsid er th e p ara d oxic al fa ct th at th e n eo sla v e’s v ery a tte m pt a t fa sh io nin g

so m eth in g o f a “ se lfh o od” th ro ugh so nic , th eatr ic al, o r te sti m onia l re d re ss is a ls o w hat q ualifie s th e p ostb ellu m e xp erie nce o f

im pris o nm ent a s so d ub io usly re m in is c ent o f c hatte l e nsla v em ent. S im ila r to th e ritu aliz e d p uniti v e th eatr ic s o f th e a nte b ellu m

perio d, w hen sla v es w ere fo rc ed to sin g a nd d ance o n th e d ecks o f sla v e sh ip s, a ucti o n b lo cks, a nd d urin g p la nta ti o n h o lid ay

cele b ra ti o ns i n o rd er to s im ula te th e A fr ic an’s “ co nte nte d ness” w ith b ond age, b la ck p ostb ellu m p ris o ners h av e b een r e gula rly u se d

as th eatr ic al, m usic al, a th le ti c , a nd f ilm ic s h o w pie ces a t A ngo la a nd o th er z o nes o f n eo sla v ery . A lo ng w ith b ein g f o rc ed to w ork i n

th e p la nta ti o n h o m es o f A ngo la g uard s a nd l o cal to w nsp eo ple a s f ie ld l a b ore rs a nd d om esti c s e rv ants , th o se l a te n in ete enth - to m id -

tw enti e th -c entu ry n eo sla v es w ho w ere c o nsid ere d a rti s ti c ally ta le nte d w ere u se d b y A ngo la g uard a nd w ard en f a m ilie s— or r e nte d

out to w hite s i n th e “ fr e e w orld ”— as p riv ate m usic al s la v es. W hile r e la ti v ely w ell- k no w n i m pris o ned f o lk a nd b lu es a rti s ts s u ch a s

Willia m s a nd L ead B elly w ere re co gniz e d a s p ro dig ie s b y w hite fo lk lo ris ts — a la b el th at in W illia m s’s c ase le d d ir e ctl y to h is

re le ase o n “ se rv itu d e p aro le ” to a lo cal w hite la nd ow ner— most o f th e m usic al, th eatr ic al, a nd a th le ti c p ris o ners a t A ngo la a nd

oth er site s o f neo sla v ery hav e nev er su cceed ed in sin gin g, d ancin g, acti n g, o r ro deo -in g th eir w ay to fr e ed om o r his to ric al

re co gniti o n. In d eed , ra th er th an b ein g a m odality o f p ub lic accla im , early p ris o n re le ase , o r re cre ati o nal le v ity , in carc era te d

perfo rm ance a nd o th er fo rm s o f p uniti v e p riv ile ge a t c hain g angs, p ris o n p la nta ti o ns, le v ee c am ps, a nd p enite nti a rie s h av e a ctu ally

been p art a nd p arc el o f p ris o n s la v e m anagem ent, te rro r, a nd r a cia liz e d p ub lic a nd p riv ate d is h o no r. I u lti m ate ly c o nsid er h o w th is

la rg ely o verlo oked h is to ry o f b la ck in carc era te d p erfo rm ance d em onstr a te s th e d egre e to w hic h th e

(u n)p ro ductiv e tr a va ils

o f

sla v es o f th e s ta te o n p la nta ti o n h o use p orc hes, in g uard fa m ily k itc hens, a nd o th er

le ss v is ib le v enues, s u ch a s th e p ris o n m aste r’s

bed ro om , h av e b een a s f u nd am enta l to th e l ib era l w hite s u p re m acis t p enal a nd s o cia l o rd er a s th eir “ p ro ducti v e” l a b ors i n r a ilr o ad

cam ps, l e v ee c am ps, i r o n-o re m in es, c o tto n r o w s, a nd p enite nti a ry s w eats h o ps.

Again , th is is n o t to u nd ere sti m ate th e in arg uab ly c entr a l ro le th at p ro fit- m akin g a nd p ro ducti v e la b or h av e p la yed u nd er U .S .

carc era l m odern ity , b ut to r e gis te r th e d egre e to w hic h c hatte liz e d in carc era ti o n h as a lw ays b een c ata ly ze d in a p oly -d ete rm in ant

fa sh io n i n v olv in g d ia le cti c s o f u nfr e e l a b or e xp ro pria ti o n a nd b odily s u b je cti o n, e co no m ic d is p osse ssio n a nd l e galiz e d d om in ati o n,

and ra ti o naliz e d p ro fit a nd s a d is ti c p riv ate a nd p ub lic e njo ym ent. H ere th e w ord s o f W illia m G oodell in re sp ect to th e

re s

, o r

obje ct, sta tu s of th e chatte l sla v e are dis tu rb in gly pre sc ie nt to our enco unte r w ith th e se em in gly in fin ite so cia l, politi c al,

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** psy cho lo gic al, a nd v is c era l u ti lity o f th e b la ck n eo sla v e in th e U nite d S ta te s sin ce 1 865: “ S la v es, a s P ro perty , m ay b e

use d ,

ab so lu te ly b y th eir o w ners a t w ill,

fo r t h eir o w n p ro fit o r p le a su re .

” 28

I n d eed , e v en w hen th e m oneta ry p ro fits o f p ris o n p la nta ti o ns

su ch a s A ngo la b egan to w ane in th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry , a nd it b ecam e c le ar th at s o uth ern s ta te s w ould b e u nab le to m atc h th e

huge p ro fits th at c o nv ic t- le asin g c o m panie s c le are d in th e la te n in ete enth - to e arly tw enti e th -c entu ry , th e fr e e/w hite c iv il s u b je ct

co nti n ued to gain in num era b le fo rm s of bodily enjo ym ent, psy chic ple asu re , and id enti fic ato ry se lf- a ugm enta ti o n th ro ugh th e

hyp erv is ib ility , d is p osa b ility , a nd f u ngib ility o f ( in )h um an s ta te p ro perty .

While lo okin g th ro ugh a no th er o f th e in fin ite te m pora l b oxes th at o ffe r h is to ric ally m ute d e xp osu re o f th e m yth o lo gic al d iv id e o f

sla v ery a nd f r e ed om , I e nco unte re d a p ho to gra p h ( F ig ure 1 ) th at s p eaks v olu m es v is -à -v is th e p erv ers e p riv ate a nd p ub lic p le asu re s

asso cia te d w ith b la ck n eo -e nsla v em ent. T he im age fe atu re s a h unte d b la ck m an, in p ris o n s tr ip es, a tte m pti n g to c lim b a tr e e in th e

mid dle o f a s la v e p la nta ti o n fie ld , w hile a w hite A ngo la g uard c ap ta in s ic ks a p ack o f p enite nti a ry b lo odho und s o n h is b ody. In

lo okin g a t th e p ho to gra p h, th e v ie w er is im med ia te ly c o nfr o nte d w ith w hat I re fe rre d to a b ove a s th e ti m e-b end in g p ow er o f th e

ra cia liz e d c arc era l. T hat i s , a sid e f r o m th e ti m e-lo cati n g e ffe ct o f th e p ris o n s tr ip es, w hic h w ere s u re ly s o w n b y b la ck w om en w ho

were i m pris o ned a t th e n eo pla nta ti o n u nti l 1 966, th e m om ent c o uld h av e b een s n atc hed f r o m a ny d ay i n th e m ore th an tw o-h und re d -

year h is to ry o f A ngo la o r a ny o th er s la v e p la nta ti o n, c hain g ang, c o nv ic t le ase c am p, o r p ris o n p la nta ti o n. In d eed , a s S ara J o hnso n

re v eals in h er s u p erb tr e atm ent o f th e u se o f

dogs a s w eap ons o f r a cia l w arfa re fr o m th e fifte enth c entu ry th ro ugh th e c urre nt U .S .

in v asio n/o ccup ati o n o f A fg hanis ta n a nd Ir a q (a nd e ls e w here ), su ch sc enes o f in hum an p unis h m ent h av e o ccurre d th ro ugho ut th e

Weste rn H em is p here f r o m th e v ery o uts e t o f c hatte l s la v ery a nd U .S . c o lo nia l g eno cid e.

How ev er, a c lo se r lo ok a t th e p ho to gra p h a llo w s th e v ie w er to e ngage w ith th e lo ng-s ta nd in g tr a d iti o n o f p riv ate a nd p ub lic

enjo ym ent th at h as a ccru ed to th e s p ecta cula r p erfo rm ance o f r a ce te rro r a nd th e d egre e to w hic h s u ch r itu als o f r a cia l d om in ati o n

hav e n ev er b een r e str ic te d to th e “ p riv ate ” d om ain s o f e xtr a le gal ly nchin g. A lo ng th ese lin es, I w ant to c o nsid er th e o vertl y s ta ged

quality o f a n i m age th at c asts i ts e lf a s a n a cti o n s h o t o f a p ris o n p la nta ti o n o ffic ia l f u lfillin g th e h ero ic d uty o f a p pre hend in g a b la ck

fu giti v e n eo sla v e. T his is r e nd ere d m ost c le arly in th e g uard ’s v is ib le s m ir k — a lo ok s u ggesti v e o f h o w th is m om ent w as a s m uch

ab out th e r a cia l s e lf- re aliz a ti o n a nd s e lf- a ggra nd iz e m ent o f th e f r e e w hite l a w man a s a n o ffic ia l d ocum enta ti o n o f a n e sc ap ed b la ck

pris o ner’s a p pre hensio n. A lo ng th ese l in es, w e c an b e s u re th at th is p ho to , l ik e th e i n calc ula b le

num ber o f o th er h o rrific i m ages j u st

lik e it, w as p la ced in a fa m ily p ho to a lb um , s c ra p book, o r o n a p la nta ti o n h o use w all a s a n ite m o f fa m ilia l a nd s o cia l e njo ym ent

lo ng b efo re i t e v er b ecam e a p art o f th e h is to ric al a rc hiv e. A no th er c le ar i n d ic ati o n o f th e d ra m ati z e d a sp ect o f th e p ho to i s th e w ay

in w hic h th e g uard ’s h o rs e i s s h o w n i n th e b ackgro und c alm ly g ra zin g o n p la nta ti o n g ra ss a t a m om ent o f s u p pose d f r e neti c p urs u it.

These e le m ents o f p uniti v e s ta gin g a re jo in ed b y s o m eth in g, o r ra th er s o m eo ne, p ositi o ned a t th e m arg in s o f th e p ho to gra p h— th e

penite nti a ry ’s

Neg ro d og-s e rg ea nt

—an a b se nt p re se nce w ho se ta sk a s in m ate g uard (o r “ T ru sty p la nta ti o n N egro ”) w ould h av e

in v olv ed g uid in g th e f o ur b lo odho und s i n p urs u it o f h is f e llo w b la ck p ris o ner a head o f th e h ero ic w hite m an o n h o rs e b ack.

Fig ure 1 .

H ellh ound o f N eosla very : A f u git iv e n eosla ve “ tr e ein g,” L ouis ia na S ta te P ris o n P la nta tio n, c . 1 930s. H enry L . F uqua, J r., L ytle P hoto gra ph C olle ctio n a nd

Papers , L ouis ia na a nd L ow er M is sis sip pi V alle y C olle ctio ns, L SU L ib ra rie s, B ato n R ouge.

The v is ib le a nd i n v is ib le th eatr ic s o f th e p ho to l e av e u s to w ond er j u st h o w l o ng th e w hite g uard , th e p ris o ner, th e d og-s e rg eant,

and th e p ho to gra p her w ould h av e b een p ositi o ned n ear th is tr e e in o rd er to a chie v e th is s c ene. J u st w ho is th e p ers o n b ehin d th e

cam era a nd h o w l o ng d id i t ta ke f o r h im to s e t u p th is d ra m ati c s h o t? I s th e p ris o ner w ho i s a b out to b e m aule d a n a ctu al w ould -b e

fu giti v e o r o ne o f th e m any b la ck m en o n th e n eo pla nta ti o n w ho a v oid ed c ane a nd c o tto n fie ld la b or b y a ssu m in g th e r o le o f d og-

se rg eant’ s a ssis ta nt, o r “ d og-b oy”— cap ti v e m en w ho b ore th e v io la ti v e a nd c o erc iv e p riv ile ge o f s im ula ti n g n eo sla v e h unts b y

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** allo w in g th em se lv es to b ein g c hase d , b itte n, a nd “ tr e ed ” b y p la n ta ti o n b lo odho und s in tr a in in g? D id th e “ N egro ” p ris o ner h av e to

clim b th e tr e e m ulti p le ti m es i n o rd er to c ap tu re j u st th e r ig ht l o ok o f u nassa ila b le p ow er o n h is c ap to r’s f a ce? W as th e g uard c ap ta in

jo in ed o n th is p arti c ula r n eo sla v e h unt b y f r ie nd s, f a m ily , a nd to uris ts e njo yin g a p ris o n p la nta ti o n h o lid ay? A nd j u st h o w m any s u ch

tr e ein gs o f fu giti v e n eo sla v es c ulm in ate d in a ll- o ut le gal ly nchin gs? A t is su e h ere is th e v ir tu al in d is ti n guis h ab ility o f n eo sla v e

punis h m ent, in carc era te d perfo rm ance, and w hite su p re m acis t ple asu re . T he ele m ents of puniti v e co ntr iv ance and perv ers e

am use m ent re gis te re d w ith in th is m om ent o f n eo pla nta ti o n p ortr a itu re s u ggest h o w th e le gal a tr o city o f p ris o n s la v ery h as b een

ev acuate d th ro ugh th e p asto ra liz in g, c rim in aliz in g, a nd d ehum aniz in g le ns o f w hite su p re m acis t m nem onic re p ro ducti o n. S ta te d

diffe re ntl y , th e im agin g o f ra cia l d om in ance p re se nte d h ere w as b oth a n id eo lo gic al w eap on— where b y b la ck re ensla v em ent a nd

neo sla v e re b ellio n w ere co nju re d in to th e lib era l w hite nati o nalis t le gend s o f “N egro ” in co rrig ib ility , un-d is h o no ra b ility , and

se rv ile tr a cta b ility — and a n o nto lo gic al to ol, in v olv in g th e v is u al p ro je cti o n o f th e d om in ati v e s o cia l p ositi o n o f th e w hite p ris o n

maste r a nd o th er fr e e w hite s u b je cts

who re ap ed p sy cho lo gic al s a ti s fa cti o n a nd ra cis t e njo ym ent fr o m th e o pen d is p la y o f s u ch

pho to gra p hs in p ris o n p la nta ti o n h o m es a nd lo cal n ew sp ap ers . A s s u ch, th e v is u al m em ento s o f r a cia l s ta te te rro r s e rv e a s im ila r

purp ose to th e m ore o fte n d is c usse d p ic to ria l a nd c o rp ore al re lic s o f e xtr a le gal ly nchin gs th at w ere e xchanged b etw een w hite

su b je cts th ro ugho ut th e co untr y unti l th e m id -tw enti e th centu ry — th at is , th ey p erfo rm ed th e ra cia liz e d o nto lo gic al fu ncti o n o f

so lid ify in g th e d om in ati v e a nd f r e e s ta tu s o f w hite ness th ro ugh th e v is u al r e p ro ducti o n o f b la ck e nsla v em ent, c o rp ore al r u p tu re , a nd

dehum aniz a ti o n.

I n f a ct, s u ch i m ages o f s o uth ern n eo sla v ery a nd th e c ir c um sta nces o f p uniti v e a b je cti o n th at i n fo rm ed th em a ctu ally

poin t to th e w ays in w hic h s tr u ctu ra l w hite s u p re m acy s tr ip ped th e w ord “ d ehum aniz a ti o n” o f a ny s o cia l v alu e in re sp ect to th e

pris o n s la v e th ro ugh th e i d eo lo gic al r e p ro ducti o n o f b la ck s u b hum anity .

But, a s s ta te d a b ove, th e s p ectr a l v oic es o f A meric an n eo sla v ery w ill n o t a llo w u s th e l ib era l n ati o nalis t c o m fo rt o f r e ceiv in g th is

im age a s a n e m balm ed s o cia l a rti fa ct o r a r e lic o f a p re his to ric r a cia l p ast. R ath er, th ey d em and th at w e v ie w th is s o cia lly h aunti n g

obje ct a nd th e s y ste m o f in hum an p unis h m ent th at it s y m boliz e s a s a n e m ble m o f th e e xp erie nti a l c o m munio n b etw een y este rd ay’s

neo sla v es a nd th o se w ho c o nti n ue to fa ce s u ch r itu als o f le gal v io le nce in o ur c urre nt m om ent. L est w e u nhear th is e le m ent o f th e

neo -a b oliti o nis t th eo re ti c al c halle nge p ose d b y th e w ord s, s o und s, a nd r e sis ti v e c ultu ra l p ra cti c es o f p ris o ners s u ch a s M um ia A bu-

Ja m al, M enth a M orris o n, a nd R obert P ete W illia m s, I w ant to d ra w a tte nti o n to a n ew s ite m th at a p peare d in th e

Sava nnah N ew s-

Pre ss

( G eo rg ia ), f r o m N ovem ber 1 8, 1 990:

A P ris o n N ig h tm are : I n m ate U se d a s B lo odh ou nd B ait

Austi n , T exas. R ic hard K aelin w as

a p ris o n ‘ d og b oy

’ i n T exas a nd h e h as th e s c ars to p ro ve i t.

All a cro ss h is h and s. A nd h is a rm s.

Even on th e back of his le gs w here sn ap pin g ho und s dre w blo od as he se rv ed as hum an “b ait” — a

co ntr o vers ia l p ra cti c e h e s a id h e p arti c ip ate d in a b out tw o d oze n ti m es d urin g a 1 0-m onth s ti n t in [E asth am ]

pris o n.

“It w as a n ig htm are ,” s a id K aelin , a 3 2-y ear-o ld f a th er o f th re e w ho w as p aro le d f iv e m onth s a go .

“I’ v e h ad to f ig ht o ff 1 0 o r 1 2 a tta ckin g d ogs w ith n o p ro te cti v e c lo th in g w hats o ev er. S een d ogs r ip c hunks o ut

of a no th er c o nv ic t’ s

le g. S een th em p ull a m an to th e g ro und , te ar o pen th e p ad ded c lo th in g.

“I’ v e g o t b it e v ery ti m e I w ent o ut” . . . .

He s a id h e in iti a lly a sk ed fo r th e a ssig nm ent, b ecause h e h ad tr a in ed D oberm ans fo r y ears — and b ecause h e

knew i t c arrie d w ith i t a h ig hly p riz e d tr u sty s ta tu s w ith in th e p ris o n s y ste m . . . .

Kaelin s a id h e a sk ed fo r a tr a nsfe r, b ut p ris o n o ffic ia ls m ad e it c le ar th at h is n ext jo b w ould b e u nd esir a b le

work — lik e c le anin g o ut h o g p ens o r c attl e b arn s. A nd h e c o uld lo se h is tr u sy sta tu s, w hic h g iv es in m ate s

in cre ase d r e sp onsib iliti e s i n r e tu rn f o r m ore

good-tim e c re d its

to b e a p plie d to w ard p aro le .

Here th e e xp erie nces o f a B ush 4 1–era “ d og-b oy” in L ovela d y, T exas, p re se nt h o rrify in g e v id ence o f th e fu tu re -h aunti n g p ow er o f

th e m anageria l a nd p uniti v e m eth o dolo gie s d ep ic te d in a lo ng-b urie d p ho to gra p h fr o m A ngo la , L ouis ia na. M ore s p ecific ally , th is

pub lic ally d is se m in ate d a nd s o cia lly d is q ualifie d d is p atc h fr o m a la te tw enti e th -c entu ry p ris o n p la nta ti o n e xp re sse s th e a b so lu te

in ap plic ab ility o f n o ti o ns o f h egem onic c o nse nt i n r e sp ect to th e p re d ic am ent o f m odern c hatte l i m pris o nm ent. L ik e th eir a nte b ellu m

pre d ecesso rs , s p aces o f U .S . n eo sla v ery h av e fu ncti o ned a s

pse u doheg em onic

a re nas o f d om in ati o n w here in c arc era l p riv ile ge,

voliti o n, a nd “ go od-ti m e(s )” h av e a m ounte d to c o erc ed s e lf- im mola ti o n, p uniti v e a b je cti o n, a nd l iv in g d eath .

How ev er, a lo ng w ith is su in g a te m pora l th eo ry th at a llo w s u s to v ie w th e n eo sla v e-tr e ein g p ho to gra p h a s a m ark er o f a b je ct

exp erie nti a l c o m munio n b etw een y este rd ay’s n eo sla v es a nd th o se w ho fa ce s u ch r itu als o f le gal te rro r a s I w rite th ese w ord s, th e

his to ric ally m ute d v oic es o f U .S . n eo sla v ery a ls o o ffe r a n e sse nti a l le sso n in p oliti c al g eo gra p hy— one th at c alls fo r u s to r e ceiv e

su ch i m ages n o t a s p eculia rly “ so uth ern ” h o rro rs b ut a s u nhis to ric al f r e eze -fr a m es o f a n ati o nal p ro cess o f r itu aliz e d s ta te te rro r th at

has e xte nd ed f r o m A ngo la , to A tti c a, to A bu G hra ib ( a nd b ack a gain ). F urth erm ore , a nyo ne w ho h as s e en o ne o f th e c o untl e ss c ab le

te le v is io n d ocum enta rie s a d verti s e d a s e xp osé s o f th e “ re aliti e s” o f life in sid e U .S . ja ils a nd p ris o ns— or w ho h as w atc hed o ne o f

th e s e em in gly in fin ite s ta nd -u p ro uti n es, te le v is io n s h o w s, a nd H olly w ood film s th at d ep lo y th e “ d on’t d ro p th e s o ap ” ritu al o f

tr a nsp osin g p ris o n ra p e a nd s e x tr a ffic kin g in to s o urc es o f c o m ed ic p le asu re — und ers ta nd s th at th e s p ecta cula riz a ti o n a nd b anal

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** pub lic e njo ym ent o f ra cia l sta te te rro r, n ata l a lie nati o n, a nd

in hum an p unis h m ent a re fa r fr o m d is ti n ctl y so uth ern p heno m ena.

In d eed , th e c o nsta nt b om bard m ent o f th e U .S . s o cia l f ie ld w ith s u ch c rim in aliz in g a nd d ehum aniz in g i m agery h as a g re at d eal to d o

with th e f a ct th at m odern m ass e nto m bm ent r e m ain s b oth s o cia lly a ccep ta b le a nd s o cia lly p le asu ra b le . A s s ta te d a b ove, th e i m ages,

so und s, a nd te sti m onie s o f n eo sla v ery w ith in th is b ook a re n o t to b e r e ceiv ed a s r e lic s o f a d ead “ so uth ern ” h is to ry , b ut a s g ho stl y

re m in d ers o f th e w ays i n w hic h th e v io le nce o f th e p ast c o nti n ues to b e v is ite d u p on th e l iv es o f m illio ns o f b la ck, b ro w n, a nd p oor

peo ple e v ery d ay— wheth er p erfo rm ed b y a m odern K -9 u nit o n a g hetto o r b arrio s tr e et c o rn er, o r b y a p ris o n r io t- s q uad i n a S H U

“exerc is e ” y ard th at i s h id den i n p la in s ig ht.

This b ook’s e ngagem ent w ith th e m ate ria l g ho sts o f U .S . c hatte l i m pris o nm ent a nd r a cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t te rro r a s u nle ash ed

on b oth s id es o f th e M aso n-D ix o n lin e a nd th e fic ti v e h is to ric al b ord er o f 1 865 h as b een g re atl y in flu enced b y th e a esth eti c

and

ep is te m ic in te rv enti o ns o f T oni M orris o n— parti c ula rly a s e xp re sse d in h er m ost a ccla im ed n o vel,

Belo ved .

In c hap te r 1 , “ ‘Y ou

Ain ’t S een N oth in ’ Y et’ :

Belo ved

a nd th e M id dle P assa ge C arc era l M odel,” I o ffe r a r e asse ssm ent o f th is o fte n-re v is ite d te xt, o ne

th at e xam in es th e w ays i n w hic h i t r e p re se nts a c riti c ally i m porta nt e p is te m ic a nd u nhis to ric al g uid e i n to th e w ork in gs o f c hatte liz e d

in carc era ti o n o n b oth s id es o f th e f ic ti v e 1 865 b ord er. M any c riti c s h av e d esc rib ed th e te xt a s a “ neo sla v e n arra ti v e,” a g eneric ta g

th at d eno te s a s e t o f m odern n o vels th at o ffe rs r e tr o sp ecti v e a cco unts o f c hatte l s la v ery f r o m a p osts la v ery c o nte xt. I c halle nge th is

re ad in g b y d esc rib in g

Belo ved

a s a

narra tiv e o f n eo sla very,

a te rm I u se — in a m anner s im ila r to th e l e ad in g c riti c al p ris o n s tu d ie s

sc ho la r J o y J a m es— to d esc rib e p ris o n a nd c hain -g ang-c ente re d s o und in gs, w riti n gs, te sti m onie s, a nd s o cia l p ra cti c es in w hic h th e

unse ttl in g c o nti n uiti e s o f s la v ery a nd fr e ed om a re b ro ught in to o vert r e lie f.

W hen r e ad in r e la ti o n to M orris o n’s p ortr a yal o f th e

Mid dle P assa ge, th e n o vel’s c hain -g ang s c ene fo caliz e s th e in te rc o nnecti o ns o f a nte - a nd p ostb ellu m fo rm ati o ns o f in carc era ti o n—

nam ely , i n so fa r a s i t i llu str a te s th e u ncanny s im ila rity b etw een c hatte liz e d p enal a rc hite ctu re s s u ch a s th e b arra co on, th e s la v e-s h ip

ho ld , th e s la v e p en, th e c hain -g ang c age, a nd th e s o lita ry -c o nfin em ent c ell. T his d is c ussio n o f th e ta nd em o pera ti o n o f r a cia l a nd

sp ati a l te rro r a cro ss s u p pose d ly s ta ti c h is to ric al b ord ers le nd s its e lf to a th eo re ti c al d is c ussio n o f th e w ays in w hic h ra cia liz e d

arc hite ctu re s su b je ct neo sla v es to sta te s o f le galiz e d excep ti o n th at are gro und ed in th e cultu ra l b ra nd in g o f b la ckness as a

bio m eta p hysic al

excep ti o n to w hite , n o rm ati v e h um anity . A lo ng w ith su ggesti n g th e “ fo rw ard h aunti n g” p ro pensiti e s o f c hatte l

carc era lity , P aul D ’s c hain -g ang e xp erie nce u nv eils th e p ara d oxic al fa ct th at s ite s o f n eo sla v ery h av e o fte n d oub le d a s s p aces o f

bla ck v ern acula r c ultu ra l p ro ducti o n. A s s u ch, h is p erfo rm ance o f c hain -g ang s o ngs th ro ugho ut th e te xt q ualifie s h im a s a n arra ti v e

analo gue o f s c o re s o f b la ck b lu es a nd fo lk a rti s ts w ho w ere “ d is c o vere d ” w hile b ein g h eld a s p ub lic s la v es a t c hain g angs a nd

pris o n p la nta ti o ns— and w ho u se d m usic a s a m eans o f r e tr ie v in g s o m eth in g o f a l ife o ut o f c o nd iti o ns b ord erin g o n d eath . I n l a yin g

out th e th eo re ti c al a nd c o unte r-h is to ric al te rra in o f th e e nti r e b ook, m y d is c ussio n o f

Belo ved

a llo w s fo r a n ew u nd ers ta nd in g o f

Morris o n’s n o vel a s a c riti c ally im porta nt e p is te m olo gic al, th e o re ti c al, a nd c o unte r-h is to ric al d ocum ent e xp re ssiv e o f th e lo ng-

sta nd in g c entr a lity o f r a cia liz e d i n carc era ti o n w ith in E uro -A meric an m odern ity .

Chap te r 2 , “ ‘E xcep t a s P unis h m ent f o r a C rim e’: T he T hir te enth A mend m ent a nd th e R eb ir th o f C hatte l I m pris o nm ent,” f o cuse s o n

th e le gis la ti v e a nd ju rid ic al h is to ry o f th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent a nd h o w th is m om ent o f p uta ti v e b la ck lib era ti o n a ctu ally

sig nale d th e c o nd iti o n o f p ossib ility fo r p ub lic re ensla v em ent a nd th e le gal re b ir th o f th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel. T he

am end m ent’ s p uniti v e e xcep ti o n a llo w in g fo r “ sla v ery a nd in v olu nta ry se rv itu d e” u p on o ne’s “ d ue c o nv ic ti o n” o f a c rim e h as

re p re se nte d o ne o f th e m ost d ev asta ti n g m om ents o f lib era l le gal d is c o urs e in U .S . h is to ry . T he e xcep ti o n c la use w as th e p rim ary

mechanis m w here b y a n u nto ld n um ber o f b la ck s u b je cts w ere le gally d is a p peare d in to c o nv ic t le ase c am ps, c hain g angs, p ris o n

pla nta ti o ns, a nd p eo nage c am ps. B y tr a cin g th e o rig in s o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent’ s p uniti v e e xcep ti o n to th e sta tu to ry a nd

le gis la ti v e h and lin g o f p re cario usly “ fr e e” b la ck b odie s d urin g th e a nte b ellu m p erio d, a nd to th e c o ngre ssio nal d eb ate s th at a tte nd ed

th e l e gis la ti o n’s p assin g, th e c hap te r a llo w s f o r n ew u nd ers ta nd in g o f a d ocum ent o f p ro gre ssiv e d ehum aniz a ti o n th at, i n s p ite o f i ts

dev asta ti n g im pact, h as r e ceiv ed o nly e p is o dic tr e atm ent b y p ris o ners , p ris o n a cti v is ts , a nd a s m all n um ber o f le gal h is to ria ns a nd

pris o n s tu d ie s s c ho la rs . T he c hap te r c o nclu d es b y c o nsid erin g th e s h ro ud ed p re se nce o f th e p uniti v e e xcep ti o n w ith in m om ents o f

ap pare nt l ib era l l e galis m , s u ch a s

US v . R eyn old s

( 1 914), a l a rg ely i g no re d S up re m e C ourt c ase th at d ealt w ith th e s o cia liz e d f o rm

of n eo sla v ery k no w n a s “ p eo nage.” B y d is c ussin g th e S up re m e C ourt’ s p ro ble m ati c c o nte nti o n th at a v ers io n o f p eo nage c alle d

“crim in al- s u re ty ” w as s tr ic tl y a “ p riv ate ” o r c o ntr a ctu al d om ain , I

unco ver h o w th e s ta te r e asse rte d i ts d iv in e r ig ht to tr a nsm ute th e

fr e e c iv il s u b je ct in to a c iv illy d ead o bje ct e v en w ith in th o se m om ents w hen it s e em ed to o ffe r a m odic um o f le gal p ro te cti o n to a

co lle cti v ely te rro riz e d a nd d is p osse sse d b la ck p opula ti o n.

The d ev asta ti n g re al- life o utc o m es o f th e la w ’s tr a nsm uta ti o n o f c hat- te l s la v ery in to p enal n eo sla v ery a re a ls o th e s u b je ct o f

chap te r 3 , “ A ngo la P enite nti a ry : T he O nce a nd F utu re S la v e P la nta ti o n.” H ere I f o cus s p ecific ally o n th e h is to ric al a nd p re se nt- d ay

manife sta ti o ns o f n eo sla v ery a t “ A ngo la ” p ris o n p la nta ti o n— th e

still- o pera tio nal

e ig hte en-th o usa nd -a cre s la v e p la nta ti o n th at w as

co nv erte d i n to L ouis ia na’s s ta te p enite nti a ry f o llo w in g th e C iv il W ar. T he c hap te r c ente rs o n th e n eo pla nta ti o n’s b la ckfa ce m in str e l

tr o up e a nd m y g ho stl y e nco unte r w ith i ts l e ad er d urin g a r e se arc h tr ip to th e p ris o n’s o n-s ite m use um . I d is c uss h o w th e p ra cti c e o f

fo rc in g p ris o ners to a ct a s m usic al a nd th eatr ic al s la v es l e d to a n u nacco unte d -fo r e xcess i n th e f o rm o f a s p ectr a l p oeti c s o f l iv in g

death a nd a s u b te rra nean p oliti c s o f re sis ta nce. T his s e cti o n o f th e c hap te r is a ls o w here I b egin to in co rp ora te q ueer-o f- c o lo r

criti q ue in o rd er to r e gis te r th e h yp erc rim in aliz a ti o n a nd d iffe re nti a l te rro r fa ced b y b odie s b ra nd ed a s b oth r a cia lly a nd s e xually

ab erra nt. I a ls o s h o w h o w m odern -d ay A ngo la c o nti n ues to c o m bin e p uniti v e l e is u re a nd te rro r th ro ugh p ub lic s p ecta cle s s u ch a s th e

pris o n ro deo a nd in v is ib le m odaliti e s o f v io le nce su ch a s in d efin ite so lita ry c o nfin em ent. I c o nclu d e th at su ch p ra cti c es m ark

Ango la a s a g eo gra p hic a nalo gue o f th e i m possib le s e v era nce o f

so uth ern

a nd

north ern

—and

pre m odern

a nd

modern

—modaliti e s

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** of c hatte liz e d i n carc era ti o n.

The fo urth a nd fin al c hap te r, “ T he W arfa re o f N orth ern N eo sla v ery in C heste r H im es’s

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry,

” o ffe rs a

re ad in g o f H im es’s m ost c riti c ally ig no re d n o vel, a fic ti o nal a uto bio gra p hy o f th e w rite r’s s e v en-y ear im pris o nm ent in th e O hio

Sta te P enite nti a ry . I arg ue th at H im es’s fic ti o naliz e d tr e atm ent o f his actu al exp erie nce as a su rv iv or o f th e E aste r M ond ay

penite nti a ry fir e o f 1 930 su ggests th at th e D ep re ssio n-e ra no rth ern p ris o n re p re se nte d a re p re ssiv e analo gue o f ra th er th an a

dis c ip lin ary e xcep ti o n to th e c hain g angs a nd p ris o n p la nta ti o ns o f th e S outh . H im es e xp ose s th e d egre e to w hic h th e n o rth ern p ris o n,

lik e its m ore n o to rio us s o uth ern c o unte rp art, a m ounte d to a re gim e o f d om esti c w arfa re a gain st th o se b ra nd ed a s c o nta m in ati n g

ele m ents w ith in th e s o cia l b ody. T he s p ecta cula r s a crific e o f p ris o ners ’ b odie s in th e fir e s c ene r e p re se nts a d ra m ati c in sta nti a ti o n

of th e b anal p ra cti c e o r p re m atu re , liv in g, a nd c iv il d eath in z o nes o f n eo sla v ery , a q uo ti d ia n o pera ti o n th at is re p re se nte d

most

cle arly in th e n o vel b y th e s ta te ’s h yp erc rim in aliz a ti o n o f r a cia liz e d a nd n o nhete ro no rm ati v e b odie s. A s in c hap te r 3 , I d ep lo y th e

th eo re ti c al ru b ric o f q ueer-o f- c o lo r criti q ue as a m eans o f unco verin g th e se xualiz e d and gend ere d d im ensio ns o f ra cia liz e d

in carc era ti o n— parti c ula rly a s th ey a re e xp re sse d i n th e s ta te ’s p uniti v e r e sp onse to th e m ain c hara cte r’s r o m anti c b ond w ith a b la ck

mig ra nt c hain -g ang s u rv iv or n am ed “ P rin ce R ic o .” B y e xp osin g th e d ynam ic in te rp la y b etw een w hite s u p re m acis t, c ap ita lis t, a nd

ho m o/tr a nsp ho bic s ta te te rro r in th e D ep re ssio n-e ra p enite nti a ry , th e c hap te r s h ed s lig ht o n a to ta lly ig no re d e le m ent o f g end er a nd

se xual c o m ple xity w ith in th e o euv re o f a “ hard -b oile d ” b la ck w rite r m ost c o m monly p ortr a yed a s s im plis ti c ally h ete ro no rm ati v e

and hyp erm asc ulin is t. T he chap te r co nclu d es by dis c ussin g th e degre e to w hic h P rin ce R ic o ’s pre se nce in th e te xt as both

im pris o ned w rite r a nd s in ger o f c hain -g ang w ork s o ngs g estu re s to w ard th e h aunti n g p re se nce o f th e b la ck m ig ra to ry s u b je ct in th e

no vel, a nd th e in sid io usly su ccessfu l m ig ra ti o n o f p uta ti v ely so uth ern m odels o f ra cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t h o m o/tr a nsp ho bic

im pris o nm ent i n to n o rth ern to pogra p hie s o f n eo sla v ery . I h o pe th at i n o ffe rin g a s m all o penin g o f u nhis to ric al r e entr y f o r n eo sla v es

ra ngin g b ack to 1 865, th is b ook w ill s e rv e a s a b la ck a p pariti o nal g enealo gy o f o ur c urre nt m om ent o f p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e—

one th at r e p re se nts a n o pportu nity f o r u s to b e p ush ed f u rth er to w ard a ccep ti n g th e m ela ncho lic c ue o ffe re d b y M enth a M orris o n a nd

co untl e ss o th er h is to ric ally a no nym ous n eo sla v es f o r a ll o f u s to

do s o m eth in g

i n th e n am e o f p ris o n s la v ery a b oliti o n a nd c o lle cti v e

so cia l l ib era ti o n e v en a s th e r a cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t s ta te

has n ot

( y et)

cea se d t o b e v ic to rio us.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Chap te r 1

“Y ou A in ’t S een N oth in ’ Y et”

Belo ved

a n d t h e M id dle P assa ge C arc era l M od el

There is a la w o f

pro gre ssiv e d eh um aniz a tio n

in a ccord ance w it h w hic h h encefo rth o n th e a genda o f th e b ourg eois ie th ere is — th ere c an b e— noth in g b ut v io le nce,

corru ptio n, a nd b arb aris m .

—Aim é C ésa ir e ,

Dis c o urse o n C olo nia lis m

Wors e th an th e ta unts a nd th e th re ats o f th e ja ile rs , w ors e th an th e to rtu re s th ey in flic te d u pon m e, w ors e th an th e h orrib le c ondit io ns u nder w hic h I liv ed, w as th e

way tim e d ra gged a nd d ra gged f o r m e. E very m in ute b ecam e a n e te rn it y o f s u ffe rin g.

—Angelo H ern don,

Let M e L iv e

I N N

OVEM BER

1994,

a s th e n um ber o f p ris o ners i n th e U nite d S ta te s w as a b out to r e ach 1 .6 m illio n,

th e N orth C aro lin a D ep artm ent o f

C orre cti o n ( D OC) i s su ed a p re ss r e le ase a nno uncin g th at i t h ad u nearth ed a r e lic o f A meric a’s c arc era l p ast a t o ne o f i ts f a ciliti e s.

T he re le ase re ad in p art: “ [T he] C om munity R eso urc e C ouncil fo r th e A le xand er C orre cti o nal C ente r a rra nged fo r th e N ati o nal

G uard to f o rk lift th e c age o ut o f th e m ud a nd v in es. T he o rig in al th re e-in ch c o ncre te f lo or, a s m all to ile t a nd b ra id ed m eta l b ars a re

a ll th at r e m ain o f th e p ris o n c age w here 1 2 c o nv ic ts s le p t.”

T he n ew s ite m g o es o n to p oin t o ut th at “ th e c age” is o ne o f th e tw o

r e m ain in g e xam ple s i n th e s ta te o f th e p orta b le p ris o ns w ith in w hic h, u nti l th e 1 930s, c hain -g ang c ap ti v es w ere h aule d f r o m p la ce to

p la ce a s th ey w ere w ork in g to b uild th e N orth C aro lin a h ig hw ay s y ste m ( F ig ure 2 ). It th en r e la te s h o w s u ch c ages w ere p urc hase d

f o r $ 500 a p ie ce fr o m a G eo rg ia c o m pany c alle d “ M anly J a il W ork s,” w hic h in its a d verti s e m ent fo r th e “ m ovin g p ris o ns” b oaste d

t h at a “ b ucket o f d is in fe cta nt o nce o r tw ic e a m onth a nd a b ucket o f p ain t o nce a y ear w ill k eep th is c age

cle an, s a nita ry a nd v erm in

p ro of,” a nd th at th e c age w as “ o ffic ia lly e nd ors e d b y s ta te a nd c o unty p ris o n b oard s a ll o ver th e S outh .”

Early tw enti e th -c entu ry N orth C aro lin a c hain -g ang a nd p ris o n o ffic ia ls m ore th an c o rro bora te d th e c o m pany’s c la im s, s ta ti n g th at

t h e c age a llo w ed f o r f e w er g uard s a t th e c hain -g ang c am ps a nd th at i t a ctu ally b ecam e a s o urc e o f c ap ti v e c o m fo rt a nd g o od c heer:

“ A s s o on a s w e b egan to u se c ages o ur m en a t o nce im pro ved in h ealth a nd s p ir its . T hey h av e p ro ved th em se lv es to b e c o ol in

s u m mer, w arm and w ell v enti la te d in th e w in te r, and th e m en are m uch m ore co m fo rta b le th an w hen ho use d in te nts o r th e

s to ckad e.”

A fte r a llu d in g to th e h o rrify in g s ta ti s ti c th at th e a v era ge life e xp ecta ncy o f th o se w ork in g o n th e s ta te ’s c hain g ang w as

n o m ore th an fiv e y ears , th e D OC p re ss r e le ase c o nclu d es b y r e la ti n g h o w th e s ta te p la nned to e nsh rin e o ne o f th e tw o u nco vere d

c hain -g ang c ages i n a tr a nsp orta ti o n m use um : “ A t l e ast o ne o f th ese c ages s h o uld b e r e sto re d a s a s ta rk r e m in d er o f h o w f a r w e h av e

c o m e in p eno lo gy in th is c entu ry .” T his c hap te r c o nsid ers h o w th e u nb uria l o f th e c hain -g ang ir o n c age in 1 994 w as a ctu ally

a nti c ip ate d s e v en y ears e arlie r b y i ts l ite ra ry r e su rre cti o n i n

Belo ved ,

T oni M orris o n’s m ost a ccla im ed n o vel. A s th e l a rg ely i g no re d

e xp erie nce o f P aul D a nd h is fo rty -fo ur fe llo w c hain -g ang c ap ti v es in th e n o vel r e v eals , n o th in g a b out th e c hain -g ang e xp erie nce

w as “ cle an,” “ sa nita ry ,” o r “ v erm in p ro of.”

Even th o ugh th e g angs c am e a b o ut a s a “ P ro gre ssiv e E ra ” r e fo rm o f c o nv ic t l e asin g, th e tr a nsfe r o f s o uth ern s ta te s’ m ostl y b la ck

p ris o n a nd j a il p opula ti o ns f r o m p riv ate to s ta te c o ntr o l r e p re se nte d a c o nti n uance r a th er th an a n a b ate m ent o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t te rro r

a nd a b je cti o n. A s A le x L ic hte nste in p oin ts o ut in

Tw ic e th e W ork o f F re e L abor,

h is p ath b re akin g b ook o n J im C ro w a p arth eid

c o nv ic t la b or, th e h is to ry o f th e A meric an c hain g ang illu m in ate s th e d egre e to w hic h n o rth ern lib era lis m a nd s o uth ern c hauv in is m ,

l ib era l b ourg eo is m odern ity a nd “ b ackw ard ” s o uth ern b arb arity , h av e b een m utu ally c o nsti tu ti v e u nd er U .S . e m pir e . In s o d oin g,

L ic hte nste in p oin ts to th e c entr a l r o le o f th e fe d era l g o vern m ent in s u p porti n g w hat w as to h av e b een a m odern iz in g r e fo rm o f th e

c o nv ic t le ase s y ste m : “ W ith th e h elp a nd e nco ura gem ent o f fe d era l in te rv enti o n [ in th e fo rm o f fu nd in g a nd lo gis ti c al s u p port] , th e

p ro gre ss e m bodie d in a m odern tr a nsp orta ti o n n etw ork a nd th e tr a d iti o n o f u nfr e e b la ck la b or p ro ved s y m bio ti c .”

H e g o es o n to

r e la te h o w , th ro ugh th e p ro pagati o n o f a m yth o s o f b la ck i n d ole nce— th at i s , th e i d ea th at f r e ed b la cks w ere o nly s u ite d f o r “ nig ger

w ork ” a nd w ould o nly w ork b y c o erc iv e m eans s u ch a s f lo ggin g, “ str e tc hin g,” a nd a m odern v ers io n o f th e f e ud al s to cks— th e S outh

w as

ab le to p ro gre ss to w ard e co no m ic m odern iz a ti o n th ro ugh p ris o n sla v ery w ith c o unty c hain g angs p la yin g a c entr a l ro le in

p ro je cts s u ch a s ra ilr o ad a nd h ig hw ay c o nstr u cti o n, c o al a nd ir o n-o re m in in g, a nd fo re st in d ustr ie s. A s o ne fo rm er p ris o ner o f a

F lo rid a c hain g ang re co unts , c ap ti v es e xp erie nced a b anality o f te rro r th at b lu rre d th e lin e b etw een life a nd d eath a nd o ffe re d a

d ub io us r e p la y o f c o erc ed p erfo rm ance s p ecta cle s th at to ok p la ce o n th e s la v e s h ip , th e c o ffle , a nd th e p la nta ti o n: “ W e w ere s e nt to

t h e s w am ps to d o lo ggin g a nd la y r a ils . A fte r 2 4 h o urs th ere

we p ra yed fo r d ea th .

. . . If w e d id n o t w ork fa st e no ugh w e w ere

w hip ped c ru elly . [ A nd ] a fte r b eati n g u s a ll w eek [ th e g uard c ap ta in ] a nd

his g uard s w ould c o m e a nd m ake u s s in g a nd d ance fo r

t h em .

” 5

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Fig ure 2 .

T he L and-B ase d S la ve S hip . O uts id e v ie w o f a c hain -g ang c age in G eorg ia , e arly 1 930s. P hoto gra ph b y J o hn S piv ak. T he o rig in al c aptio n r e ad: “ T he C age:

where c onvic ts a re h erd ed lik e b easts in th e ju ngle . T he p an u nder it is th e to ile t r e cepta cle . T he s te nch o f it h angs lik e a p all o ver th e w hole a re a” ( J o hn S piv ak,

Geo rg ia

Nig ger

[ M ontc la ir , N .J .: P atte rs o n S m it h , 1 969]). P hoto gra phy C olle ctio n, H arry R anso m C ente r, U niv ers it y o f T exas a t A ustin .

Belo ved ,

M orris o n’s d ep ic ti o n o f th e s la v e s h ip , th e p la nta ti o n, a nd th e c hain g ang d is a llo w s a r e ad in g o f f o rm ati o ns o f r a cia l

te rro r a nd g eno cid e a s a b erra nt o r p re m odern e xcep ti o ns to th e ru le o f U .S . c ap ita lis m , W este rn p eno lo gy, a nd m odern ity . T he

re su rfa cin g o f th e c hain -g ang c age i n h er n o vel, a lo ng w ith i ts r e su rre cti o n o f a g ho stl y s u rv iv or o f th e M id dle P assa ge, e xem plifie s

th e c entr a lity o f a rc hite ctu re s s u ch a s th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld , th e a nte b ellu m s la v e p la nta ti o n, a nd c hain -g ang c age w ith r e sp ect to U .S .

em pir e . H er w ork e xp re sse s w hat I d esc rib e a s th e “ M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel” — a p ara d ig m o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t in te rn m ent

and v io le nce th at n ecessita te s a s h ifti n g o f w hite -s u b je ct– cente re d p enal h is to rio gra p hy. T his r e m ap pin g o f th e c arc era l th ro ugh th e

le ns o f e p ochal r a ce te rro r r e ad s th e b arra co ons, m aro on D ep ósito s, c o ffle s, s la v e h o ld s, a nd p la nta ti o ns o f th e M id dle P assa ge a nd

pla nta ti o n sla v ery as centr a l to th e E uro -A meric an im peria lis t pro je ct— as sp ati a l, id eo lo gic al, onto lo gic al, and eco no m ic

analo gues o f m odern p unis h m ent th at h aunte d th eir w ay i n to th e p re se nt b y w ay o f f o rm ati o ns o f s p ati a l v io le nce s u ch a s th e c hain -

gang c age.

A lo ng th ese l in e s, I w ant to c o nsid er th e d egre e to w hic h

Belo ved

r e p re se nts a s m uch o f a n e p is te m ic in te rv enti o n a s a

narra ti v e o ne— ho w it c an b e c o nceiv ed a s o ffe rin g a k in d o f b la ck d ia sp oric c o unte r-p eno lo gy th at n o t o nly d is in te rs la rg ely

unheard a sp ects o f th e u nhis to ric al p re d ic am ent o f e arly b la ck n eo sla v ery , b ut th at a ls o o ffe rs a fu nd am enta l re asse ssm ent o f th e

pre se nt m om ent o f m ass (in )h um an e nto m bm ent th ro ugh its c ente rin g o f c hatte l s la v ery a nd th e c hain g ang a s p rim ary s o urc es o f

modern r a cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t i m pris o nm ent.

What I d esc rib e a s th e “ fo rw ard -h aunti n g” a sp ects o f M orris o n’s o ste nsib ly p ast- o bse sse d te xt a ls o s u ggest th at g o th ic p enal

arc hite ctu re s su ch a s th e c hain -g ang c age a re n o t re ad y to b e m em oria liz e d in m use um s a s e m ble m s

of a b ygo ne e ra o f w hite

su p re m acy a nd n asc ent s o uth ern c ap ita lis m — th at is , if s u ch m em oria liz a ti o n w ith in th e c o nte xt o f w hite s u p re m acis t c ultu re c an

am ount to a nyth in g m ore th an a d is q ualific ati o n o f th e s u rv iv als o f u nfr e ed om .

Belo ved

u nd ers c o re s th at th e te rro r m odaliti e s o f

chatte l sla v ery h av e n o t o nly su rv iv ed th e p uta ti v ely sta ti c b ord erlin e o f 1 865, b ut h av e in fa ct re ached th eir a p ogee w ith th e

“S ecurity H ousin g U nits ” a nd “ S up erm ax” p ris o ns o f to day’s p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x.

T hro ugh th is n ew a p pro ach to M orris o n’s

most c riti c ally s c ru ti n iz e d te xt, I a rg ue th at f o rm ati o ns o f c hatte l s la v ery h av e r e su rfa ced i n u p date d f o rm s i n th e c o nte xt o f a s y ste m

of m ass l iv in g d eath a nd h um an

i n ca pacita tio n

( to u se R uth W ils o n G ilm ore ’s te rm )— whic h, a s o f th is w riti n g, e nto m bs m ore th an

2.3 m illio n h um an b ein gs— and , m ore s p ecific ally , a m odern p enite nti a ry s y ste m th at n o w e ncages o ne o ut o f e v ery n in e b la ck m en

in th e U nite d S ta te s b etw een th e a ges o f tw enty a nd th ir ty -fo ur.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The N arra tiv e o f

Neo sla very

Lite ra ry c riti c al d is c ussio ns o f T oni M orris o n’s

Belo ved

o fte n d esc rib e th e te xt a s a “ neo sla v e n arra ti v e.” T his d esig nati o n s ig nifie s

an A fr ic an A meric an n arra ti v e m ode o f r e tr o sp ecti o n, w here b y m odern b la ck w rite rs s u ch a s M arg are t W alk er, D av id B ra d le y, G ayl

Jo nes, O cta v ia B utl e r, a nd Is h m ael R eed h av e o ffe re d re -v is io ns o f th e v io le nce a nd s u b je cti o n o f th e tr a nsa tl a nti c s la v e tr a d e

th ro ugh th e le ns o f th e “ p ost” sla v ery m om ent.

In w hat fo llo w s, I p ro ble m ati z e th is p re v ailin g c o ncep ti o n o f te m pora lity a nd

his to ric ity w ith re sp ect to M orris o n’s m ost a ccla im ed n o vel a nd to U .S . h is to ry in g enera l. I d o s o b y re ad in g th e te xt n o t a s a

neo sla v e n arra ti v e b ut ra th er a s a “ narra ti v e o f n eo sla v ery ,” a te rm th at s ig nifie s n arra ti v e, s o nic , te sti m onia l, a nd p erfo rm ati v e

exp re ssio ns of postb ellu m ra cia liz e d in carc era ti o n th at unv eil th e ho rrify in g m eth o dolo gic al in ti m acie s of chatte l and penal

ensla v em ent.

T he in te rn m ent e xp erie nces o f th o se s u ch a s B elo ved , S eth e, P aul D ( a nd S eth e’s m oth er, w ho is ly nched a b oard a

sla v e s h ip ) u nd ers c o re h o w fo r th e A fr ic an a nd th o se o f A fr ic an d esc ent, th e m odern p ris o n d id n o t b egin w ith J e re m y B enth am ’s

Pano pti c o n, th e W aln ut S tr e et J a il, o r th e A ub urn S yste m , b ut w ith th e c o ffle s, b arra co ons, s la v e s h ip s, a nd s la v e “ p ens” o f th e

Mid dle P assa ge. A s D yla n R odríg uez a rg ues i n th is r e gard :

A g enealo gy o f th e c o nte m pora ry p ris o n r e gim e a w akens b oth th e h is to ric al m em ory a nd th e s o cio politi c al l o gic

of th e M id dle

Passa ge. T he p ris o n has co m e to fo rm a haunti n gly sim ila r sp ati a l and te m pora l co nti n uum

betw een s o cia l a nd b io lo gic al n o ti o ns o f life a nd d eath , b anal lib era l c iv ic fr e ed om a nd to ta liz in g u nfr e ed om ,

co m munity a nd a lie nati o n, a gency a nd l iq uid ati o n, th e “ hum an” a nd th e s u b hum an/n o nhum an. I n a r e co nstr u cti o n

of th e M id dle P assa ge’s c o nsti tu ti v e lo gic , th e re in v ente d p ris o n re gim e is a rti c ula ti n g a nd s e lf- v alo riz in g a

co m mitm ent to e ffic ie nt a nd e ffe cti v e b odily im mobiliz a ti o n w ith in th e m ass-b ase d o nto lo gic al s u b je cti o n o f

hum an b ein gs.

Belo ved ,

th e tr a nsa cti o nal r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een c arc era l s p aces s itu ate d o n o pposin g s id es o f th e 1 865 b ord er u nd erlin es a m ode

of r a d ic al c o unte r-h is to ric al th eo riz a ti o n w ith in M orris o n’s te xt. T hat i s , th e c entr a l r o le o f p ris o n a rc hite ctu re s v is -à -v is th e n o vel’s

overa ll se v erin g of lin ear te m pora lity und erlin es its ro le as narra ti v e re o rie nta ti o n of occid enta l peno lo gy by w ay of a

no nd ia chro nic , b la ck d ia sp oric ti m elin e— or, m ore p ro perly s p eakin g, a te m pora l c ir c ula rity , a b out w hic h o ste nsib ly o bso le te o r

pre m odern te rro r m odaliti e s r e su rfa ce r ig ht a lo ng w ith th e te xt’ s p uta ti v ely d ead g ho st- c hild .

As R obert B ro ad h as p oin te d o ut, B elo ved r e p re se nts th e r e tu rn n o t o nly o f S eth e’s “ cra w lin g a lr e ad y” b ab y, b ut a ls o o f a ll th o se

who w ere m urd ere d a s a d ir e ct r e su lt o f th eir e nto m bm ent in th e h o ld s, h alf- , a nd q uarte rd ecks o f s la v e s h ip s d urin g th e M id dle

Passa ge— th e “ 6 0 m illio n a nd m ore ” r e fe rre d to in th e n o vel’s e p ig ra p h.

B elo ved m akes r e fe re nce to h er h o rrify in g tr a nsa tl a nti c

exp erie nce i n a s tr e am -o f- c o nsc io usn ess i n te rlu d e th at o ccurs w ell i n to th e te xt:

All o f i t i s n ow i t i s a lw ays n ow t h ere w ill n ever b e a t im e w hen I a m n ot c ro uch in g a nd w atc h in g o th ers w ho

are c ro uch in g to o

I a m a lw ays c ro uchin g

th e m an o n m y fa ce is d ea d

h is fa ce is n o t m in e . . . s o m e w ho e at

nasty th em se lv es . . . a t n ig ht I c anno t s e e th e d ead m an o n m y fa ce . . . s m all r a ts d o n o t w ait fo r u s to s le ep

so m eo ne i s th ra sh in g b ut th ere i s n o r o om to d o i t i n i f w e h ad m ore to d rin k w e c o uld m ake te ars . . . w e a re a ll

tr y in g to le av e o ur b odie s b ehin d . . . in th e b egin nin g w e c o uld v om it n o w w e d o n o t n o w w e c anno t . . .

so m eo ne is tr e m blin g . . . h e is fig htin g h ard to le a ve h is b ody w hic h is a s m all b ir d tr e m blin g th ere is n o

ro om t o t r e m ble s o h e i s n ot a ble t o d ie . . . t h ose a ble t o d ie a re i n a p ile .

Com pare B elo ved ’s te sti m ony to th at g iv en in 1 788 b y th e R ev ere nd Jo hn N ew to n a fte r h e h ad w itn esse d c o nd iti o ns a b oard

Euro pean s la v e v esse ls . H e d esc rib es th e s p aces i n w hic h th e c ap ti v es w ere p acked ,

so m eti m es m ore th an fiv e fe et h ig h a nd s o m eti m es le ss; a nd th is h eig ht is d iv id ed to w ard th e m id dle fo r th e

sla v es lie in tw o ro w s [o n p la tf o rm s] o ne a b ove th e o th er, o n e ach s id e o f th e s h ip , c lo se to e ach o th er lik e

books o n a s h elf. I h av e k no w n th em s o c lo se th at th e s h elf w ould n o t e asily c o nta in o ne m ore .

The p oor c re atu re s, th us c ra m ped , a re lik ew is e in ir o ns fo r th e m ost p art w hic h m akes it d iffic ult fo r th em to

tu rn o r m ove o r a tte m pt to r is e o r to l ie d ow n w ith o ut h urti n g th em se lv es o r e ach o th er. E very m orn in g . . .

in sta nces t h an o ne a re f o und o f t h e l iv in g a nd t h e d ea d f a ste n ed t o geth er.

Both te sti m onie s d esc rib e a W este rn p hilo so phy o f i m pris o nm ent th at w as u se d f r o m th e e arly m odern p erio d th ro ugh th e n in ete enth

centu ry a b oard sla v e v esse ls , a sy ste m k no w n a s “ ti g ht- p ackin g.” T he te le o lo gy o f th is m ass-in te rn m ent sy ste m h ad to d o w ith

maxim iz in g th e p ro fita b ility o f th e tr a d e in h um an c o m moditi e s b y re q uir in g th at s la v es b e c ra m med in to e v ery in ch o f a v aila b le

sp ace. T he b odie s o f s la v e-s h ip p ris o ners w ere h o riz o nta lly p re sse d to geth er a nd v erti c ally s ta cked u p on e ach o th er i n a m anner th at

im mobiliz e d cap ti v e m en, w om en, and child re n to su ch an exte nt th at sh ifti n g o ne’s p ositi o n o r sitti n g up str a ig ht w as o fte n

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** im possib le . T ho se e nto m bed in th e s la v e h o ld w ere o fte n fo rc ed to lie in th eir o w n e xcre m ent fo r th e e nti r e tr a nsa tl a nti c jo urn ey.

Such m eth o ds o f sa d is ti c ra cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t a rc hite ctu ra l c alc ula ti o n a re e v id enced in th e n o w -in fa m ous sk etc h o f th e

Liv erp ool sla v er

Bro okes.

T he d ia gra m p ic tu re s 4 51 c arto on-lik e b la ck fig ure s p la ced “ sp oon” sty le in to th e h o ld s a nd ti e re d

pla tf o rm s o f th e s h ip , a n um ber th at w as th re e s h o rt o f w hat i n 1 788 w as d eem ed l e gal f o r a s h ip o f i ts s iz e . T his s a rd in e-lik e ti e rin g

of h um an c arg o th eo re ti c ally a llo tte d a s p ace o f s ix fe et lo ng b y s ix te en in ches w id e ( a nd a p pro xim ate ly tw o fe et h ig h) fo r e v ery

man; f iv e f e et, te n i n ches l o ng b y s ix te en i n ches w id e f o r e v ery w om an; f iv e f e et b y f o urte en i n ches f o r e v ery b oy; a nd f o ur f e et b y

six i n ches f o r e v ery g ir l. T hat th e

Bro okes

c arrie d a s m any a s 6 09 p ris o ners ( 1 55 m ore th an i ts c ap acity ) a cro ss th e A tl a nti c b efo re

th e 1 788 la w w as p asse d e xem plifie s th e d ehum aniz in g sp ati a l te chniq ues b y w hic h e arly m odern ity ’s fir s t ra cia liz e d p ris o ns

pro duced

mass b io lo gic al d eath o f g eno cid al p ro porti o ns.

B etw een 1 5 p erc ent a nd 2 0 p erc ent o f th o se w ho b egan th e “ p assa ge” i n

th e c o ffle s a nd b arra co ons o f A fr ic a p eris h ed b efo re r e achin g th e A meric as— a f ig ure th at a m ounte d to a t l e ast 1 2 m illio n p re m atu re

death s.

For m y p urp ose s, h o w ev er, it is im porta nt to re co gniz e h o w th e in cid ence o f b io lo gic al d eath th at o ccurre d in th e c o ffle s,

barra co ons, “ fa cto rie s,” s h ip s, a nd “ p ens” o f th e M id dle P assa ge d oes n o t o ffe r a c o m ple te m easu re o f th e g eno cid al n atu re o f

modern w hite s u p re m acis t c arc era lity .

T hat b oth B elo ved a nd D r. N ew to n s p eak o f th e liv in g a nd th e d ead b ein g p ile d o n to p o f

one a no th er a nd fa ste ned to geth er b y c hain s in th e h o ld s o f s la v e s h ip s g ra p hic ally te sti fie s to h o w th e k illin g o f th e A fr ic an s la v e

in v olv ed m ore th an th e ta kin g o f h er b io lo gic al l ife . S ta te d s im ply , B la ck A tl a nti c a nd “ N ew W orld ” m ass i n te rn m ent, e nsla v em ent,

and geno cid e w ere and

are

pro duced as m uch th ro ugh th e m ass re p ro ducti o n of

liv in g dea th

as th ro ugh th e pro ducti o n of

bio lo gic ally e xp ir e d b odie s. H ere w e m ig ht th in k o f th e r a d ic al i m port o f S eth e’s o nly m ono lo gue, i n w hic h s h e e xp la in s th e u nto ld

re aso n b ehin d h er o ste nsib ly i n sa ne a ct o f i n fa nti c id e: “

If I h adn’t k ille d h er s h e w ould h ave d ie d

a nd th at i s s o m eth in g I c o uld n o t

bear.”

If w e ta ke in to a cco unt liv in g d eath a s a fu nd am enta l a sp ect o f M id dle P assa ge a nd p la nta ti o n im pris o nm ent, th en th e

num ber o f th o se k ille d in th e tr a d e d oes in d eed a p pro ach th e s e em in gly m is c alc ula te d d eath c o unt o f “ 6 0 m illio n a nd m ore ” th at

ap pears in

Belo ved

’s e p ig ra p h. A nd , a s w e s h all s e e b elo w , 6 0 m illio n a nd m ore b eco m es a n e v en m ore a ccura te c o unt if w e

co nsid er h o w s la v ery ’s d eath to ll r e aches a cro ss th e b ord er o f E m ancip ati o n. T he i n clu sio n o f th e c ate go ry o f l iv in g d eath w ith in th e

te chniq ues o f s ta te a nd c o rp ora te k illin g a ls o a llo w s u s to a tte nd to th e w ays in w hic h to day’s m odern v ers io n o f m ass h um an

ware ho usin g— th e w hite su p re m acis t cap ita lis t m is o gynis t p enite nti a ry — re p re se nts an exte nsio n o f ra th er th an an anti th esis to

Mid dle P assa ge g eno cid e. A s C olin D ayan s ta te s w ith r e sp ect to th e c o nnecte d p ositi o naliti e s o f s la v e a nd c rim in al: “ D eath ta kes

many f o rm s, i n clu d in g l o ss o f s ta tu s b eyo nd w hic h l ife c ease s to b e p oliti c ally r e le v ant.”

The s ta tu s lo ss th at a cco m panie d th e m ass e nto m bm ent a nd n ata l a lie nati o n o f tr a nsa tl a nti c im pris o nm ent w as e nacte d o n th e

id eo lo gic al a nd o nto lo gic al l e v el th ro ugh th e q uesti o nin g o f th e s la v e’s m em bers h ip i n th e c o m munity o f h um ans.

I n o th er w ord s, i f

th e c ap ti v e c o uld b e p ro je cte d a s in hum an o r s u b hum an, th en

deh um aniz a tio n

c o uld b e e m pti e d o f a ny s e m anti c v alu e, th ere b y

dis q ualify in g b la ck in ju ry .

S ylv ia W ynte r

use s th e te rm

bio lo gic a l id ea lis m

to d esc rib e th e id eo lo gic al s y ste m th at tr a nsm ute d

Afr ic an h um anity in to q uasi- b esti a lity a nd b la ck p ers o nho od in to o bje cth o od. F or h er, th e “ nig ger” w as m ad e to re p re se nt “ th e

ulti m ate ze ro degre e cate go ry of an oste nsib ly

‘p rim al’

hum an natu re w ho se diffe re nti a ti o n fr o m a lu rk in g besti a lity w as

dangero usly im pre cis e a nd u ncerta in , s o u ncerta in a s to c all fo r a q uesti o n m ark to b e p la ced w ith r e sp ect to th e h um anity o f th is

ze ro -d egre e c ate go ry .”

T he r e p eate d r e fe re nces to th e d is p osse ssio n o f m anho od a nd w om anho od o n th e p art o f S eth e, P aul D , a nd

th e r e st o f th e “ S w eet H om e m en”— “

yo u g ot t w o l e g s n ot f o ur

;

I h ad a b it in m y m outh

”— re p re se nt th e r e in tr o ducti o n w ith in th e

“p ost” s la v ery m om ent o f th e id eo lo gic al c o nstr u ct o f b la ck s u b hum anity , d is c urs iv e b ra nd in g p ro cesse s th at b egan w ith c hatte l

sla v ery a nd th at w ere s p ecific ally i n augura te d w ith th e m ass p hysic al b ra nd in g, r a p e, a nd c arg o in g o f h um an b ein gs a b oard th e s la v e

sh ip . C onse q uentl y , th e r e alm o f id eo lo gy— th e c asti n g o f b la ckness a s a n a nth ro polo gy o f m eta p hysic al d efic it

—was a s m uch a

dev asta ti n g w eap on i n th e p ro ducti o n o f m ass s o cia l a nd l iv in g d eath a s w hip s, c hain s, a nd p is to ls .

In o ne i n sta llm ent o f a s e rie s o f e p is to la ry n arra ti v es f r o m 1 795 to 1 796, G eo rg e P in kard , a B riti s h m ed ic al d octo r, a tte sts to th e

warfa re f u ncti o nality o f r a cis t i d eo lo gy th ro ugh h is v ery a tte m pt a t e lid in g th e te rro r o f th e M id dle P assa ge. A fte r i n sin uati n g th at a

gro up o f A fr ic an w om en a b oard a s la v e s h ip flir te d w ith h im a nd o th er w hite m ale s h ip to uris ts b y g iv in g th em “ an e xp re ssiv e

lo ok . . . o r s ig nific ant g estu re ,” P in kard a tte m pts a r a ti o naliz a ti o n o f s la v e s h ip te rro r th at p re fig ure s th e p la nta ti o n r o m ances o f l a te

nin ete enth - a nd tw enti e th -c entu ry A meric an l ite ra ry a nd p opula r c ultu re :

Their s le ep in g b erth s w ere th e n aked b oard s. D iv id ed i n to tw o c ro w ded p arti e s th ey r e p ose d , d urin g th e n ig ht,

up on th e b are p la nks b elo w — th e m ale s o n th e m ain d eck— th e f e m ale s u p on th e d eck o f th e a ft c ab in . I n th e d ay

ti m e th ey . . . w ere k ep t m ostl y u p on th e o pen d eck, w here th ey w ere m ad e to e xerc is e , a nd e nco ura ged b y th e

music o f th eir b elo ved b anjo r

[s ic ]

, to

dancin g a nd c h eerfu ln ess.

W e s a w th em d ance a nd h eard th em s in g. In

dancin g th ey s c arc ely m oved th eir fe et, b ut th re w a b out th eir a rm s a nd tw is te d a nd w rith ed th eir b odie s in to a

multi tu d e o f d is g usti n g a nd i n d ecent a tti tu d es. T heir s o ng w as a w ild a nd s a v age y ell, d ev oid o f a ll s o ftn ess a nd

harm ony, a nd l o ud ly c hante d i n m ono to ny.

Their fo od is c hie fly r ic e w hic h th ey p re p are b y p la in a nd s im ple b oilin g. A t th e ti m e o f m essin g th ey s q uat

aro und th e b ow l i n l a rg e b odie s, u p on th eir h eels a nd h aunches,

lik e m onkie s

[

sic

], e ach p utti n g h is p aw i n to th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** pla tte r to c la w o ut w ith h is fin gers . W e s a w s e v era l o f th em e m plo yed in b eati n g th e re d h usk s o ff th e ric e,

whic h w as d one b y p ound in g th e g ra in in w ooden m orta rs . . . . T his a p peare d to b e a la b or o f c heerfu ln ess.

They b ea t t h e p estle i n t im e t o t h e s o ng a nd s e em ed h appy

;

yet n oth in g o f in dustr y m ark ed th eir to il

; fo r th e

pound in g w as p erfo rm ed b y i n d ole ntl y r a is in g th e p estl e a nd th en l e av in g i t f a ll b y i ts o w n w eig ht.

Here th e p hysic al b ra nd in g th at s la v es r e ceiv ed u p on th eir k id nap pin g o nto th e c o ffle a nd s la v e s h ip i s c o up le d w ith th eir e p is te m ic

bra nd in g a s a nim alis ti c , in fa nti le , a nd la zy ; a s s u ch, th e fo re b ears o f th e p la nta ti o n “ d ark y” a re in cap ab le o f fe elin g th e p ain o f

in te rn m ent, o f r e co gniz in g th e e no rm ity o f th eir d is p osse ssio n, o r o f p erfo rm in g in d ustr io us la b or w ith o ut th e s p ur o f p unis h m ent.

For th o se h um ans b ra nd ed a s s a v age “ m onkeys,” te rro r a nd c o lle cti v e d is a p peara nce a re a n o ccasio n fo r jo via lity , m errim ent, a nd

so ng. A s i n th e te sti m ony a b ove o f a tw enti e th -c entu ry c hain -g ang c ap ti v e, w hat i s a b se nt f r o m th is a cco unt i s th at s u ch “ hap pin ess”

on th e p art o f th e s la v e-s h ip p ris o ner w as o nly m ad e p ossib le th ro ugh th e e nactm ent o r th re at o f p hysic al te rro r. In c o ntr a st, a s

Said iy a H artm an s u ggests , w hat w as a t is su e fo r th e s la v ery a p olo gis t ( a nd o fte n th e s e lf- a v ow ed lib era l a b oliti o nis t) w hen a cti n g

as sp ecta to r o f b la ck su ffe rin g w as n o t v era city w ith re sp ect to th e e xp erie nce o f th e e nsla v ed b ut th e tr a nsm uta ti o n o f b la ck

su ffe ra nce i n to a s ta ge o f e njo ym ent: “ T he te rm s o f th is d is a v ow al a re s o m eth in g l ik e: N o th e s la v e i s n o t i n p ain . P ain i s n ’t r e ally

pain fo r th e e nsla v ed , b ecause o f th eir lim ite d s e nti e nce, te nd ency to fo rg et, a nd e asily c o nso la b le g rie f. L astl y th e s la v e is h ap py

and . . . h is h ap pin ess e xceed s o ur o w n . . . th e in iti a l r e v uls io n a nd h o rro r in d uced b y th e s ig ht o f s h ackle d a nd m anacle d b odie s

giv es w ay to r e assu ra nces a b out b la ck p le asu re .”

Wheth er th ro ugh its sta gin gs o f b la ck in urn m ent to p ain o r th ro ugh th e d ir e ct e nactm ent o f c o lle cti v e te rro r, th e sla v e sh ip

sy m boliz e d th e m anner i n w hic h n ata l a lie nati o n, th e s la v e’s to ta l b anis h m ent f r o m l in es o f k in sh ip a nd m odes o f s o cio cultu ra l l ife ,

cata ly ze d m ass l iv in g d eath , th e z e ro d egre e o f e nsla v em ent’ s s e ria liz e d s o cia l d eath . I n s o d oin g, i t f u ncti o ned a s a n u np re ced ente d

peno lo gic al c o nfig ura ti o n o f e arly m odern ity , o ne

th at tu rn ed th e A tl a nti c i n to a

necro politic a l

g eo gra p hy ( to u se A chille M bem be’s

te rm ), a n o ceanic d eath -s c ap e, w here in th e b ord er s e p ara ti n g l ife a nd d eath b ecam e v ir tu ally i n d ecip hera b le .

Belo ved ’s p re se nce in M orris o n’s n o vel ta kes o n a n ew m eanin g if w e a tte nd to h o w h er u nd ead o r d ead -liv in g s ta te r e p re se nts

th e o bvers e o f th e liv in g d eath c o nd iti o n o f M id dle P assa ge p ris o ners . H er liv ed r e m em bra nce o f tr a nsa tl a nti c im pris o nm ent g iv es

us a p rim e e xam ple o f h o w in anim ate s p aces c an a cq uir e d ev asta ti n g a gency th ro ugh r a d ic al a sy m metr ie s o f p ow er. In th e c ase o f

th e s la v e s h ip , a tr a nsfe r o f s u b je cti v ity to ok p la ce w here in a n in anim ate a rc hite ctu re a cq uir e d “ a life o f its o w n” b y s ip ho nin g th e

life o f th e c ap ti v e. In B elo ved ’s m ono lo gue, w e s e e h o w th e c ra m ped c o nd iti o ns o f th e s la v e s h ip p la yed a d ete rm in in g ro le in

so cia l r e la ti o ns e v en a s th ey w ere a p ro duct o f th o se r e la ti o ns. I n te rm s o f i ts v io le nt a nd d ehum aniz in g e ffe cts o n th e c ap ti v e b ody,

th e s la v e/p ris o n s h ip c arrie d w hat L ouis A lth usse r w ould d esc rib e a s a “ re la ti v e a uto no m y” v is -à -v is th e r e p ro ducti o n o f r e la ti o ns

of d om in ance.

T his p ow erfu l a gency o f p la ce i s r e p re se nte d e ls e w here i n

Belo ved

b y D env er’s r e acti o n w henev er s h e a p pro ached

124, a h o use th at s h e r e gard ed “ as a p ers o n r a th er th an a s tr u ctu re . A p ers o n th at w ep t, s ig hed , tr e m ble d a nd f e ll i n to f its .”

In h er

narra ti v e r e -c re ati o n o f th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld , M orris o n e xp ose s a s p ace w ho se s u b je cti v ity a nd p urp ose w ere d efin ed b y th e p ow er

to i m mobiliz e , to rtu re , a nd k ill.

Lite ra ry c riti q ues o f th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een p ers o nal m em ory a nd c o lle cti v e h is to ry i n

Belo ved

h av e o fte n d esc rib ed c hara cte rs ’

re liv in g o f th e e xp erie nce o f s la v ery in s tr ic tl y s y m bolic te rm s. A cco rd in g to th is a p pro ach, th e p re se nce o f th e M id dle P assa ge in

th e te xt r e p re se nts th e n eed o f th o se s u ch a s S eth e a nd P aul D to r e v is it r e p re sse d h o rro rs o f th e p ast i n o rd er to b egin th e p ro cess o f

se lf- p osse ssio n a nd to in iti a te th e h ealin g p ro cess. In S eth e’s c ase , B elo ved ’s p re se nce in iti a te s h er r e co lle cti o n o f a c o nv ers a ti o n

sh e h ad w ith N an r e gard in g th e r e p eate d r a p e o f S eth e’s m oth er a b oard a s la v e s h ip . T hus, i n s u ch a p sy cho analy ti c al a p pro ach, th e

fir s t lin e o f B elo ved ’s m ono lo gue— “

All o f it is n ow . . . it is a lw ays n ow . . . th ere w ill n ever b e a tim e w hen . . . I a m n ot

cro uch in g a nd w atc h in g o th ers w ho a re c ro uch in g t o o

”— would r e p re se nt h o w th e m em ory o f th e a tr o citi e s o f th e M id dle P assa ge

and , b y e xte nsio n, o f “ S w eet H om e” p la nta ti o n i s s ti ll a liv e w ith in th e p sy che o f th e n ew ly f r e ed b la ck s u b je ct. A lth o ugh th e v alid ity

of th is a rg um ent is in la rg e m easu re v alid , I w ant to s u ggest h o w it m ig ht a ls o b e in co m ple te . A c lo se r lo ok a t th e re la ti o nsh ip

betw een

Belo ved ’s m ono lo gue a nd th e n o vel’s c hain -g ang s c ene r e q uir e s u s to r e exam in e M orris o n’s r e nd erin g o f th e s la v e s h ip a nd

pla nta ti o n a s s ite s o f A fr ic an d ia sp oric l iv in g m em ory , o r w hat S eth e d esc rib es a s h er “ re m em ory .” T he tr a nsa cti o nal r e la ti o nsh ip o f

Bla ck A tl a nti c , p la nta ti o n, and Jim C ro w p ris o n arc hite ctu re s acro ss b ound arie s o f sp ace and ti m e re gis te rs th e sa lie nce o f

Ste p hanie S m allw ood’s th eo re ti c al a sse rti o n o f th e te m pora l b ound le ssn ess o f th e M id dle P assa ge— th at, w hile tr a p ped w ith in th e

pris o n-s h ip h o ld , i t w as “ eno rm ously d iffic ult f o r A fr ic ans to c le arly d is ti n guis h th e p hase s o f th eir j o urn ey, o r to a nti c ip ate th e e nd

of o ne p hase a nd th e b egin nin g o f a no th er.” T he e xp erie nce o f P aul D a nd f o rty -fiv e o th er b la ck m en i n a c hain -g ang c am p i n A lfr e d ,

Geo rg ia , r e gis te rs th e p ossib ility th at w hat S m allw ood d esc rib es a s th e “ te m pora l a nd s p ati a l e ntr a p m ent” o f th e M id dle P assa ge

nev er e nd ed — th at i n d eed ,

it i s a lw ays n ow

—ev en, o r e sp ecia lly , a fte r th e C iv il W ar.

In a s e cti o n o f th e n o vel th at h as r e ceiv ed littl e c riti c al a tte nti o n ( a nd th at is a ls o c o nsp ic uo usly a b se nt fr o m J o nath an D em me’s

cin em ati c a d ap ta ti o n o f th e te xt) , P aul D r e co unts h is e xp erie nce o f b ein g s o ld b y S cho olte acher— a p unis h m ent th at r e su lte d fr o m

his a tte m pte d e sc ap e f r o m S w eet H om e. W hile b ein g l e d i n a c o ffle a cro ss th e s ta te b ord er f r o m K entu cky to V ir g in ia w ith te n o th er

sla v es, P aul D a tte m pts to k ill B ra nd yw in e, h is n ew o w ner. H is e ffo rts fa il; a nd , a s a r e su lt o f th e “ crim e” o f a tte m pti n g to a tta in

fr e ed om , h e i s s e nt to a p re – C iv il W ar c hain -g ang c am p i n G eo rg ia . M orris o n o pens th e c hain -g ang c hap te r w ith a d esc rip ti o n o f th e

meth o d th at w as u se d to w are ho use P aul D a nd h is f o rty -fiv e f e llo w p ris o n s la v es:

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The d itc hes, th e o ne th o usa nd fe et o f e arth — fiv e fe et d eep , fiv e fe et w id e, in to w hic h w ooden b oxes h ad b een

fitte d . A d oor o f b ars th at y o u c o uld f it o n h in ges l ik e a c age o pened i n to th re e w alls a nd a r o of o f s c ra p l u m ber

and r e d d ir t. T w o f e et o f i t o ver h is h ead ; th re e f e et o f o pen tr e nch i n f r o nt o f h im w ith a nyth in g th at c ra w le d o r

sc urrie d w elc o m e to s h are

th at g ra ve c a llin g i ts e lf q uarte rs.

For P aul D , th e tr a um a o f liv in g b uria l w ith in th e p ris o n c am p “ b ox” m anife sts its e lf p hysic ally in th e fo rm o f u nco ntr o lla b le b ody

movem ents . T he n arra to r d esc rib es th e p oin t a t w hic h “ th ey s h o ved [ D ] i n to th e b ox a nd d ro pped th e c age d oor d ow n, h is h and s q uit

ta kin g in str u cti o n. O n th eir o w n th ey tr a v ele d . N oth in g c o uld s to p th em o r g et th eir a tte nti o n. T hey

would n o t h o ld h is p enis to

urin ate o r a s p oon to s c o op lim a b eans. . . . T he m ir a cle o f th eir o bed ie nce c am e w ith th e h am mer a t d aw n.”

T ellin gly , th e w ord

Morris o n u se s i n th is c hap te r a nd o th er s e cti o ns o f th e te xt to d esc rib e th e u nco ntr o lla b le p hysic al s ig ns o f P aul D ’s tr a um a-in d ucin g

exp erie nce o f u nd erg ro und l iv in g b uria l i s

tr e m blin g

, th e v ery s a m e w ord th at B elo ved u se s r e p eate d ly to d esc rib e th e c o nd iti o n o f

a fe llo w c ap ti v e in th e u nd erw ate r to m b o f th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld —

so m eo ne is tr e m blin g . . . h e is fig htin g h ard to le a ve h is b ody

whic h is a s m all b ir d tr e m blin g . . . th ere is n o r o om to tr e m ble s o h e is n ot a ble to d ie . . . th ose a ble to d ie a re in a p ile .

T hat

Paul D , th e c hain -g ang p ris o ner, a nd th e a no nym ous s la v e-s h ip p ris o ner a re d esc rib ed a s h av in g a n id enti c al s o m ati c r e sp onse to

cap ti v ity s u ggests h o w s p aces o f r a cis t te rro r h av e a s m uch s p ectr a l fo rc e in th e n o vel a s S eth e’s g ho st- c hild — th at w hat M orris o n

desc rib es a s B elo ved ’s “ m ir a culo us r e su rre cti o n” i s c o in cid ent w ith a nd c o nti n gent u p on th e r e v iv al o f th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l

model w ith in th e e xp erie nti a l p re se nt o f c hara cte rs i n th e te xt.

This n ew u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e re la ti o nsh ip b etw een e p ochal ra cia l a nd s p ati a l v io le nce a nd th e in elu cta b le re su rfa cin g o f th e

dead in th e n o vel o ffe rs a n a lte rn ati v e p oin t o f e ntr y in to th e m eanin g o f B elo ved a nd P aul D ’s s e xual e ngagem ents . M ost c riti c al

in q uir ie s in to th is s e xual b ond h av e tr e ate d it s o le ly fr o m th e p ers p ecti v e o f P aul D . H is p hysic al e nco unte rs w ith th e g ho st- c hild -

wom an i n th e v ery s h ed w here s h e w as k ille d r e p re se nt th e b egin nin g o f h is c o nfr o nta ti o n w ith th e e m oti o nal c o nte nts o f a n i n ju re d

se lfh o od th at h e h as k ep t h id den, o r re p re sse d , w ith in w hat M orris o n d esc rib es a s h is “ to bacco ti n ”— his s e ale d -o ff h eart.

A n

ele m ent o f th is b ond th at c riti c s h av e la rg ely ig no re d u nti l n o w , h o w ev er, is its m eanin g fr o m th e p oin t o f v ie w o f B elo ved . W hat

littl e h as b een w ritte n o n th e s u b je ct h as fo cuse d o n its o bvio us m eanin g: h er in sti g ati o n o f th e u nio n s im ply r e fle cts h er je alo usy

with r e sp ect to D ’s in ti m acy w ith S eth e. T his w ould s u ggest th at B elo ved u se s s e x w ith P aul D a s a p ra gm ati c ta cti c , o ne th at s h e

kno w s w ill l e ad to D ’s s e lf- im pose d b anis h m ent f r o m 1 24, a p la ce th at, f r o m h er p ers p ecti v e, h as n o r o om f o r th e p re se nce o f a m an

—nam ely , o ne w ho se in iti a l entr a nce in to th e d w ellin g le d to her o w n te m pora ry b anis h m ent, and , m ore im porta nt, o ne w ho

re p re se nts a c o m peti n g f o rc e f o r th e a tte nti o n o f S eth e.

How ev er, if w e k eep in m in d B elo ved ’s s tr e am -o f- c o nsc io usn ess re m em ory o f h er s la v e-s h ip e xp erie nce, w e re aliz e th at s e x

with P aul D re p re se nts m uch m ore th an a m ere fit o f je alo usy o ver S eth e’s lo ve. A lo ng w ith th e

man w ho is d esc rib ed as

“tr e m blin g,” a nd w ho d ie s w hile p re sse d a gain st B elo ved ’s b ody o n th e s la v e s h ip , B elo ved a ls o re m em bers a no th er s la v e-h o ld

pris o ner w ho w as a n o bje ct o f h er a ffe cti o n, a s e nti m ent th at r e su lts f r o m th is p arti c ula r u nnam ed m an’s g ift o f s o ng: “ S to rm s r o ck u s

and m ix th e m en in to th e w om en a nd th e w om en in to th e m en th at is w hen I b egin to b e o n th e b ack o f th e m an. . . . I lo ve h im

because h e h as a s o ng w hen h e tu rn ed to d ie I s e e th e te eth h e s a ng th ro ugh . . . h is s in gin g w as s o ft . . . h is s o ng i s g o ne n o w I l o ve

his p re tty te eth i n ste ad .”

T his d esc rip ti o n r e m in d s u s th at o ne o f P aul D ’s d efin in g c hara cte ris ti c s i s h is te nd ency to b re ak o ut i n to

th e s o ngs h e le arn ed w hile s la v in g o n th e c hain g ang a t a ny g iv en m om ent, h is u ncanny a b ility to ta p in to S eth e’s o w n re p re sse d

mem orie s a nd fe elin gs: “ E m oti o ns s p ed to th e s u rfa ce in h is c o m pany. T hin gs b ecam e w hat th ey w ere : d ra b ness lo oked d ra b ; h e at

was h o t. W in d ow s s u d denly h ad v ie w .

And w ould n’t y o u k n ow h e’d b e a s in gin g m an.

” 37

F ro m B elo ved ’s p ers p ecti v e, P aul D ’s

sin gin g v oic e r e p re se nts th e p ossib ility th at th e s in gin g m an s h e h ad l o st to d eath i n th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld h as b een r e in carn ate d — th at

sh e i s n o t th e o nly e m bodie d g ho stl y p asse nger o f th e M id dle P assa ge w ho h as m ate ria liz e d i n th e s p ace o f 1 24. B elo ved a nd P aul

D’s l o vem akin g th ere b y s ig nifie s a n a tte m pt o n B elo ved ’s p art a t r e -c re ati n g th e

mix in g o f m an a nd w om an

th at o ccurre d a b oard th e

sla v e v esse l o n s o m eth in g c lo se to h er o w n te rm s r a th er th an th o se i m pose d b y th e s la v e tr a d er. S he d esir e s a c o nsu m mati o n o f tw o

“liv in g” b odie s r a th er th an th e c o m min glin g o f th e d ead a nd l iv in g d ead th at o ccurre d i n th e h o ld . I n th is s e nse , B elo ved ’s s p ectr a l

ro le i s o ne n o t j u st o f i n d is c rim in ate r a ge, j e alo usy, a nd “ b re ak-n eck p osse ssiv eness” : h er y earn in g f o r ( re )u nio n w ith P aul D i s a n

exp re ssio n o f h o w sla v es a tte m pte d to fa sh io n se xual a gency, in ti m acy, a nd lo ve o ut o f c o nd iti o ns b ord erin g o n d eath . F or m y

purp ose s, th e q uesti o n o f w heth er P aul D i s a ctu ally th e s in gin g m an w ho m B elo ved d esir e d ( o r th e tr e m blin g m an w ho d id n o t h av e

eno ugh r o om to a chie v e b io lo gic al d eath ) d urin g th e A tl a nti c c ro ssin g i s i m mate ria l. W hat I a m c o ncern ed w ith i s th e w ays i n w hic h

th e e xp erie nce o f te rro r th at D fa ced a s a c hain -g ang p ris o ner e lic ite d th e s o rt o f s o m ati c s ig ns, e m oti o nal r e sp onse s, a nd m usic al

so und in gs th at c o uld e asily b e ( m is )re co gniz e d a s e m anati o ns o f th e s la v e-s h ip e xp erie nce.

In d is c ussin g th e r e curre nce o f s o m eth in g p erilo usly a kin to th e s la v e s h ip w ith in th e e xp erie nti a l p re se nt o f c hara cte rs i n th e te xt,

se v era l q uesti o ns a ris e . W hy d oes M orris o n c ho ose to fo cus o n th e c hain -g ang c am p a s th e p rim ary c o nnecti n g lin k to th e “ p ast”

ho rro rs o f th e s la v e s h ip ?

What is th e fu ncti o n o f th e s o uth ern p ris o n c am p in a n o vel fix ate d o n th e h aunti n g p ow er o f “ S w eet

Hom e” s la v e p la nta ti o n? W hat d oes th e la w ’s c o nju rin g o f P aul D a nd S eth e’s a tte m pts a t e sc ap in g b ond age in to c rim in al o ffe nse

sa y a b out th e n atu re o f b la ck fr e ed om a fte r fo rm al e m ancip ati o n? A nd , fin ally , h o w d o th e e xp re ssio ns o f a p oliti c s o f w ound ed

ra d ic ality o n th e p art o f th o se s u ch a s S eth e, P aul D , a nd h is fe llo w c hain -g ang c ap ti v es r e p re se nt th e v exin g c o nto urs o f a gency

with in z o nes o f c o lle cti v e u nfr e ed om ? A gain , I a m i n te re ste d i n h o w th e e xp erie nce o f P aul D a nd h is f o rty -fiv e f e llo w c hain -g ang

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** cap ti v es i n p arti c ula r, a lo ng w ith th e d ynam ic s o f r a cia liz e d i m pris o nm ent i n th e te xt i n g enera l, r e v eals h o w M orris o n’s c hara cte rs

and a cti o n a re h aunte d a s m uch b y th e f u tu re a s th ey a re b y th e p ast.

P ut a no th er w ay, I a m i n te re ste d i n h o w M orris o n’s c hara cte rs

exp erie nce a c yclic al o r b ack-a nd -fo rth te m pora lity a nd h is to ric ity w here in th e p ast, p re se nt, a nd fu tu re e xis t in c o nsta nt in te rfa c e.

Fro m th e p ers p ecti v e o f th e n o vel’s l a te a nte b ellu m p lo t, th e l a b elin g o f th e r u naw ay s la v e a s a tr a nsg re ssin g

crim in al

r e p re se nts a n

om in o us p re fig ura ti o n o f th e p ostb ellu m b ra nd in g o f th e b la ck “ crim in al” a s

sla ve o f th e s ta te

. 40

M ore o ver,

Belo ved

r e gis te rs h o w

acts o f c o lle cti v e r a cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t te rro r a nd e nsla v em ent h av e n o t b een ( a nd w ill n o t b e) r e ceiv ed w ith o ut r a d ic al, if

in ju rio us, r e sp onse s o n th e p art o f th e u nfr e e.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The R acia l E xcep tio n a s R ule o f A m eric a n L aw : T he R ad ic a l R esu rre ctio n o f t h e “ A lf r e d 4 6”

In o ne o f

Belo ved ’s

n um ero us f la sh b acks, P aul D r e calls h o w , a fte r th e c o lle cti v e e sc ap e a tte m pt o f h im se lf, S eth e, H alle , S ix o , P aul

A, a nd P aul F h ad b een f o ile d , S cho olte acher p la ced a b it i n h is m outh . H e w as s u b se q uentl y d ra gged a w ay f r o m S w eet H om e b y a

ro pe, o ne e nd o f w hic h w as l a sso ed a ro und h is n eck, w ith th e o th er a tta ched to th e b ack o f h is n ew o w ner’s c arria ge. I t w as a t th is

mom ent th at h e c aught a g lim pse o f “ M is te r,” th e p la nta ti o n r o oste r— a b ir d w ho i n th e e sti m ati o n o f P aul D h ad b een f r e e to e xp re ss

more “ m anho od” th an h e h ad a t S w eet H om e. D r e m em bers th e l o ok o n M is te r’s f a ce a s th e f o rm er w as b ein g h aule d a w ay f r o m th e

pla nta ti o n: “ T hen h e s a w . . . th e r o oste r, s m ilin g a s i f to s a y,

Yo u a in ’t s e en n oth in g y et.

H ow c o uld a r o oste r k no w a b out A lfr e d ,

Geo rg ia ?” M is te r’s fo re b odin g e xp re ssio n is c o rro bora te d b y th e tr e atm ent P aul D re ceiv es im med ia te ly u p on h is a rriv al a t th e

pris o n c am p, a p oin t s y m boliz e d b y th e fa ct th at it w as th e e xp erie nce o f liv in g b uria l a t A lfr e d , G eo rg ia — no t h is

ensla v em ent a t

Sw eet H om e— th at l e d to D ’s tr e m blin g f its . I n d eed , th e n arra to r a llu d es to th e p eculia r e ffe cts o f th e c am p e arly i n th e te xt, th e d ay

afte r D a rriv es a t 1 24, w ell b efo re th e c hain -g ang s c ene a ctu ally u nfo ld s: “ T he b ox h ad d one to h im w hat S w eet H om e h ad n o t;

Dro ve h im c ra zy s o h e w ould n’t l o se h is m in d .”

I w ant to p urs u e th e p ossib ility th at th e d ub io us lo ok o f k no w in g in th e r o oste r’s e yes a s P aul D is b ein g h aule d a w ay fr o m th e

sla v e p la nta ti o n r e fe rs to m uch m ore th an D ’s im min ent e xp erie nce o f te rro r a nd d ehum aniz a ti o n in G eo rg ia — th at th e “ yo u” o f th e

yo u a in ’t se en n oth in ’ y et

h as a c o lle cti v e re so nance th at re aches fo rw ard in to th e a ctu al liv ed re ality o f b la ck p eo ple a fte r

Em ancip ati o n. W hen v ie w ed fr o m th e e xp erie nti a l p re se nt o f th e n o vel’s m ain c hara cte rs — and fr o m th e p re se nt c o nte xt o f th e

pris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x— Mis te r’s g la nce n o t o nly p orte nd s P aul D ’s p ers o nal e nco unte r w ith th e c hain g ang b ut a ls o h era ld s th e

co lle cti v e o rd eal o f m any fr e ed m en, w om en, a nd c hild re n w ho h av e b een s u b je cte d to p ris o n s la v ery a nd to a n o vera ll s ta te o f

sie ge a nd d om esti c w arfa re a fte r th e a tta in m ent o f d e j u re f r e ed om . R ead i n th is l ig ht, th e o m en P aul D g arn ers f r o m M is te r’s s ta re

re gis te rs th e u nse ttl in g r e ality th at th e tr a nsiti o n fr o m s la v ery to fr e ed om w ould le ad to a n a m plific ati o n r a th er th an a b ate m ent o f

in ju ry , l iv in g d eath , a nd m urd er f o r m any f o rm er s la v es. T his i s s y m boliz e d b y th e c le ar c o rre la ti o n b etw een M orris o n’s a nte b ellu m

chain -g ang c am p a nd th e c o unty c hain -g ang c am ps o f th e p ostb ellu m e ra .

To fu lly u nd ers ta nd w hat I m ean b y th e “ fu tu re o rie nta ti o n” o f

Belo ved

a nd th e r o le o f im pris o nm ent in p ro ducin g th e fo rw ard -

haunti n g a sp ects o f th e n o vel, w e m ust f ir s t i d enti fy w hat c an b e th o ught o f a s M orris o n’s u se o f

str a te g ic a nach ro nis m

i n th e c hain -

gang sc ene. W ith th is te rm , I a m re fe rrin g to h er in te nti o nal p la cem ent o f a p uniti v e re gim e n o rm ally a sso cia te d w ith th e la te

nin ete enth to m id -tw enti e th c entu ry in to th e c o nte xt o f th e la te a nte b ellu m p erio d. T he m echanis m th at th e A lfr e d , G eo rg ia , p ris o n-

cam p a uth o riti e s u se to e nto m b P aul D a nd h is fe llo w c ap ti v e fu giti v es, th e “ b ox” th at “ re se m ble s a c age,” h as a r e al p ostb ellu m

his to ric al re fe re nt: th e p orta b le c hain -g ang “ cage,” o r “ m ovin g p ris o n,” m any o f w hic h w ere b uilt in G eo rg ia a nd d is tr ib ute d

th ro ugho ut th e s o uth ern s ta te s. B oth ra d ic al s c ho la rs h ip a nd m uckra kin g a cco unts o f e arly J im C ro w a p arth eid b elie th e e arlie r

re fe re nced c la im s o n th e p art o f c hain -g ang a d m in is tr a to rs to th e “ co m fo rt” a nd “ sa nita ry ” n atu re o f th e m ovin g p ris o n. I n a

Harp er’s

Month ly M agazin e

a rti c le f r o m 1 933, W alte r W ils o n o ffe rs a m ore a ccura te p ic tu re :

The s te el c age . . . w ago n i s o rd in arily a b out 1 8 f e et l o ng, 8 f e et h ig h, a nd 8 f e et w id e w ith tw o o r th re e ti e rs o f

bunks i n e ach c age. T his i s th e s le ep in g a nd l iv in g r o om f o r a b out 2 0 m en. B ecause i t c an e asily b e m oved w ith

th e p ro gre ss o f th e jo b, th e c age is e sp ecia lly s u ite d fo r r o ad w ork , if o ne d oesn ’t c o nsid er th e w elfa re o f th e

pris o ners . It is a s ig ht n o t s o on fo rg o tte n to s e e th e c ages, w hic h lo ok a ll th e w orld

lik e a nim al c a ges in a

cir c u s

. . . a s th ey m ove to a no th er jo b. C ountr y p eo ple flo ck to th e fr o nt g ate s to w atc h a nd lis te n a s th e

pro cessio n o f c ages, lo ad ed w ith v erm in in fe ste d m en, c re aks a nd ra sp s a lo ng th e h o t, s a nd y, d usty ro ad . In

ra in y w eath er a ta rp aulin fla p is d ro pped o ver th e w alls o f th e c age to s h ut o ut th e w ate r; it a ls o s h uts o ff

venti la ti o n a nd lig ht. A tu b u nd ern eath a h o le in th e flo or is th e to ile t. A h o rrib le s te nch a ris e s fr o m it. . . . O n

Sund ays, n ig hts , a nd h o lid ays th e m en a re l o cked i n th e c ages.

A l o ng c h ain i s p asse d t h ro ugh t h e l e g c h ain s o f

ea ch p ris o ner

—th ese la tte r a re p erm anentl y riv ete d o n b y th e b la cksm ith . In th is w ay a ll th e p ris o ners a re

fa ste ned to a s in gle c hain a nd c an b e r e le ase d o nly b y a g uard u nlo ckin g th em . O bvio usly s u ch a n a rra ngem ent

has its g o od p oin ts , fo r fe w er g uard s a re n ecessa ry to w atc h fe tte re d p ris o ners in a s te el c age, a nd m oney is

sa v ed .

The p orta b le a b ovegro und v ers io n o f M orris o n’s b ox w as d esig ned to h o ld f r o m tw elv e to tw enty -fo ur m en o r b oys. T o f it s o m any

pris o ners in to s u ch a s m all s p ace, th e “ cage” c o nsis te d o f tw o p ara lle l s e cti o ns o f th re e-ti e re d b unks w ith a n a ccess p ath r u nnin g

dow n th e c ente r a nd a h o le c ut in th e m id dle o f th e w alk w ay, th ro ugh w hic h p ris o ners w ere fo rc ed to u rin ate a nd d efe cate in to a

bucket p la ced o n th e g ro und b elo w . T he o ute r s h ell o f th ese s tr u ctu re s w as e ith er a la tti c e o f w ooden o r m eta l b ars th at le ft th e

chain -g ang c ap ti v e o pen to s u rv eilla nce b y c am p g uard s a nd th e p ub lic o r fo ur w in d ow le ss w ooden w alls ( F ig ure 3 ).

T his la tte r

vers io n o f th e r o llin g c age l e ft p ris o ners w ith n o v ie w o f th e o uts id e w orld a nd a llo w ed th em o nly a m in usc ule s u p ply o f b re ath ab le

air — th ro ugh a n arro w s lit r u nnin g a lo ng th e to p o f th e s tr u ctu re .

A s i n th e c ase o f th e s la v e s h ip , th e m ovin g c age i m mobiliz e d i ts

chain ed p ris o ners to s u ch a n e xte nt th at s itti n g u p s tr a ig ht w as i m possib le .

The d ehum aniz in g and su ffo cati n g asp ects o f th ese sp aces o f ra cia l cap ita lis t te rro r re gis te r th e affilia ti o ns o f th e p ris o n

arc hite ctu re s o f s la v ery a nd fr e ed om . M ore s p ecific ally , in te rm s o f its p ro perti e s o f d efile m ent

and ti e r-s ty le h um an c arg o in g, th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** la nd -b ase d m ovin g p ris o n o f J im C ro w a p arth eid re v iv ed , o n a s m alle r s c ale , th e h o rro r e nd ure d b y th o se e nto m bed w ith in th e

wate r-b ase d m ovin g p ris o ns o f th e A tl a nti c . T hat M orris o n s itu ate s h er v ers io n o f th e c hain -g ang c age w ith in th e la te a nte b ellu m

perio d r a th er th an i ts “ p ro per” p la ce i n p osts la v ery h is to ry a nalo giz e s th e p oro us a nd v erti g in o us n atu re o f th e 1 865 b ord er f r o m th e

sta nd poin t of bla ck cap ti v es. T he doub lin g of ra cia liz e d pris o n arc hite ctu re s acro ss oste nsib ly se p ara te his to ric al ju nctu re s

hig hlig hts th e te m pora l a nd s p ati a l d is lo cati o n th at th e e nsla v ed p ris o ner e xp erie nced , w here b y a ny a tte m pt a t d is ti n guis h in g p ast

and p re se nt m odaliti e s o f e nto m bm ent i s r e nd ere d n early i m possib le .

Fig ure 3 .

T w o p ris o n s la ves c hain ed in sid e a G eorg ia c hain -g ang “ b ox,” e arly 1 930s. P hoto gra ph b y J o hn S piv ak. P hoto gra phy C olle ctio n, H arry R anso m C ente r,

Univ ers it y o f T exas a t A ustin .

Lik e P aul D a nd h is fo rty -fiv e fe llo w p ris o ners in th e la te a nte b ellu m c hain g ang, th o se fr e e b la ck p eo ple w ho w ere r o und ed u p

and d eta in ed a t c hain -g ang c am ps fo r m is d em eano r “ crim es” s u ch a s v agra ncy, b re ach o f c o ntr a ct, p etty la rc eny, lo ite rin g, p ub lic

nuis a nce, d rin kin g, a nd g am blin g f a ced c ir c um sta nces b ord erin g o n, a nd c ro ssin g th e b ord er i n to , w hat G io rg io A gam ben d esc rib es

as “

co nditio in hum ana.

” 45

F or A gam ben, th e ho rrify in g co nd iti o ns o f th e N azi co ncentr a ti o n cam p re su lte d fr o m a “sta te o f

excep ti o n”— an e xtr e m e p oliti c al s itu ati o n w here in th e s o vere ig n o r s ta te e xecuti v e s u sp end s c o nsti tu ti o nal rig hts a nd th e ru le o f

la w in o rd er to “ p ro te ct” th e s ta te a gain st a re p ute d e nem y. T he d ecla ra ti o n o f th e e xcep ti o n in re la ti o n to J e w s, G yp sie s, q ueer

su b je cts , c o m munis ts , a nd o th ers la b ele d a s “ in te rn al a nd e xte rn al e nem ie s o f th e s ta te ” r e su lte d in th e N azi c o ncentr a ti o n c am p, a

sp ace w here in h um an “ life ” w as tu rn ed in to a n a p pro xim ati o n o f d eath . A s A gam ben e xp la in s, “ B ecause [c am p p ris o ners ] w ere

la ckin g a lm ost a ll th e r ig hts a nd e xp ecta ti o ns th at w e c usto m arily a ttr ib ute to h um an e xis te nce, a nd y et w ere s ti ll b io lo gic ally a liv e,

th ey c am e to b e s itu ate d a t a lim it z o ne b etw een life a nd d eath .”

H e a d ds th at th ese c o nd iti o ns o f liv in g d eath , a lo ng w ith th e

se ria liz e d m urd er th at to ok p la ce a t th e c am p, re p re se nte d th e d ep lo ym ent b y th e N azi s ta te o f w hat h e c alls “ th anato politi c s,” a

more o penly c o erc iv e a nd s a nguin ary f o rm o f F oucault’ s “ b io politi c s,” w here m odern s ta te p ow er h as m ore to d o w ith th e p ow er to

kill th an it d oes w ith th e m ic ro m anagem ent a nd d is c ip lin in g o f th e liv in g. A lo ng th ese lin es, a m ain fu ncti o n o f s ta te s o vere ig nty in

th e m odern e ra h as to d o w ith c ra fti n g a n e nem y s o d efa m ed th at th ey c o m e to re p re se nt a “ life th at m ay b e k ille d w ith o ut th e

co m mis sio n o f h o m ic id e.”

F or A gam ben, th e c o ncentr a ti o n c am p is th e u lti m ate s y m bol o f th e z o ne o f e xcep ti o n, w ho se p la ce

outs id e la w c le arly d is ti n guis h es it

fr o m w hat F oucault d esc rib es a s “ th e m odern p ris o n.” A gam ben in sis ts th at th e e xcep ti o n is

exem plifie d in th e “ cam p— and

not th e p ris o n,

” th at “

pris o n la w c o nstitu te s a p artic u la r s p here o f p en al la w a nd is n ot o uts id e

th e n orm al o rd er,

th e ju rid ic al c o nste lla ti o n th at g uid es th e c am p . . . is m arti a l la w a nd th e s ta te o f s ie ge. T his is w hy it is n o t

possib le to i n sc rib e th e a naly sis o f th e c am p i n th e tr a il o pened b y th e w ork s o f F oucault.”

Belo ved

, M orris o n’s p ortr a yal o f th e c arc era l a cco rd in g to a b la ck d ia sp oric h is to ric al a nd te m pora l a xis b lu rs a ny s u ch c le ar

dis ti n cti o n b etw een th e e xcep ti o nal c o nd iti o ns o f th e c o ncentr a ti o n c am p a nd th e v ario us f o rm ati o ns o f i m pris o nm ent to w hic h b la ck

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** cap ti v es a nd o th er T hir d W orld p eo ple s h av e b een s u b je cte d f r o m th e c o lo nia l p erio d i n th e A meric as th ro ugh th e p re se nt.

A m ajo r

pro ble m w ith A gam ben’s c o m paris o n o f “ th e c am p” to “ th e p ris o n” h as to d o m ore w ith h is to rio gra p hy th an m eth o dolo gy. H e r e lie s

up on M ic hel F oucault’ s p ris o n h is to ry , o ne th at s o m eho w m anages to o ffe r a d eta ile d a cco unt o f W este rn c arc era l re gim es fr o m

fe ud alis m to m odern ity w ith o ut g iv in g a s m uch a s a p assin g re fe re nce to h o w s la v ery o r c o lo nia lis m fit in to th e p ic tu re : p ris o n

sp aces s u ch a s th e b arra co on, th e s la v e s h ip , s la v e p en, p la nta ti o n, a nd c hain -g ang c am p a re n o t c o unte d a s n o des o n w hat h e

desc rib es a s th e W este rn “ carc era l a rc hip ela go .” T hese g la rin g o m is sio ns d is c lo se h o w th e fe ud al- m odern p ola rity o utl in ed in

Dis c ip lin e a nd P unis h

d ep end s o n a c o m ple te d is re gard fo r th e c entr a lity o f s la v ery a nd c o lo nia lis m in th e p ro ducti o n o f W este rn

carc era l fo rm ati o ns a nd in th e u nfo ld in g o f o ccid enta l m odern ity a s a w ho le . M orris o n’s c ente rin g o f th e M id dle P assa ge a nd th e

pla nta ti o n a s p rim al s ite s o f r a cia liz e d p unis h m ent fo rc es u s to r e ev alu ate w hat w e a re r e fe rrin g to w hen w e s p eak o f th e “ m odern

pris o n.” S he re v eals h o w th e sla v e sh ip a nd th e p la nta ti o n o pera te d a s sp ati a l, ra cia l, a nd e co no m ic te m pla te s fo r su b se q uent

models o f c o erc ed la b or a nd h um an w are ho usin g— as A meric a’s o rig in al p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x. H er c hara cte rs ’ e xp erie nces

sy m boliz e th e d egre e to w hic h, fr o m sla v ery to neo sla v ery , su rv eilla nce, in carc era ti o n, and co lle cti v e p unis h m ent hav e m ad e

norm al l ife

ta nta m ount to a s ta te o f s ie ge, i f n o t a ll- o ut w ar, f o r th o se b ra nd ed a s i n te rn al a lie ns o r n atu ra l- b orn e nem ie s o f th e s ta te

on th e b asis o f th e s o cia l c o nstr u ct o f r a ce.

As J o y J a m es h as p oin te d o ut in r e sp ect to th e d om in ati v e n atu re o f le gal a nd e xtr a le gal te rro r a gain st b la ck p eo ple , a naly sis o f

th e in te gra l fu ncti o nality o f w hite su p re m acy in re la ti o n to U .S . c arc era l m odes in p arti c ula r, a nd to W este rn im peria lis t m ass

vio le nce in g enera l, sh o rt- c ir c uits th e

majo r h is to ric al c la im o f F oucault’ s p ro je ct— th at w ith th e tr a nsiti o n fr o m fe ud alis m to

modern ity , punis h m ent becam e le ss pub lic and physic ally re p re ssiv e, and m ore psy cho lo gic ally co erc iv e, re fin ed , and

“ad m in is tr a ti v ely d ecent.”

T his h is to ric al a nd th eo re ti c al b lin d s p ot e xp la in s F oucault’ s m is ta ken c la im th at th e c hain g ang w as

dis c o nti n ued a s a p uniti v e in sti tu ti o n in th e e arly n in ete enth c entu ry , w hen it e nd ed in F ra nce, a n ir o nic h is to rio gra p hic o vers ig ht

co nsid erin g th at A meric a’s m ore r e p re ssiv e b ra nd o f th e c hain -g ang s y ste m w ould o pera te w ell in to th e tw enti e th c entu ry : th at is ,

unti l s o m e tw o d ecad es b efo re th e p ub lic ati o n o f

Dis c ip lin e a nd P unis h .

A lth o ugh th e th eo re ti c al i m port o f F oucault’ s a naly sis o f

modern d is c ip lin ary r e gim es c anno t b e d enie d , th e e xp erie nce o f A fr ic ans, in d ig eno us p eo ple s, a nd o th er c o lo niz e d a nd e nsla v ed

co lle cti v es w ith in lo cale s o f W este rn im peria lis m b elie a ny c ate go ric al s e p ara ti o n o f p re m odern a nd m odern m eth o ds o f v io le nce

and so cia l d om in ati o n. H ere w e a re re m in d ed o f C ed ric R obin so n’s a sse rti o n in B la ck M arx is m o f th e e v er-e ncro achin g a nd

decid ed ly u nd ead p re se nce o f s la v ery w ith in E uro -A meric an m odern ity : “ T he e xp ansio n o f s la v ery in to th e n in ete enth c entu ry w as

no t a n a nachro nis m b ut a f o re w arn in g.”

A gain , th e m easu re o f n ecro politi c s a nd th e s ta te o f l e galiz e d e xcep ti o n i n s p aces s u ch a s

th e sla v e-s h ip h o ld , th e c hatte l- s la v e p la nta ti o n, th e p ostb ellu m p ris o n p la nta ti o n, a nd th e p orta b le c hain -g ang c am p c anno t b e

re d uced to b io lo gic al d eath r a te s— th o ugh, a s D av id O sh in sk y h as p oin te d o ut, s u ch r a te s in th e c ase o f p ostb ellu m p ris o n c am ps

ra nged fr o m 1 0 p erc ent to 4 0 p erc ent.

F or th o se su ch a s P aul D a nd th e re al- life re fe re nts fo r h is e xp erie nce o f n eo sla v ery ,

co nd iti o ns of te rro r and ab je cti o n m ad e bio lo gic al life ta nta m ount to liv in g death . To lim it our co ncep ti o n of th anato - or

necro politi c s to b io lo gic al d eath c o unts is to n egate th e g eno cid al r e ach o f im peria lis t s o vere ig nty in its p ro te an m eth o dolo gie s o f

killin g.

If th e ra d ic al te m pora lity o f M orris o n’s narra ti v e o f neo sla v ery is re gis te re d la rg ely b y its exp ositi o n o f th e ti m e-b end in g

cap aciti e s o f r a cia liz e d i m pris o nm ent, th en i ts f u ll m easu re c anno t b e u nd ers to od w ith o ut a tte nd in g to th e m odes o f r e sis ta nce w ith in

th e te xt th at fu ncti o n a s r e p la ys o f tr a nsa tl a nti c a nd p la nta ti o n r e b ellio n. In a m om ent th at r e calls th e p erilo us a nd te nuo us n atu re o f

co lle cti v e r e b ellio n d urin g c hatte l s la v ery , th e “ A lfr e d 4 6” a re d eliv ere d fr o m th eir u nd erg ro und liv in g b uria l. A s th e w ate rs o f a

to rre nti a l ra in sto rm fill th e m ud dy tr e nch in w hic h th ey are b urie d , th e fo rty -s ix chain -g ang cap ti v es act in unis o n to re le ase

th em se lv es b y y ankin g th e “ lo ng-c hain ” th at h eld th em in th e u nd erg ro und c age: “ T hey

ta lk ed th ro ugh th e c hain lik e S am M ors e

and . . . th ey a ll c am e u p . L ik e

th e u nsh riv en d ea d,

z o m bie s o n th e lo ose ,

hold in g th e c h ain s in th eir h an ds,

th ey tr u ste d th e r a in

and th e d ark , y es, b ut m ostl y . . . e ach o th er.”

Morris o n’s d esc rip ti o n o f th e n ew ly fr e ed m en a s “ zo m bie s” r e gis te rs b oth th e p ara d oxic al c ap aciti e s o f a tte m pte d a gency a nd

co lle cti v e a cti o n o n th e p art o f th o se f a cin g th e m ost a b je ct f o rm s o f d om in ance a nd h o w , w ith in th e c o nte xt o f c o nti n ued c o lle cti v e

su b je cti o n, th e “ su ccess” o f s u ch a cts o f r e b ellio n c anno t m ost o fte n b e m easu re d b y a “ cle an b re ak” f r o m u nfr e ed om . I n d eed , a s th e

arw hoolie ,

o r w ork s o ng, th at th e fo rty -s ix m en p erfo rm b efo re th eir p ris o n b re ak m akes c le ar,

th e h is to ry o f b la ck d ia sp oric

re sis ta nce to fo rm ati o ns o f p ris o n te rro r h as a s m uch to d o w ith th e r e cla m ati o n o f th e s to ry o f o ne’s s e rv itu d e a s it d oes w ith a

mir a culo us i n v ers io n o f p ow er d ynam ic s. D urin g th e s o ng, th ey i m agin e b eati n g th eir c hain -g ang b oss to a p ulp , e v en a s th ey s o und

th eir c o lle cti v e s ta te o f liv -in g d eath : “ M ore th an th e r e st, th ey k ille d th e flir t w ho m fo lk s c alle d L ife fo r le ad in g th em o n. M akin g

th em th in k th e n ext s u nris e w ould b e w orth i t; th at a no th er s tr o ke o f ti m e w ould d o i t a t l a st.”

P aul D ’s r e arre st a nd e nsla v em ent i n

Dela w are b y a c o m pany te llin gly c alle d “

North poin t

B ank a nd R ailw ay” s o on a fte r h is e sc ap e f r o m th e c hain g ang b rin gs i n to s ta rk

re lie f th e te nacio usn ess o f fo rm ati o ns o f s la v ery , e v en fo r th o se w ho r e ach p oin ts n o rth o f th e M aso n-D ix o n lin e. M ore o ver, P aul

D’s te nd ency to r e -s o und th e s o ngs h e l e arn ed i n A lfr e d , G eo rg ia , th ro ugho ut th e n o vel e xp re sse s h o w M orris o n c o nceiv ed o f D a nd

her o th er c hain -g ang c hara cte rs a s fic ti v e e m ble m s o f th e c o untl e ss ( a nd m ostl y n am ele ss) b la ck m en w ho h av e a tte m pte d to s te al

mom ents o f e xp re ssiv e re fu ge in th e fa ce o f u nend ura b le h o rro r in c hain g angs, le v ee c am ps, p ris o n p la nta ti o ns, a nd so lita ry -

co nfin em ent c ells f r o m 1 865 to th e p re se nt.

Again , n o tw ith sta nd in g th e e m oti v e p ow er o f b la ck ( a nti ) p ris o n s o ngs a s th ey h av e e xte nd ed f r o m th e s p ir itu als a nd f ie ld h o lle rs

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** of a nte b ellu m s la v es, to th e c hain -g ang a nd p ris o n p la nta ti o n s o ngs o f i n carc era te d b lu es m aestr o s, to th e p ris o n-c ente re d v ers e s o f

modern h ip -h o p a rti s ts — th e h is to ric al e no rm ity o f M id dle P assa ge im pris o nm ent in th e U nite d S ta te s a nd its c o nti n ued a ccre ti o n

in to o ur c urre nt m om ent b oth d om esti c ally a nd g lo bally d is a llo w s a ny m odel o f ti d y o r tr iu m phalis t re sis ta nce. In h er lite ra ry

exhum ati o n o f th e A meric an c hain -g ang b ox f r o m th e G eo rg ia m ud ( a nd f r o m th e d ustb in o f r a cis t l ib era l h is to rio gra p hy), M orris o n

re so und s A mílc ar C ab ra l’s w arn in g to g lo bal fr e ed om fig hte rs to “ cla im n o e asy v ic to rie s.”

C ab ra l’s re m in d er is e sp ecia lly

re le v ant in re sp ect to th e

re aliti e s th at re al- w orld b la ck p ris o ners h av e fa ced in th e w ake o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent, b odie s

who se tr a nsm uta ti o n in to s ta te -c ra fte d s la v es h av e ra re ly le d to a nyth in g c lo se to th e m ir a culo us e sc ap e o f th e “ A lfr e d 4 6,” a nd

who se m ost v ia b le f o rm s o f r e sis ta nce h av e te nd ed to r e nd er th e w ord “ v ic to ry ” v ir tu ally m eanin gle ss.

For th o se w ho , u p to th e p oin t o f th is w riti n g, c o nti n ue to c o nte nd w ith m odern r e co nfig ura ti o ns o f th e s la v e s h ip a nd th e c hain -

gang b ox, w hat S aid iy a H artm an d efin es a s “ re d re ssiv e a cti o n,” c an o fte n b e in d exed o nly a t th e le v el o f th e c ap ti v e’s a b ility to

re nd er a n a lte rn ati v e tr u th to th at w hic h le d to h er c ap ti v ity — a d e-m arg in aliz a ti o n o f d is q ualifie d s to rie s.

M orris o n’s n arra ti v e

unb uria l o f th e c hain -g ang b ox s h o w s h o w th e a ct o f s u b verti n g m aste r n arra ti v es o f b la ck c rim in ality a nd n o ti o ns o f l ib era l p ro gre ss

is a m ain m echanis m b y w hic h re d re ss c an b e e nacte d e v en a s sta te b io lo gic al a nd liv in g d eath c o unts c o nti n ue to m ount a nd

co lle cti v e s u b sta nti v e f r e ed om s e em s a ll b ut i m possib le . I t i n v olv es a sse rti n g th e r ig ht to te sti fy to o ne’s o w n s itu ati o n o f a b je cti o n

ra th er th an a llo w in g i t b e tr a nsm ute d i n to th e w ell- w orn n ati o nal f a b le o f n atu ra l- b orn b la ck c rim in ality . I n th is l ig ht, th e o w ners h ip

of o ne’s o w n s to ry o f te rro r— a te sti fy in g to o ne’s o w n p ain — sig nals a b ra nch o f b la ck a nd s u b alte rn a gency th at r e aches a s f a r b ack

as th e s la v e s h ip . T his e le m ent o f c ir c ula r te m pora lity r e p re se nts th e in co m ple te n atu re o f d om in ati o n a nd th e d egre e to w hic h th e

Mid dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel p ro duces i ts o w n e xcesse s, “ zo m bie s” w ho se r e su rfa cin g c halle nges w hite s u p re m acis t p lo tl in es o f

his to ry .

In h is r e unio n w ith S eth e a t th e c lo se o f

Belo ved ,

P aul D r e co gniz e s h is o w n h ard -w on p ow er o f n arra ti n g, o f s a yin g th e

unsa yab le th at h e h as r e p re sse d f o r s o l o ng: “ O nly th is w om an S eth e c o uld h av e l e ft h im h is m anho od. . . . H e w ants to p ut h is s to ry

next to h ers .”

R ead in th is lig ht, M orris o n’s n arra ti v e o f n eo sla v ery — th e p la cem ent o f th e s to rie s o f th e M id dle P assa ge, th e

pla nta ti o n, a nd th e c hain g ang a t th e c ente r o f U .S . n ati o n b uild in g— re p re se nts a r a d ic al r e cla m ati o n o f s to le n h is to rie s a nd b odie s.

In d eed , h er c o unte r-h is to ric al r e cla m ati o n p ro je ct h eld v ita l ( if la rg ely ig no re d ) p oliti c al u rg ency g iv en th e fa ct th at b la ck b odie s

were b ein g l e gally k id nap ped i n to U .S . p enite nti a rie s e n m asse a t th e v ery m om ent o f

Belo ved

’s p ub lic ati o n i n 1 987.

As J o y J a m es r e m in d s u s, m odes o f r a d ic al th eo riz a ti o n a re n o t th e s o le p ro perty o f a cad em ic s— ra d ic al e p is te m olo gie s ( o r w hat

th e l a te V èV è C la rk o fte n d esc rib ed a s “ ep is te m ic b re aks” )— ofte n e m erg e f r o m s p aces o f d eath a nd a b je cti o n r a th er th an f r o m th o se

of l ib era l b ourg eo is p riv ile ge.

N o w ork w ritte n f r o m th e p ositi o n o f e nto m bm ent b ette r c ap tu re s th e

exp lo sio n o f f a cile m odels o f

dia chro nic h is to ry b y th e n eo sla v ery n arra ti v e th an G eo rg e J a ckso n’s

Sole d ad B ro th er

(1 970), a n e p is to la ry m anife sto c o m pose d

while h e w as a p oliti c al p ris o ner i n C alifo rn ia p enite nti a rie s f o r te n y ears , s e v en o f w hic h w ere s p ent i n s o lita ry c o nfin em ent. F ro m

th is p ers p ecti v e, J a ckso n’s le tte rs r e p re se nt w hat c an b e th o ught o f a s m om ents in w hic h a r e al- w orld P aul D w as a b le to te ll h is

ow n s to le n s to ry a nd th eo ry o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t in carc era ti o n. In fa ct, J a ckso n’s s u b je cti o n to p ro tr a cte d is o la ti o n o pera te d a s th e

co nd iti o n o f p ossib ility f o r w hat, to m y k no w le d ge, c o nsti tu te s th e f ir s t f u ll th eo riz a ti o n o f w hat h e d efin es a s

neo sla very.

H ow ev er,

where as m uch o f th e b la ck r a d ic al s o cia lis t’ s d is c ussio n o f th e te rm r e fle cts a M arx is t i n te rp re ta ti o n o f c la ss r e la ti o ns i n th e U nite d

Sta te s, w here b y w ork in g-c la ss b la ck p eo ple s u ch a s h is fa th er w ere tu rn ed in to “ w age s la v es,” J a ckso n’s e xp erie nce o f in d efin ite

is o la ti o n p ro duces a p oeti c th eo ry o f n eo sla v ery th at e xceed s th e e xp la nato ry c ap aciti e s o f h is so cia lis t tr a in in g in so fa r a s it

und erlin es h o w w hite s u p re m acis t in carc era ti o n s u b m its th e ra cia lly /c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d s u b je ct to a p re d ic am ent a kin to th e

su p pose d ly p re m odern e xp erie nce o f c hatte l s la v es.

In a le tte r d ate d A pril 1 970, c o m pose d a fte r h e h ad a lr e ad y e nd ure d se v en y ears o f so lita ry c o nfin em ent fo r h is in te rra cia l

org aniz in g a nd r a d ic al w riti n gs f r o m b ehin d p ris o n w alls , J a ckso n r e gis te rs i n p oeti c f o rm th e c o nti n uiti e s o f h is e xp erie nce a nd th at

of s la v e-s h ip p ris o ners :

My re ca ll is n ea rly p erfe ct, tim e h as fa ded n oth in g

. I re call th e v ery fir s t k id nap .

I’v e liv ed th ro ugh th e

passa ge, d ie d o n th e p assa ge

, la in in th e u nm ark ed , s h allo w g ra v es o f th e m illio ns w ho h av e fe rti liz e d th e

Amerik an so il w ith th eir co rp se s; co tto n and co rn gro w in g out of m y chest, “unto th e th ir d and fo urth

genera ti o n,” th e te nth , th e h und re d th . M y m in d r a nges b ack a nd fo rth th ro ugh th e u nco unte d g enera ti o ns, a nd

fe el a ll t h at t h ey h ave f e lt, b ut d ouble .

I c an’t h elp i t; th ere a re to o m any th in gs to r e m in d m e o f th e 2 3½ h o urs

[a d ay] th at I ’ m i n th is c ell. N ot te n m in ute s p ass w ith o ut a r e m in d er. I n b etw een, I ’ m l e ft to s p ecula te o n w hat

fo rm th e r e m in d er w ill ta ke.

Ja ckso n’s c o rp ore aliz e d to ta l r e call o f c hatte l s la v ery is c ata ly ze d b y th e m ate ria l a nd e xp erie nti a l im bric ati o ns o f th e s la v e

hold

and pris o n

hole

—with th e pro cess of carc era l dehum aniz a ti o n fo rc in g a defin iti o n of neo sla v ery th at deriv es le ss fr o m an

in te lle ctu al e ngagem ent w ith th e b la ck

su b je ct’ s p la ce i n p ro le ta ria n l a b or h is to ry th an J a ckso n’s e m bodie d f e elin g o f b ein g s h uttl e d

to a s u p pose d ly d ead p la ce i n c hatte liz e d c arc era l h is to ry . T he s o lita ry p ris o ner i s n o t o nly r e m oved f r o m l in es o f b io lo gic al k in sh ip

but fr o m s o cia l c o nta ct a lto geth er, a fa ct th at e xp la in s h is te sti m ony o f fe elin g e v ery th in g th at c hatte l s la v es fe lt “ b ut d oub le .” L ik e

th e c hain -g ang c age, M id dle P assa ge im pris o nm ent e xp re sse d a s in d efin ite s o lita ry in v olv es a ra d ic al d is o rie nta ti o n o f te m pora l

exp erie nce; i n o th er w ord s, th e a rti c ula ti o n o f r a cia l a nd s p ati a l te rro r i n th e c o nte xt o f th e m odern p ris o n w arp s ti m e i n so fa r a s th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** exp erie nti a l p re se nt is h aunte d in a m ate ria l fa sh io n b y

past,

o r

so uth ern ,

m odes o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t d om in ati o n.

A s C olin D ayan

su ggests , a lth o ugh “ th e r e su rre cti o n o f s la v ery i s o fte n d is c usse d i n th e tu rn to c o nv ic t l a b or a nd th e c rim in aliz a ti o n o f b la cks i n th e

postb ellu m S outh . . . th e p enite nti a ry . . . e sp ecia lly ‘ s o lita ry ,’ a ls o k no w n a s ‘ th e d is c ip lin e’ o r ‘ th e s e p ara te s y ste m ’— offe re d a n

unse ttl in g c o unte r to s e rv itu d e, a n i n v enti o n o f c rim in ality a nd p re sc rip ti o ns f o r tr e atm ent th at tu rn ed h um ans i n to th e l iv in g d ead .”

The u nse ttl in g c o nti n uiti e s b etw een J a ckso n’s e xp erie nce a nd th at o f c hatte l s la v es p ast i s r e gis te re d i n h is p oeti c r e m ap pin g o f th e

“p assa ge” a s m ore th an s im ply a s o uth ern o r w ate r-b ase d p heno m eno n. F or h im , “ th e m illio ns w ho h av e fe rti liz e d th e A merik an

so il” c anno t b e s e p ara te d fr o m th e c o untl e ss b ones lin in g th e A tl a nti c . T hro ugh h is e xp erie nti a lly b ase d p oeti c s o f liv in g d eath ,

Ja ckso n in sis ts th at th e p ro cess o f m ass m urd er th at b egan o n th e A tl a nti c c o nti n ued r ig ht th ro ugh h is o w n e nto m bm ent in a “ la nd -

base d sla v e sh ip ” on th e lib era l W est C oast, a sp ace of w hite su p re m acis t te rro r th at he als o re p eate d ly desc rib ed as a

“co ncentr a ti o n c am p.”

Again , th e p urp ose o f r e ad in g th e M id dle P assa ge a s f o und ati o nal to W este rn c arc era l f o rm ati o ns i s n o t to tr e at o f s p aces s u ch a s

th e s la v e s h ip , th e p la nta ti o n, th e U .S p ris o n c am p, a nd th e G erm an c o ncentr a ti o n c am p a s h o m olo gic al, a s e xactl y th e s a m e, b ut to

re call C ésa ir e ’s c riti c ally i m porta nt a sse rti o n th at th e s y ste m ati c r e p ro ducti o n o f b anis h ab le , e nsla v ab le , a nd m urd era b le m asse s b y

way o f r a cis t id eo lo gic al w arfa re is a p ro cess th at d id n o t b egin w ith o r e nd w ith th e d efe at o f th e T hir d R eic h.

A lo ng w ith th e

co lo niz e d p eo ple s o f th e G lo bal S outh , th e “ fr e e” b la ck su b je ct o f th e Jim C ro w a p arth eid e ra re p re se nte d life th at h ad b een

dev alu ed to th e e xte nt th at i t c o uld b e r e ensla v ed , k ille d , d is p osse sse d , o r s u b je cte d to l iv in g d eath w ith i m punity . T he e xis te nce o f

th e m ovin g p ris o n— and i ts d ir e ct r e la ti o n to th e d ehum aniz in g c arc era l s p ace o f th e s la v e s h ip — re v eals h o w , i n th e U nite d S ta te s,

what A gam ben d esc rib es a s

co nditio

in hum ana

h as o fte n b een a fu ncti o n o f r a th er th an a n e xcep ti o n to th e “ no rm al” p ro cesse s o f

la w and o rd er. In th e w ord s o f W alte r B enja m in , th e exp erie nces o f th o se ento m bed w ith in su ch ra cia l cap ita lis t m is o gynis t

arc hite ctu re s sig nify h o w th e “ tr a d iti o n o f th e o ppre sse d te aches u s th at th e ‘s ta te o f e m erg ency’ in w hic h w e liv e is n o t th e

excep ti o n b ut th e r u le .”

I n d eed , s u ch c o nd iti o ns f o r b la cks u nd er b oth th e l a w o f s la v ery a nd th e l a w o f n eo sla v ery h av e h ad to d o

no t w ith th e s ta te ’s c re ati o n o f a n e xcep ti o n to th e l a w , b ut w ith th e f a ct th at th e “ N egro ” s u b je ct h as h is to ric ally b een v ie w ed a s a

bio lo gic a l a nd m eta physic a l excep tio n to th e ru le o f (w hite ) h um anity

—as th e anti th esis o f o rd er, ra ti o nality , m ora lity , and

pro ducti v ity — and a s a n atu ra l- b orn e nem y o r “ P ro ble m ” o f th e s ta te .

In te rm s o f th e c hain g ang a nd e arly p ostb ellu m p ris o n s la v ery in g enera l, th e id eo lo gic al c o nstr u cti o n o f b la cks a s q uasi- h um an

was n o t s im ply a n e xam ple o f s o uth ern a nachro nis m , a fa ct in d exed b y th e d ir e ct fu nd in g o f th e c hain g ang b y fe d era l p ub lic -ro ad s

monie s. O ne p arti c ula r e ngi- n eer re p re se nti n g th e fe d era l O ffic e o f P ub lic R oad s re gis te re d n o rth ern c ulp ab ility w ith re sp ect to

so uth ern n eo sla v ery in a w ay th at riv ale d th e w ors t p ate rn alis m o f p la nta ti o n s la v ery . H e a rg ued th at th e “

hum an m ate ria l d ea lt

with

[ o n th e c hain g ang]

. . .

so r a dic a lly d iffe re n t

fr o m o th er s e cti o ns” th at it d em and ed te chniq ues th at w ould b e c o nsid ere d

in hum ane i f d ep lo yed a gain st w hite s.

O nly i n th is c ase , a s L ic hte nste in p oin ts o ut, c hain -g ang n eo sla v ery d iffe re d u niq uely f r o m i ts

agra ria n fo re ru nner in th at th e e nsla v ed w ould b e e xp lo ite d in th e se rv ic e o f re v am pin g th e so uth ern e co no m y in th e im age o f

no rth ern m odern ity a nd i n d ustr ia liz a ti o n.

The d ir e ct c o rre la ti o n b etw een M orris o n’s “ b ox” a nd th e p ostb ellu m “ cage” su ggests th at, in c re ati n g th e c hain -g ang sc ene,

Morris o n w as a cute ly a w are o f h o w th e d ehum aniz in g m eth o ds f o und o n th e s la v e s h ip n o t o nly r e em erg ed i n a nte b ellu m s p aces o f

ho rro r s u ch a s S w eet H om e p la n ta ti o n, b ut th at th e s la v e s h ip a ls o h aunte d th e e xp erie nce o f b la ck p eo ple a fte r e m ancip ati o n. A lo ng

th ese lin es, S te p hanie S m allw ood’s th eo riz a ti o n o f th e in su ffic ie ncy o f lin ear m odels o f sp ace-ti m e in re fe re nce to th e sla v e’s

exp erie nce o f tr a nsa tl a nti c im pris o nm ent a p plie s d ir e ctl y to th e b la ck e xp erie nce o f c o lle cti v e e nto m bm ent a fte r E m ancip ati o n. A s

Sm allw ood p oin ts o ut, “ T he sla v e sh ip c harte re d n o c o urs e o f n arra ti v e c o nti n uity b etw een th e A fr ic an p ast a nd th e A meric an

pre se nt, b ut r a th er m em oria liz e d a n

in dete rm in ate p assa ge

m ark ed b y

th e i m possib ility o f f u ll n arra tiv e c lo su re .

” 71

That th e c hatte liz e d c arc era l p ra cti c es d ep ic te d in

Belo ved

c o nti n ued to d efy n arra ti v e a nd m ate ria l c lo su re in th e U nite d S ta te s

by h aunti n g th eir

way f o rw ard i n to th e l iv es o f b la ck p eo ple a fte r th e a d vent o f d e j u re f r e ed om i s r e p re se nte d i n c hillin g f a sh io n i n

Westb ro ok v . T he S ta te

( 1 909), a r e la ti v ely o bsc ure le gal c ase fr o m th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry th at in m any r e sp ects r e p re se nts a

sp ectr a l m ate ria liz a ti o n o f M orris o n’s c hain -g ang s c ene.

A t th e s a m e ti m e, th e l o ng-fo rg o tte n e v ents th at l e d to th is c ase a ls o s ig nal

ho w n o f ic ti o naliz e d p ortr a it o f n eo sla v ery c an b egin to a p pro ach th e h o rro rs o f th e r e al a s e xp erie nced i n p la ces l ik e a n A meric an

chain -g ang c am p i n th e e arly 1 900s. T he c ase i n v olv ed th e c o nv ic ti o n o f a b la ck m an n am ed C le v ela nd W estb ro ok f o r th e m urd er o f

a fe llo w p ris o ner, a no th er b la ck m an n am ed J a m es D av is , a t a n a ctu al G eo rg ia c hain g ang in th e s o uth ern r e gio n o f th e s ta te . A fte r

th e T ift C ounty su p erio r c o urt is su ed a g uilty v erd ic t, W estb ro ok c halle nged h is c o nv ic ti o n o n th e h o m ic id e c harg e in th e sta te

su p re m e c o urt b ase d o n h is c o nte nti o n th at h is k illin g o f th e m an c o ffle d n ext to h im o n th e lo ng-c hain a ctu ally a m ounte d to s e lf-

defe nse — th at h e h ad s ta b bed D av is in a la st- d itc h d esp era te re sp onse to b ein g w hip ped b y th e c am p’s w ard en a nd h av in g th e

cam p’s l o ng-c hain ti g hte ned a ro und h is l e gs a nd a nkle s b y h is f e llo w p ris o ners .

Westb ro ok’s v ers io n o f th e e v ents le ad in g to h is m urd er c o nv ic ti o n is u lti m ate ly c o rro bora te d b y th e c hain -g ang w ard en, J . M .

Dav is , w ho u p on c ro ss-e xam in ati o n b y th e p ris o ner’s a tto rn ey, r e v eale d th at h e h ad w hip ped W estb ro ok r e p eate d ly a cro ss h is f a ce

while o rd erin g m em bers o f th e c hain -g ang c o ffle to l a y h o ld o f th eir c hain s a nd s q ueeze W estb ro ok i n to c o m plia nce w ith h is o rd ers

fo r th e l a tte r to d ro p a k nife h e h ad b een u sin g to c arv e a p ie ce o f w ood. A fte r r e la ti n g h o w h e a lw ays a llo w ed h is p ris o ners to s in g

and p la y g am es a ro und a c am pfir e b efo re r iv eti n g th em i n sid e th eir “ car” — th e T ift C ounty v ers io n o f th e c hain -g ang r o llin g c age—

th e c am p’s w ard en o ffe re d th is a cco unt o f w hat o ccurre d a fte r h e h ad o verh eard a n a p pare nt a lte rc ati o n b etw een s o m e o f h is “ b oys

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** on th e c hain ”:

When I w ent o ut th ere I h ad m y s tr a p i n m y h and . W hen I to ld h im to g et r e ad y f o r th e w hip pin g h e h ad th e k nife

in h is h and . H e s te p ped o ut a nd p ulle d o ff h is c o at a nd l a id i t o n th e b ench, a nd s te p ped b ack a s te p o r tw o a nd

lo oked a t th e c hain a nd lo oked a t m e a nd s a id “ I d on’t th in k y o u o ught to w hip m e.” I s a id to h im “ T hro w th e

knife o ut h ere a nd g et d ow n a cro ss th e b ench.” H e d ro pped h is h ead a nd th o ught a m in ute a nd s a id , “ N o, s ir, y o u

or n o o th er m an d on’t w hip m e.’

The b oys b eg an t ig hte n in g t h e c h ain

. . . . I c alle d o n M r. D av is , th e tr u sty , a nd

th e b oys o n th e

chain , to a ssis t i n g etti n g th e k nife a w ay f r o m h im . H e j u st m ad e a s p rin g a t th at b oy, th e f ir s t o ne

on th e c hain n ext to h im ; a fte r h e h ad c ut a t h im h e r u sh ed o ver a t m e; w hen h e s ta b bed to h it th e b oy I s tr u ck h im

in th e f a ce w ith m y s tr a p , a nd h e m ad e a t m e. H e h ad n’t a tte m pte d to s tr ik e m e b efo re th at. H e to ld th em to s ta nd

back o r h e w ould k ill th e f ir s t o ne th at c am e a t h im . T hen I s tr u ck h im i n th e f a ce, a nd h e tu rn ed o n m e. I h it h im

so m e e ig ht o r te n ti m es; th en h e tu rn ed a nd s ta b bed th e b oy, a nd th en tu rn ed b ack o n m e. I h it h im o ver th e h ead ;

th ey k ep t t ig hte n in g t h e c h ain .

T hen h e tu rn ed a nd s ta b bed th e b oy a gain .

Here th e s e nse o f c o m munal r e co gniti o n a nd c o lle cti v e r e sis ta nce e xp re sse d i n th e l ib era ti o n o f th e “ A lfr e d 4 6” i s c o nto rte d th ro ugh

th e u nsp eakab le le ns o f th e r e al. R ath er th an c o m munic ati n g w ith o ne a no th er in u nifie d r e sis ta nce to p re m atu re d eath , th e c hain -

lin ked M ors e c o de e nacte d b y th e “ te n o r tw elv e” b la ck m en r iv ete d to o ne a no th er a t th e T ift C ounty c am p r e p re se nts th e d egre e to

whic h n eo sla v es— lik e th eir p re -1 865 c o unte rp arts — hav e o fte n b een c o erc ed in to a cti n g a s te rro ris ti c p ro xie s o f th e m aste r in

se curin g o ne a no th er’s e xp erie nce o f r itu aliz e d r u p tu re . I n th is s e nse , W estb ro ok’s s ta tu s a s a n i n d iv id ually r e calc itr a nt n eo sla v e—

one w ho se “ re sis ta nce” a m ounte d sim ply to a n a d am ant re fu sa l to b end o ver a b ench fo r a h id in g b y th e w ard en o r a “ negro

tr u sty ”— offe rs a te rrib ly in str u cti v e d ocum enta ry re fr a cti o n o f P aul D ’s in te rn al m ono lo gue at th e m om ent o f his lib era ti o n:

Som eb ody y a nked t h e c h ain . . . h ard e n ough t o c ro ss h is l e g s a nd t h ro w h im i n t h e m ud. H e n ever f ig ure d o ut h ow h e k n ew — how

anyb ody d id — and h e t o ok b oth h is h ands a nd y a nked t h e l e n gth o f c h ain a t h is l e ft, s o t h e n ext m an w ould k n ow .

F ully r e cep ti v e

of th e k no w le d ge th at h e r e ceiv ed f r o m e v ery y ank o f th e c hain th at h is o w n f e llo w s la v es o f th e s ta te w ere a cti n g a s a c o lle cti v iz e d

exte nsio n o f th e p ris o n m aste r, W estb ro ok c ho se th e o nly a v aila b le a v enue o f s e lf- d efe nse i n th e m om ent b y s ta b bin g th e s o le b ody

th at th e ti g hte nin g c o ffle w ould a llo w h is a rm s to r e ach.

In re v ers in g th e lo w er c o urt’ s d ecis io n, th e s ta te s u p re m e c o urt u lti m ate ly fo und th at th e ju d ge in th e e arlie r c ase h ad e rre d in

negle cti n g to o ffe r th e j u ry i n str u cti o ns a s to s ta tu to ry p ro vis io ns th at w ould h av e a llo w ed f o r th e c harg e o f h o m ic id e to b e r e d uced

to v olu nta ry m ansla ughte r. In h is o pin io n fo r th e c ase , J . A tk in so n c ite d p enal c o de 1 1 47 ( 1 895), w hic h r e p re se nte d th e s ta te ’s d e

ju re re gula ti o n o f th e p ra cti c e o f w hip pin g in its c hain -g ang a nd c o nv ic t le ase c am ps: “ N o w hip pin g s h all b e a d m in is te re d to a

co nv ic t b y a w hip pin g-b oss o r o th er o ffic er o r p ers o n, e xcep t in c ase s w here it is re aso nab ly n ecessa ry to e nfo rc e d is c ip lin e o r

co m pel w ork o r la b or b y th e c o nv ic t.”

F or th e c o urt, W estb ro ok’s v io le nt r e sp onse to b ein g w hip ped a nd s q ueeze d b y th e lo ng-

chain r e p re se nte d a n u nd ers ta nd ab le “ p assio nate ” r e acti o n to th e w ard en’s a ssa ult o n h is p ers o n— a c la im th at c o uld b e m ad e a t l a w

because o f th e f a ct th at th e “ co nv ic t” w as a “ hum an” a nd n o t a s la v e:

The c o nv ic t o ccup ie s a d iffe re nt a tti tu d e fr o m th e s la v e to w ard s o cie ty . H e is n o t m ere p ro perty w ith o ut a ny

civ il r ig hts , b ut h as a ll th e r ig hts o f a n o rd in ary c iti z e n th at a re n o t e xp re ssly o r b y n ecessa ry i m plic ati o n ta ken

fr o m h im b y la w . W hile th e la w d oes ta ke h is lib erty , a nd im pose s a d uty o f se rv itu d e a nd o bse rv ance o f

dis c ip lin e fo r th e re gula ti o n o f co nv ic ts , it d oes no t d eny his rig ht to p ers o nal se curity again st unla w fu l

in v asio n. T he c o nv ic t i s h um an, a nd h is p assio ns a re s u b je ct to i n flu ence a nd a s l ia b le to b eco m e u nco ntr o lla b le

as if he w ere no t a co nv ic t. T he la w w hic h p ro vid es fo r re d ucin g a ho m ic id e fr o m m urd er to v olu nta ry

mansla ughte r m akes n o e xcep ti o n o f a c o nv ic t, b ut c o nte m pla te s th at n o h o m ic id e b y a ny p ers o n s h all b e c la sse d

as m urd er w here th ere is a n a b se nce o f m alic e. . . . W hile it is th e d uty o f a c o nv ic t to fa ith fu lly e xecute h is

se nte nce a nd o bse rv e th e ru le s o f d is c ip lin e la w fu lly fix ed fo r h is g o vern m ent, h e is n o t b ound to s u b m it to

unauth o riz e d a cts o f v io le nce p erp etr a te d o r a tte m pte d a gain st h is p ers o n.

Alth o ugh c ite d in c o nte m pora neo us le gal te xts a s a re fu ta ti o n o f th e p ro no uncem ent in

Ruffin v. C om monw ea lth

(1 871) th at th e

co nv ic t is a “ sla v e o f th e s ta te ,” th e

Westb ro ok

d ecis io n u nv eils th e d egre e to w hic h th e la w ’s v ery d is a v ow al o f n eo sla v ery is a s

pote nt a n e xem pla r o f i ts n ecro politi c al p ow er to r e -c hatte liz e th e “ fr e e” b la ck c iv il s u b je ct a s J u sti c e C hris ti a n’s o pen e xp re ssio n

of th is c o m monly p ra cti c ed d iv in e r ig ht i n

Ruffin .

I n a n a sto und in g e xam ple o f w hat D ayan r e fe rs to a s th e o ccult r h eto ric al p ra cti c e

of th e la w , th e c o urt’ s d ep lo ym ent o f th e d is c o urs e s o f re gula to ry e ffic ie ncy a nd lib era l le gal h um anis m sh ro ud th e su b sta nti v e

re aliti e s th at o verd ete rm in ed th e d eath o f J a m es D av is , th e to rtu re o f C le v ela nd W estb ro ok, a nd th e n eo -e nsla v em ent o f a n u nto ld

num ber o f b la ck p eo ple i n th e s ta te o f G eo rg ia a nd th ro ugho ut th e U nite d S ta te s a fte r 1 865.

That is , in pro ffe rin g an oste nsib le ju rid ic al check on an is o la te d in sta nce of w hat it deem ed to be an ir re gula r and

“unre aso nab le ” a p plic ati o n o f th e w hip , th e c o urt r e in sc rib es th e p enal s o vere ig n’s p ow er to s u b m it th e b la ck s u b je ct to e v ery f o rm

of c hatte liz e d e nto m bm ent th at to ok p la ce a t s p aces s u ch a s th e T ift C ounty c hain g ang. T his is r e p re se nte d c le arly in th e e xcep ti o n

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** cla use o f th e v ery s ta tu to ry m easu re u p on w hic h th e c o urt b ase s its d ecis io n— th at w hic h a llo w ed fo r th e w hip pin g o f c hain -g ang

cap ti v es i n “ re aso nab ly n ecessa ry ” c ase s w here in s u ch te rro r w as f o und to h av e b een d ep lo yed i n th e s e rv ic e o f l a b or c o m puls io n

or n o rm al p enal d is c ip lin e. A cco rd in g to th is s ta nd ard o f r e aso nab le n ecessity , W estb ro ok’s a p peal w ould h av e n ev er b een h eard

were it o nly to h av e o ccurre d a s a r e su lt o f h is r e fu sa l to g o to w ork , w hic h r e p re se nts th e s in gle m ost c o m mon r e aso n th at p enal

ad m in is tr a to rs h av e u se d to r a ti o naliz e th eir d ep lo ym ent o f th e w hip a nd o th er fo rm s o f c o rp ore al r u p tu re o n c hain g angs, c o nv ic t

le ase c am ps, p ris o n p la nta ti o ns, a nd m odern p enite nti a rie s f r o m th eir i n cep ti o n. T he l ib era l l e gal p ro sc rip ti o n o f a s in gle i n sta nce o f

“ir re gula r” w hip pin g a nd “ unla w fu l in v asio n” th ere b y o ffe rs a b ackd oor n o rm aliz a ti o n o f th e v ery c o nd iti o n o f p ossib ility fo r

Westb ro ok’s to rtu re a nd J a m es D av is ’s b io lo gic al d eath — th at i s , th e c hain -g ang s y ste m i ts e lf.

When r e ad a lo ng w ith th e p ortr a yal o f th e c hain g ang i n

Belo ved

—and a gain st th e b ackd ro p o f th e a ctu al e xp erie nces o f G eo rg ia ’s

bla ck p ris o ners w ho fa ced th e q uo ti d ia n

la w fu l in va sio ns

o f w hip pin g, sc ato lo gic al c arg o in g in ro llin g c ages, n ata l a lie nati o n,

se ria liz e d s e xual v io le nce, a nd p erp etu al c o fflin g d urin g b oth p ro ducti v e a nd “ unp ro ducti v e” m om ents o f c hatte liz e d im pris o nm ent

—th e c o urt’ s p ositi n g o f a d efin iti v e lin e b etw een th e s o cia l d eath o f s la v ery a nd th e c iv il d eath o f im pris o nm ent r in gs c ynic al a t

best. O ne w ond ers h o w l ib era l l e gal a ssu ra nces th at th e “ hum ane” p ra cti c e o f th e A meric an c hain g ang w as n o t s la v ery w ould h av e

so und ed to J a m es D av is a s h e la y d yin g in a p ool o f h is o w n b lo od, c hain ed to th e m an w ho se d esp era te a tte m pt a t a v oid in g a n

“unre aso nab le ” w hip pin g w as th e s u b sta nti v e c ause o f h is b io lo gic al d eath ; o r h o w s u ch p la ti tu d es w ould h av e b een r e ceiv ed b y th e

te ns o f th o usa nd s o f b la ck m en, w om en, a nd c hild re n w ho la id c hain ed to a nd s ta cked a to p o ne a no th er in sid e m odern A meric an

barra co ons s u ch a s th e T ift C ounty c hain -g ang c age a t th e v ery m om ent J u sti c e A tk in so n c ra fte d h is d ecis io n. W hat i s a t i s su e h ere i s

th e n ecessity o f o ur a tte nd in g to th e e xp erie nti a l a s th e s u b sta nti v e r e gis te r o f n eo sla v ery a nd th e d egre e to w hic h th e lib era l w hite

su p re m acis t m is o gynis t p ra cti c e o f p ost- 1 865 la w re sts a t th e v ery c o re o f

th at e xp erie nce, e v en w hen, o r e sp ecia lly w hen, it

atte m pts to d eny th at n eo sla v ery e xis ts . In fa ct, a s m enti o ned b rie fly a b ove, th e m ost lib era l le gal d ocum ent in U .S . h is to ry , th e

Thir te enth A mend m ent to th e U .S . C on-s ti tu ti o n ( 1 865), s ta nd s a s th e c le are st e xam ple o f th e te rro ris ti c c ap aciti e s o f “ hum ane” a nd

“p ro gre ssiv e” le gal p ra cti c e a s le v ie d a gain st n o m in ally fr e e b la ck b odie s. In w hat fo llo w s, I u nco ver a la rg ely u nto ld le gis la ti v e,

sta tu to ry , a nd p hilo so phic al g enealo gy o f th is d ocum ent o f p ro gre ssiv e d ehum aniz a ti o n a nd th e in canta to ry m eans b y w hic h th e

postb ellu m w hite s u p re m acis t s ta te h as u se d th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent’ s e xcep ti o n c la use to tr a nsm ute c o untl e ss p re cario usly

civ il r a cia liz e d s u b je cts i n to p ub lic ly a nd p riv ate ly te rro riz e d s la v es o f th e s ta te .

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Chap te r 2

“E xcep t a s P unis h m en t f o r a C rim e”

The T hir te en th A m en dm en t a n d t h e R eb ir th o f C hatte l I m pris o n m en t

Sla very w as b oth th e w et n urs e a nd b asta rd o ffs p rin g o f lib erty .

—Said iy a H artm an,

Scen es o f S ubje ctio n

It is tr u e, th at s la very c annot e xis t w it h out la w . . .

—Jo se ph B ra dle y,

The C iv il R ig hts C ase s

A NYONE

PER U SIN G

TH E

a d verti s e m ents s e cti o n o f lo cal n ew sp ap ers s u ch a s th e

Annapolis G aze tte

in M ary la nd , d urin g D ecem ber

1 866, w ould h av e c o m e a cro ss th e f o llo w in g n o ti c es:

Pub lic S ale — The u nd ers ig ned w ill s e ll a t th e C ourt H ouse D oor in th e c ity o f A nnap olis a t 1 2 o ’c lo ck M ., o n

Satu rd ay 8 th D ecem ber, 1 866, A N egro m an n am ed R ic hard H arris , fo r s ix m onth s, c o nv ic te d a t th e O cto ber

te rm , 1 866, o f th e A nne A ru nd el C ounty C ir c uit C ourt fo r la rc eny a nd s e nte nced b y th e c o urt to b e s o ld a s a

sla v e.

Term s o f s a le — cash .

WM. B ry an,

Sheriff A nne A ru nd el C ounty .

Dec. 8 , 1 866

Pub lic S ale — The u nd ers ig ned w ill o ffe r fo r S ale , a t th e C ourt H ouse D oor, in th e c ity o f A nnap olis , a t e le v en

O’C lo ck A .M ., o n S atu rd ay, 2 2d o f D ecem ber, a n egro

[s ic ]

m an n am ed J o hn J o hnso n, a ged a b out F orty y ears .

The sa id n egro w as c o nv ic te d th e O cto ber T erm , 1 866, o f th e C ir c uit C ourt fo r A nne A ru nd el c o unty , fo r;

Larc eny, a nd s e nte nced to b e s o ld , i n th e S ta te , f o r th e te rm o f o ne y ear, f r o m th e 1 2th o f D ecem ber, 1 866.

Als o a n egro m an c o nv ic te d o f a fo re sa id , n am ed G assa w ay P ric e, a ged a b out T hir ty y ears , to b e s o ld fo r a

te rm o f o ne y ear i n th e S ta te ,

Als o , a n egro w om an, c o nv ic te d a s a fo re sa id , n am ed H arrie t P urd y, a ged a b out tw enty -fiv e y ears , to b e s o ld

fo r a te rm o f o ne y ear i n th e S ta te ,

Als o a n egro w om an, c o nv ic te d a s a fo re sa id , n am ed D illy H arris , a ged a b out T hir ty y ears , to b e s o ld fo r a

te rm o f tw o y ears i n th e S ta te .

Term s o f s a le — Cash .

WM. B ry an,

Sheriff A nne A ru nd el C ounty

Dec. 2 6th , 1 866.

C ongre ssio nal te sti m ony a nd c o urt d ockets r e la ti n g to th ese p ost– C iv il W ar p ris o n s la v e a ucti o ns r e v eal th at e ach “ negro ” s o ld o n

t h e c o urth o use s te p s o f A nnap olis w as a ctu ally c harg ed w ith “ p eti t l a rc eny”— a s m all- s c ale p ro perty c rim e. I n th e m en’s c ase s, th e

l is t o f a lle ged o ffe nse s i n clu d ed th e th eft o f “ 6 b arre ls o f c o rn ,” “ ½ b ush els o f w heat,” a nd “ a h o g”; a nd , i n th e c ase s o f th e w om en,

i t in clu d ed ta kin g “ a p air o f g aite r b oots ” a nd “ ste alin g c lo th es fr o m a la d y.” T he d ocket a ls o c ata lo gues h o w th e fiv e b la ck

p ris o ners w ere s o ld fo r p ric es r a ngin g fr o m $ 27 to $ 50— and , w hile n o t in clu d in g th e n am es o f e ach p urc hase r, d oes in d ic ate th at

H arrie t P urd y w as “ so ld fo r $ 34.0 0 to E lija h L . R ockho ld .”

T his s m all s e t o f fa cts a nd fig ure s, a lo ng w ith th o se c o nta in ed in th e

a d verti s e m ents p la ced i n th e l o cal n ew s b y th e c o unty s h eriff, r e p re se nt th e e xte nt o f i n fo rm ati o n s u p plie d b y th e h is to ric al a rc hiv e

i n r e sp ect to th e l iv es o f th ese f iv e “ fr e e” b la ck p eo ple a fte r b ein g b ra nd ed a s

Neg ro c rim in al

b y M ary la nd ’s l e gal s y ste m . M ost o f

w hat w e h av e in th e w ay o f a ny s o rt o f e nco unte r w ith th eir liv es o nce th ey w ere c o nv erte d in to fu ngib le b la ck p ro perty fo r th e

a lle ged th ie v in g o f w hite p ro perty is th e u nsp eakab le c o nje ctu re a llo w ed u s b y s o nic , te sti m onia l, a nd lite ra ry fr a gm ents o f s la v es

a nd p ris o n s la v es— re m em orie s g le aned fr o m th e w re ckage o f r a cia l g eno cid e a s it p ile d o ver th e m yth o lo gic al h is to ric al d iv id e

e re cte d to c o nv in ce u s th at s c enes s u ch a s s la v e a ucti o ns h ad b ee n f o re v er v anq uis h ed w ith th e c ulm in ati o n o f th e C iv il W ar a nd th e

p assa ge o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent i n 1 865.

How ev er, a s m uch a s w e d o n o t k no w r e gard in g th e s p ecific f a te o f o ne s u ch a s H arrie t P urd y, w ho th ro ugh h er i m pute d th eft o f a

p air o f w hite “ la d y’s ” b oots w as l ite ra lly s o ld , o r a t l e ast

re n te d f o r a y ea r

, to a w hite m an o n th e s te p s o f th e A nnap olis c o urth o use

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** —th e te rro r o f w hat w e d o k no w , e sp ecia lly in te rm s o f th e “ in fin ite u se s” to w hic h th e c hatte liz e d b la ck b ody h ad b een s u b je cte d

fo r w ell o ver tw o c entu rie s l e ad in g u p to h er a ucti o n d ay, o ffe rs s ta rk g ro und in g f o r r u m in ati o n. S o f a r, m y d is c ussio n o f th is e le m ent

of r e cesse d k no w le d ge h as m ostl y fo cuse d o n th e w ays in w hic h b la ck w riti n g, s o ng, a nd te sti m ony a llo w fo oth o ld s o f e nco unte r

with th e te rro r, e no rm ity , a nd u nre p re se nta b ility o f n eo sla v ery . H ow ev er, w hile d oin g s o , I h av e a ls o n o te d a n e q ually im porta nt

are na o f n eo sla v ery n arra ti o n— th at o f th e l a w . T he v ario us m odes o f l e gal d is c o urs e th at a llo w ed f o r th e s a le o r l e ase o f c o nv ic te d

bodie s s u ch a s th o se o f P urd y, R ic hard H arris , J o hn J o hnso n, a nd D illy H arris th ro ugh c rim in al s a ncti o n s u p ply a g re at d eal o f

criti c al i n fo rm ati o n i n so fa r a s th ey e lu cid ate th e c o nd iti o ns o f p o ssib ility f o r th e c o lle cti v e v io le nce th at b la ck p eo ple h av e e nd ure d

in th e c o nte xt o f d e j u re f r e ed om .

In d eed , a s Jo y Ja m es h as p oin te d o ut, n o d is c ussio n o f n eo sla v e n arra ti v es in th e U nite d S ta te s w ould b e c o m ple te w ith o ut

cente rin g th e s to ry te llin g d ev ic es e m plo yed b y th e r a cia l c ap ita lis t p atr ia rc hal s ta te th ro ugh th e d ev asta ti n g fic ti v e p ra cti c es o f th e

la w .

T his lin e o f analy sis is esp ecia lly im porta nt giv en th e la w ’s d ub io us cap acity to co nju re th e fr e e b la ck su b je ct in to a

re ensla v ed o bje ct, a v io le nt f u ncti o nality th at i t h ad e xhib ite d w ith a ll- to o-e ffic ie nt a cum en w ell b efo re D ecem ber 1 866. T he b ord er

sta te o f M ary la nd , w here th ese c o urth o use a ucti o nin gs o f f r e e b la ck p eo ple o ccurre d , i s a ctu ally a n i llu m in ati n g p oliti c al g eo gra p hy

with w hic h to b egin s u ch a d is c ussio n, s in ce, b ecause o f i ts l im in al p hysic al a nd p oliti c al p ositi o nin g d urin g th e a nte b ellu m p erio d,

th e s ta te w as h o m e to e asily th e la rg est p opula ti o n o f

fr e e N eg ro es

in th e c o untr y fr o m th e c o lo nia l p erio d th ro ugh th e C iv il W ar.

There fo re , w hen to w nsp eo ple w alk in g by th e A nnap olis C ounty co urth o use on D ecem ber 8 and 26, 1866, bore w itn ess to

poste m ancip ati o n a ucti o ns, th e o nly n o vel a sp ect o f th e s c ene o f a c all fo r b id s o n “ fr e e” b la ck b odie s w as th e fa ct th at it w as

occurrin g a fte r th e p assa ge o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent; fo r c rim in aliz e d fr e ep ers o ns in th e s la v e s ta te h ad b een th e s u b je ct o f

dis p ro porti o nate im pris o nm ent a nd r a cia lly e xclu siv e fo rm s o f p unis h m ent ( b oth c o rp ore al a nd c ap ita l) s in ce its in cep ti o n.

S uch

pre cario usly fr e e s u b je cts h ad a ls o b een v uln era b le to th e s p ecta cle o f p ub lic a ucti o nin g s in ce 1 835, w hen, u nd er its B la ck C ode,

Mary la nd la w makers p asse d th e fir s t o f th re e s ta tu to ry p ro vis io ns th at c alle d fo r th e s a le o r le ase o f c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d fr e e

Afr ic ans.

The f iv e a ucti o ned b la ck s u b je cts m enti o ned a b ove c o uld v ery l ik ely h av e r e sid ed i n th e s ta te w hen th e 1 858 v ers io n o f th e c o de

—th at w hic h le d to th eir o w n p ub lic s a le — was e sta b lis h ed b y “ an a ct to m odify th e p unis h m ent o f fr e e n egro es, c o nv ic te d o f

Larc eny a nd o th er c rim es a gain st th is S ta te .” T he b egin nin g o f th e l e gis la ti o n r e ad s:

SE C TIO N 1 . B e it e nacte d b y th e G enera l A sse m bly o f M ary la nd , T hat in a ll c ase s h ere afte r, w here fr e e

negro es

[s ic ]

s h all b e c o nv ic te d o f th e c rim e o f s im ple la rc eny, to th e v alu e o f fiv e d olla rs a nd u p w ard s, o r

accesso ry th ere to b efo re th e f a ct, th ey s h all b e s e nte nced to b e s o ld a s s la v es f o r th e p erio d o f n o t l e ss th an tw o

no r m ore th an fiv e y ears . . . a nd e v ery fr e e n egro w ho s h all b e c o nv ic te d o f r o bbery , m ay in th e d is c re ti o n o f

th e c o urt, b e e ith er s e nte nced to c o nfin em ent in th e p enite nti a ry , a s n o w p ro vid ed b y la w , o r b e s o ld e ith er

with in o r b eyo nd th e l im its o f th e S ta te , a s a s la v e f o r th e p erio d o f te n y ears .

In d ic ati v e o f th e p oliti c ally and geo gra p hic ally lim in al p ositi o n o f M ary la nd , S ecti o n 3 24 o f its S la v e/B la ck C ode o f 1 858

em bodie s th e d is a v ow ed in ti m acie s o f s o uth ern a nd n o rth ern w hite s u p re m acis t la w in so fa r a s it h ad n early e xact r e p lic as, p ub lic

aucti o nin g i n clu d ed , w ith in th e r a cia lly r e str ic ti o nis t s ta te c o nsti tu ti o ns o f n o rth ern s ta te s s u ch a s I n d ia na, O hio , a nd I llin o is u nti l a s

la te a s 1 864.

Furth erm ore , a s I w ill d is c uss l a te r i n th is c hap te r, i ts h aunti n g r e ap peara nce i n a p arti c ula r b ra nch o f a s e em in gly i n fin ite a rra y o f

“co lo r-b lin d ” c rim in al s ta tu te s th at c ata ly ze d th e n ati o nally s a nc ti o ned a nd a d m in is te re d p oste m ancip ati o n tr a d e in s o uth ern b la ck

co nv ic ts fu rth er illu str a te s th e p ro ble m ati c h is to ric al c o rd onin g o f c hatte l s la v ery a s a p re -1 865 p heno m eno n. R ela ti v e to its p re -

em ancip ati o n c o unte rp arts in th e fo rm er N orth w est T errito rie s, h o w ev er, M ary la nd ’s v ers io n c am e w ith a n e sp ecia lly te rro ris ti c

pro vis io n d ealin g w ith th o se f r e e b la ck p ers o ns w ho m ay h av e e xhib ite d r e v olu ti o nary i n clin ati o ns:

[I] f a ny fr e e n egro s h all a fte r th e p assa ge o f th is a ct, b e c o nv ic te d o f w illfu lly b urn in g a ny . . . C ourt H ouse ,

co unty o r p ub lic p ris o n, o r th e p enite nti a ry , p oor h o use , w are ho use o r a ny b uild in g b elo ngin g

to th e S ta te . . .

su ch fr e e n egro , h is a id ers o r a b etto rs a nd c o unse lo rs , b ein g fr e e n egro es, a nd e ach o f th em s h all b e s e nte nced

to b e p unis h ed b y h angin g b y th e n eck a s n o w p ro vid ed b y l a w , o r i n th e d is c re ti o n o f th e c o urt to b e s o ld e ith er

with in o r b eyo nd th e l im its o f th e S ta te , a s a s la v e f o r l ife .

The d is c re ti o nary p ow er o f th e sta te to d is p ose o f th e w ould -b e-fr e e A fr ic an b ody th ro ugh e ith er th e p ub lic se rv itu d e o f th e

penite nti a ry , th e p riv ate s e rv itu d e o f c hatte l s la v ery , o r c ap ita l p unis h m ent e nacte d b y th e l y nch r o pe d ra m ati z e s th e g o th ic e xchanges

of c iv il, s o cia l, a nd p re m atu re d eath th at w ould c o nti n ue to d efin e b la ck (a nd In d ig eno us) in carc era te d e xis te nce a fte r c o lle cti v e

em ancip ati o n. W heth er re b ir th ed in th e fo rm of th e openly decla re d B la ck C odes of pre sid enti a l R eco nstr u cti o n, or th o se

ad m in is te re d u nd er th e c o lo r o f c o lo r-b lin d la w s th at h av e re ig ned sin ce th e la te n in ete enth c entu ry , th e la te a nte b ellu m w hite

su p re m acis t l e gal c o des s ta nd a s s ta rk e m bodim ents o f th e p ro cess o f f o rw ard h aunti n g th at I d is c usse d i n c hap te r 1 i n r e fe re nce to

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** th e c hain -g ang s c ene i n

Belo ved .

T hat i s , th e th re e i n ti m ate ly c o nnecte d a nd c ro ss-fe rti liz in g m eth o dolo gie s o f l e gally a d m in is te re d

ra cia l te rro r sa ncti o ned in M ary la nd ’s sta tu to ry “m odific ati o n” of its punis h m ent of em ancip ate d pers o ns— im pris o nm ent,

ensla v em ent, a nd ly nchin g— re p re se nte d n ecro politi c al p re curs o rs to le gal a nd e xtr a le gal fo rm ati o ns o f v io le nce w aged a gain st

co untl e ss fr e e b la ck s u b je cts fo r g enera ti o ns a fte r th e C iv il W ar. T his fo rw ard -h aunti n g q uality o f th e M ary la nd B la ck C ode a nd

th o se o f o th er s o uth ern s ta te s— alo ng w ith th at o f th e “ N egro C odes” a nd “ B la ck L aw s” o f th e n o rth ern U nite d S ta te s— dis tu rb s a

re m ark m ad e b y R ep ub lic an s e nato r J o hn C re sw ell o f M ary la nd , w ho a tte m pte d to a cco unt f o r p ost- 1 865 p ub lic s a le s o f f r e e b la ck

peo ple b y s ta ti n g th at th e “ la w u nd er w hic h th ese d ecre es h av e b een p asse d . . . a nd th ese s a le s h av e b een m ad e is a r e lic o f th at

co de i n i ts w ors t a sp ect,” a “ v esti g e o f [ a n] o ld s p ir it.”

As I w ill d is c uss a t g re ate r l e ngth b elo w , th e m ix o f p ub lic a nd p riv ate m aste ry e xhib ite d i n th e a nte b ellu m B la ck C ode’s h and lin g

of th e p ro ble m ati c p re se nce o f th e fr e e “ N egro ” w ith in th e c iv il b ody w as fa r fr o m a d ead o r flic kerin g le tte r b y th e ti m e o f th e

pub lic le asin g o f c rim in ally b ra nd ed fr e e p ers o ns. T he s ta te ’s w ie ld in g o f th e p ow er to s u b m it th e b la ck s u b je ct to th e o ffic ia l

in carc era ti o n o f th e p ris o n, th e s o cia l i n carc era ti o n o f th e i n d iv id ual c o nv ic t p urc hase r, o r o utr ig ht p ub lic e xte rm in ati o n r e p re se nte d

a c hillin g p re fig ura ti o n, a s ta tu to ry d re ss r e hears a l, f o r th e l a rg e-s c ale

sta te -a d m in is te re d p ub lic /p riv ate c arc era l h yb rid s th at w ould

co m e to d efin e z e ro -d egre e b la ck u nfr e ed om a fte r 1 865: th e c o nv ic t l e ase c am p, th e c hain -g ang c am p, th e c o unty f a rm , th e p eo nage

cam p, th e pris o n pla nta ti o n, and th e “m odern ” penite nti a ry . S ta te d diffe re ntl y , th e aucti o nin g, im pris o nm ent, and ly nchin g of

no m in ally fr e e b la ck s u b je cts u nd er th e la w o f s la v ery is su ed s p ecte rs o f c hatte lh o od th at w ould s e cre te a cro ss th e fa b le d fr o nte ra

of f r e ed om a s th e s ta te a ssu m ed f u ll- fle d ged m aste ry o ver th e a lw ays a lr e ad y c rim in aliz e d “ fr e e” b la ck b ody. R ead i n th is l ig ht, th e

ritu aliz e d le gal s p ecta cle o f th e c o urth o use s la v e a ucti o n w as n o t a n e p is o dic o r a nachro nis ti c r e m nant o f a s o on-to -b e c o m ple te ly

vanq uis h ed s y ste m o f le gal v io le nce a nd p ub lic p ro fite erin g: th is a p pariti o n fr o m c hatte l s la v ery

was a ls o a p re m oniti o n o f th e

sta te ’s prim ary ro le in th e pro ducti o n, in d ustr ia liz a ti o n, and dir e ct ad m in is tr a ti o n of sp ecta cula r and banal m echanis m s of

neo sla v ery f r o m th e c hain g ang to th e p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x.

Fig ure 4 .

“ P osts la very ” p ris o n s la ve a dvertis e m ent f ro m “ S ale o f N egro es in M ary la nd,” a h earin g o f th e U .S . H ouse o f R epre se nta tiv es C om mit te e o n th e J u dic ia ry ,

Ja nuary 1 1 , 1 867, u npublis h ed tr a nsc rip t.

But th is lin e o f a rg um ent in re sp ect to th e u nd ead , o r fo rw ard -h aunti n g, p ro pensiti e s o f la te a nte b ellu m re ensla v em ent s ta tu te s

begs th e v ita lly im porta nt q uesti o n o f m eth o d. T hat is , ju st h o w , in th e c o nte xt o f th e g ra nd n arra ti v e o f e m ancip ati o n, w ere s u ch

docum ents o f le gal s o rc ery a b le to r e -a nim ate in th e fo rm o f p ostb ellu m B la ck C odes a nd th e r a cia lly m oti v ate d a nd a d m in is te re d

“co lo r-b lin d ” s ta tu te s th at r e p la ced th em , s u ch a s th o se d ealin g w ith v agra ncy, b re ach o f c o ntr a ct, p ub lic d is o rd erlin ess, g am blin g,

and p etty l a rc eny, s o cia lly m anufa ctu re d “ crim es” a sso cia te d w ith s tr u ctu ra l b la ck d is p osse ssio n, l a nd le ssn ess, a nd v uln era b ility to

le gal a nd e xtr a le gal te rro r? W hat w as th e m ain le gal c hannel w here b y th e p ub lic a ucti o nin gs o f b la ck fr e ep ers o ns o n c o urth o use

ste p s in sta te s ra ngin g fr o m S outh C aro lin a, to M ary la nd , to Illin o is , w ould tr a nsfig ure in to th e genera liz e d co urtr o om and

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** board ro om re nti n gs of em ancip ate d bla ck bodie s th at defin ed posts la v ery im pris o nm ent? H ow exactl y w as th e sta tu to ry

crim in aliz a ti o n o f b la ck fr e ed om th at o ccurre d in th e a nte b ellu m p erio d la w fu lly p ro pelle d in to th e fu tu re , p ro ducin g v ario us

fo rm ati o ns o f n eo sla v ery fr o m th e p riv ati z e d p ub lic d om in ati v e r e gim es o f c o nv ic t le asin g, p eo nage, a nd c rim in al- s u re ty to th e n o

le ss d om in ati v e a nd e co no m ic ally i n te re ste d p ub lic s y ste m s o f th e c o unty c hain g ang, th e C ounty F arm , a nd p enite nti a ry p la nta ti o n?

How , f o r i n sta nce, w as i t p ossib le f o r th e p overty - a nd h unger-in d uced c rim e o f h o g-s te alin g to m ove s o n im bly f r o m b ein g d eem ed

“p etty l a rc eny” b y M ary la nd ’s s ta te l e gis la tu re ( a d is c urs iv e g estu re th at p ro ffe re d a r a ti o nale f o r th e a ucti o nin g a nd r e ensla v em ent

of G assa w ay P ric e in A nnap olis in 1 866) to b ein g d ub bed “ gra nd la rc eny” b y M is sis sip pi’s s ta te le gis la tu re a fte r th e s u p pose d

su sp ensio n o f its B la ck C odes (s u p ply in g o ne o f th e k ey “ co lo r-b lin d ” s ta tu to ry p illa rs fo r th e s ta te ’s p enal re ensla v em ent a nd

murd er o f th o usa nd s o f b la ck p eo ple a fte r its p assa ge in 1 876)?

P ut m ore d ir e ctl y , w hat w as th e le gal c o nju rin g m eth o d th at

allo w ed fo r

im pris o ned s la ve a uctio nin g

to s e am le ssly tr a nsiti o n in to b oth o ffic ia lly a nd c usto m arily s a ncti o ned

en sla ved c o nvic t

le a sin g

The c entr a l a nsw er to th ese q uesti o ns r e p re se nts o ne o f th e m ost d ev asta ti n g d ocum ents o f lib era l le gal s o rc ery e v er p ro duced

und er o ccid enta l m odern ity : th e T hir te enth A mend m ent to th e U .S . C onsti tu ti o n i ts e lf. A s I b rie fly a rti c ula te d e arlie r i n r e fe re nce to

th e p rim ary l e gal m echanis m b y w hic h th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel w as a b le to l a y h o ld to

poste m ancip ati o n b la ck life , th e

very a m end m ent to th e C onsti tu ti o n th at w as to h av e p erfo rm ed th e m ir a culo us c o nv ers io n o f “ chatte l i n to m an” a ctu ally f a cilita te d

his

and

h er r e -c hatte liz a ti o n th ro ugh im pris o nm ent: “ N eith er s la v ery n o r in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e,

excep t a s p unis h m en t fo r a c rim e

where o f th e p arty s h all h ave b een d uly c o nvic te d ,

s h all e xis t w ith in th e U nite d S ta te s, o r a ny p la ce s u b je ct to th eir ju ris d ic ti o n.”

The g ra nd est e m ancip ato ry g estu re in U .S . h is to ry c o nta in ed a r h eto ric al tr a p door, a lo opho le o f s ta te r e p re ssio n, a llo w in g fo r th e

co nti n ued c o hab ita ti o n o f lib era l b ourg eo is la w a nd r a cia l c ap ita lis t te rro r; th e in te re ste d in v asio n o f “ o bje cti v e,” “ co lo r-b lin d ,”

and “ d uly ” p ro cesse d le gality b y s u m mary ju sti c e a nd w hite s u p re m acis t c usto m ; a nd th e c o nsti tu ti o nal s a ncti o nin g o f s ta te -b orn e

pris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e.

That m y a tta chm ent o f s u ch g ra v ity a nd e p ochal m eanin g to th e e xcep ti o n c la use i s n o c ase o f p oliti c al h yp erb ole i s r e gis te re d b y

th e p ub lic ly a ir e d d eb ate i t c ause d , b oth a t th e ti m e o f i ts p assa ge a nd i n th e y ears s u rro und in g th e i m ple m enta ti o n o f th e p ostb ellu m

Bla ck C odes. C arl S churz s p oke d ir e ctl y to th e im min ent r e ensla v in g p urp ose s to w hic h p oste m ancip ati o n s ta tu to ry la w w ould b e

mars h ale d i n f ilin g a r e p ort o n s o uth ern r a ce r e la ti o ns j u st a fte r th e C iv il W ar:

The e m ancip ati o n o f th e s la v es i s s u b m itte d to o nly i n s o f a r a s c hatte l s la v ery i n th e o ld f o rm c o uld n o t b e k ep t

up . B ut a lth o ugh th e f r e ed m an i s n o l o nger c o nsid ere d th e p ro perty o f th e i n d iv id ual m aste r, h e i s c o nsid ere d th e

sla v e o f so cie ty , and all th e in d ep end ent sta te le gis la ti o n w ill sh are th e te nd ency to m ake him su ch. T he

ord in ances a b olis h in g s la v ery p asse d b y th e c o nv enti o ns u nd er th e p re ssu re o f c ir c um sta nces w ill n o t b e l o oked

up on a s b arrin g th e e sta b lis h m ent o f a n ew f o rm o f s e rv itu d e.

An e xp lic it a cco unt o f th e p rim ary r o le o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent in th e r e ensla v em ent o f fr e e b la ck p eo ple w as o ffe re d a t th e

Jo in t C om mitte e o n R eco nstr u cti o n in 1 866, th e sa m e y ear th at th e n eo sla v e a ucti o ns a d verti s e m ents w ere p oste d in M ary la nd

new sp ap ers . I n h is te sti m ony, a n o rth ern c le rg ym an te sti fie d to h av in g h ad a c o nv ers a ti o n w ith a w hite s o uth ern p re acher w ho m ad e

a b ra ze n d ecla ra ti o n r e gard in g th e s u rre p ti ti o usly te rro ris ti c u ti lity o f th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent, o ne th at in its b ru ta l a ccura cy

exp re sse s ho w th e w hite su p re m acis t o pportu nity affo rd ed b y th e excep ti o n cla use w as a m atte r o f so uth ern co m mon se nse :

“A llu d in g

to th e a m end m ent to th e C onsti tu ti o n th at s la v ery s h o uld n o t p re v ail, e xcep t a s p unis h m ent fo r a c rim e, [th e s o uth ern

pre acher s a id ] ‘ w e m ust n o w m ake a c o de th at w ill s u b je ct m any c rim es to th e p enalty o f in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e, a nd s o r e d uce th e

Negro es u nd er s u ch p enalty a gain to p ra cti c al s la v ery .’ ”

While th e s o uth ern m in is te r’s r e fe re nce to a “ co de” o f v ir tu al r e ensla v em ent o bvio usly r e fe rs to th e o penly r a cis t B la ck C odes

th at w ould im med ia te ly b egin to te rro riz e th e b la ck p opula ti o n a fte r th e w ar’s c essa ti o n, in th e re m ain d er o f th is c hap te r I w ill

exp lo re th e w ays i n w hic h th e e xcep ti o n c la use h ad te m pora l r e v erb era ti o ns th at e xte nd ed l o ng a fte r th e a p pare nt d em is e o f o pen ly

ra cis t s ta tu to ry l a w , a s w ell a s a g eo gra p hic al r e ach th at w as i n n o w ay c o rd oned to p oin ts s o uth o f th e M aso n-D ix o n l in e. T hro ugh

my d is c ussio n o f c o ngre ssio nal d eb ate s, th e p eo nage c ase s

, a nd th e h yb rid f o rm ati o ns o f p ub lic /p riv ate n eo sla v ery th at p la ced f r e e

bla ck p eo ple i n a c o nsta nt s ta te o f c o lle cti v e j e o pard y, I u nd erlin e th e d egre e to w hic h “ co lo r-b lin d ” j u rid ic al, l e gis la ti v e, a nd p enal

la w a ll p la yed c entr a l r o le s in c o nstr u cti n g a n o vera ll

co de o f r e en sla vem en t

—sta te s o f le galiz e d a nd r a cia liz e d e xcep ti o n m ad e

possib le i n l a rg e m easu re b y th e T hir te enth A mend m ent’ s p uniti v e e xcep ti o n.

Asid e fr o m e p is o dic in te rv enti o ns b y p ris o ners , a nti p ris o n a cti v is ts , a nd a s m all n um ber o f s c ho la rs in r e sp ect to its d om in ati v e

effe cti v ity , th e e xcep ti o n c la use h as r e ceiv ed v ery l ittl e i n th e w ay o f s u sta in ed tr e atm ent w ith in l e gal, s o cia l, a nd p oliti c al h is to rie s

of R eco nstr u cti o n, s o uth ern n eo sla v ery , a nd th e n ati o nal s y ste m o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t p atr ia rc hal p unis h m ent th at c o nti n ues to r a v age

bla ck, b ro w n, In d ig eno us, a nd p oor p eo ple .

L egal h is to rie s th at d o n o t s im ply la ud th e a m end m ent a s a m ark er o f lib era l le gal

pro gre ss h av e f o cuse d a lm ost e nti r e ly o n s o m e a sp ect o f th e s h ifti n g j u rid ic al i n te rp re ta ti o n o f i ts p ro hib ito ry d im ensio ns r e la ti v e to

sla v ery and its “b ad ges.” R ead co lle cti v ely , th ese dis c ussio ns fo cus on th e w ays in w hic h th e am end m ent’ s co m mon la w

co nstr u cti o n d urin g th e f ir s t f ifty y ears o f e m ancip ati o n v acilla te d f r o m a r e la ti v ely e xp ansiv e v ie w d urin g R eco nstr u cti o n ( m ark ed

by c ase s u p ho ld in g th e c o nsti tu ti o nality o f th e C iv il R ig hts A ct o f 1 866); to a r e str ic ti v e v ie w i n k eep in g w ith L ochner-E ra l a is se z-

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** fa ir e i d eo lo gy a nd th e l ib era l w hite s u p re m acis t s a ncti o nin g o f J im C ro w a p arth eid ( s ig nale d m ost i n fa m ously w ith th e

Civ il R ig hts

Case s

[1 883]); to a m om ent o f b rie f re exp ansio n in th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry w ith th e S up re m e C ourt’ s ru lin gs in th e p eo nage

case s (

Baile y v . A la bam a

[ 1 911 ] a nd

U.S . v . R eyn old s

[ 1 914]).

Cente rin g th e le gis la ti v e a nd ju rid ic al tr e atm ent o f th e p enal e xcep ti o n, a nd its o m in o usly s h ro ud ed p re se nce w ith in m om ents o f

oste nsib le le gal p ro gre ssiv is m s u ch a s th at e xhib ite d in

Reyn old s

, a llo w s u s to e ngage w ith c o unte r-h is to ric al re aliti e s re nd ere d

la rg ely in v is ib le b y th is fo cus o n th e a m end m ent’ s p ro hib ito ry fu ncti o n. It u nv eils th e w ays in w hic h th e T hir te enth A mend m ent

offe re d l e gal c o ver a nd s o cia l a c cep ta b ility f o r J im C ro w a p arth eid a t i ts m ost a b je ct a nd m urd ero us d egre e w ith in s p aces s u ch a s

th e c hain g ang, th e c o nv ic t le ase c am p, a nd th e p eo nage c am p— ho w th ese p ub lic /p riv ate h yb rid s o f n eo sla v ery w ere e nacte d n o t

th ro ugh th e em ancip ati o n am end m ent’ s ju rid ic al re str ic ti o n but th ro ugh its very dep lo ym ent as a Ja nus-h ead ed w eap on of

re ensla v em ent. A gain , I a m c o ncern ed w ith th e fa ct th at th e v ery a ct o f lib era l le gality th at r e gis te re d d e ju re r e co gniti o n o f h ard -

won b la ck J u b ile e a ctu ally r e in sti tu te d e nsla v em ent th ro ugh c rim in al s a ncti o n. A lo ng th ese l in es, I w ant to e xp lo re h o w a c ente rin g

of th e e xcep ti o n c la use a nd th e c hatte liz e d p enal la w th at it p ro duced a llo w s fo r a c riti c al d is e nchantm ent o f th e s ta te ’s r a cia liz e d ,

gend ere d , a nd c la ss-c o ded d is c o urs e s o f “ p ub lic s a fe ty ,” “ la w a nd o rd er,” a nd “ p enal r e fo rm .” J u st a s i m porta nt, i n th e r e m ain d er o f

th e c hap te r I s h o w h o w a c ente rin g o f th e e xcep ti o nal l o opho le w ith in th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent e xp ose s th e l e gal, c ultu ra l, a nd

peno lo gic al c hannels w here b y l ib era l b ourg eo is w hite s u p re m acis t l a w r e su sc ita te d b oth th e b ad ges

and

fe tte rs — th e in cid ents

a nd

fu nd am ents — of c hatte l s la v ery a nd th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** What’s in a N am e?

In vo lu nta ry S erv itu de

a s L ib era l L eg al E uphem is m

Tro ub le d a b out th e p ossib le r e gre ssiv e c o nse q uences th at c o uld u nfu rl s h o uld th e e xcep ti o n c la use b e a llo w ed i n to th e c o nsti tu ti o nal

am end m ent o utl a w in g s la v ery , M assa chuse tts s e nato r C harle s S um ner a tte m pte d to s o und a n a la rm o f o ppositi o n d urin g th e S enate ’s

orig in al d eb ate s o n th e a m end m ent’ s w ord in g. In fa ct, b efo re w agin g h is c riti q ue o f w hat e nd ed u p b ein g th e fin al v ers io n o f th e

le gis la ti o n, S um ner s u b m itte d h is o w n v ers io n, i n sp ir e d b y th e F re nch D ecla ra ti o n o f R ig hts ( 1 787), a j o in t r e so lu ti o n b ase d o n th e

lib era l p rin cip le s o f “ natu ra l r ig hts ” a nd e q uality b efo re th e la w : “ E very w here w ith in th e lim its o f th e U nite d S ta te s, a nd o f e ach

sta te o f T errito ry th ere o f, a ll p ers o ns a re e q ual b efo re th e la w , s o th at n o p ers o n c an h o ld a no th er a s a s la v e.” R ealiz in g th at h is

pro pose d v ers io n

was a d ead le tte r, th e c o ngre ssm an fo cuse d o n c halle ngin g th e fin al v ers io n o f th e a m end m ent c o auth o re d b y

Senato r J o hn H end ers o n o f M is so uri, w ho w as a s la v eho ld er h im se lf ( a t le ast u nti l th e C iv il W ar). S um ner d esc rib ed h o w in its

nearly e xact r e p eti ti o n o f th e la nguage o f A rti c le S ix o f T ho m as J e ffe rs o n’s N orth w est O rd in ance o f 1 787

—whic h in o ste nsib ly

outl a w in g s la v ery i n th e N orth w est T errito rie s a ls o c o nta in ed a p ro vis io n f o r e nsla v em ent u p on “ d ue c o nv ic ti o n” b y l a w — Congre ss

was i n d anger o f r e su sc ita ti n g th e v ery s y ste m i t w as p urp orti n g to c ast i n to o bliv io n:

There a re w ord s h ere . . . w hic h a re e nti r e ly i n ap plic ab le to o ur ti m e. T hey a re th e l im ita ti o n, “ o th erw is e th an i n

th e p unis h m ent o f c rim es w here o f th e p arty s h all h av e b een d uly c o nv ic te d .” N ow , u nle ss I e rr, th ere is a n

im plic ati o n fr o m th o se w ord s th at m en m ay b e e nsla v ed a s p unis h m ent o f c rim es w here o f th ey s h all h av e b een

duly c o nv ic te d . T here w as a r e aso n . . . fo r a t th at ti m e . . . I u nd ers ta nd it w as th e h ab it in c erta in p arts o f th e

co untr y to c o nv ic t p ers o ns o r d oom th em a s s la v es f o r l ife a s p unis h m ent f o r c rim e, a nd i t w as n o t p ro pose d to

pro hib it th is h ab it.

But s la very in o ur d ay is s o m eth in g d is tin ct,

p erfe ctl y w ell k no w n, r e q uir in g n o w ord s o f

dis ti n cti o n o uts id e o f i ts e lf.

In m akin g h is c ase a gain st th e e xcep ti o n c la use , th e a b oliti o nis t s e nato r b ase d h is a rg um ent o n th e p re m is e th at th ere w as a c le arly

dis c ern ib le lin e o f d is ti n cti o n b etw een in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e a nd c hatte l s la v ery in 1 864, a d iv erg ence th at n ullifie d th e n eed to

re p eat th e e xcep ti o n c la use i n a n a m end m ent a tta ckin g c hatte l s la v ery . H is a rg um ent a ls o r e ste d o n th e f a ct th at J e ffe rs o n’s o rd in ance

cate re d to th e n ati o nal “ hab it” in th e la te e ig hte enth c entu ry o f s u b m itti n g fr e e a nd fu giti v e A fr ic ans to p riv ate s la v ery r a th er th an

pub lic penal se rv itu d e as punis h m ent fo r crim es asso cia te d w ith lib era te d bla ckness (a poin t als o sig nifie d by Je ffe rs o n’s

unm enti o ned i n clu sio n o f a f u giti v e s la v e p ro vis io n i n th e o rig in al l a nguage o f th e o rd in ance). S um ner c o nclu d ed th at th e l e gis la ti o n

re lie d o n a “ la nguage th at is n o t h ap py” in so fa r a s it c o uld b e in te rp re te d a s a lo opho le fo r r e ensla v em ent. O th er m em bers o f th e

ju d ic ia ry c o m mitte e, in clu d in g fe llo w R ep ub lic an L ym an T ru m bull, w ho w as a cti n g c hair, fe lt th at S um ner’s r a d ic alis t p ositi o n o n

th e w ord in g a m ounte d to n o th in g b ut a stu b born a nd m is p la ced g ra m mati c al fa sti d io usn ess: “ I d o n o t k no w th at I sh o uld h av e

ad opte d th ese w ord s, b ut a m ajo rity o f th e c o m mitte e th o ught th ey w ere th e b est

word s; th ey a cco m plis h th e o bje ct; a nd I c anno t s e e

why th e s e nato r f r o m M assa chuse tts s h o uld b e s o p erti n acio us a b out p arti c ula r w ord s.”

Sum ner f e lt th at h e h ad u nco vere d i r re fu ta b le p ro of th at h is s u p pose d f it o f g ra m mati c al n itp ic kin g w as a ctu ally b ase d o n a c le ar

and p re se nt d anger w hen, o n J a nuary 3 , 1 867, n early th re e y ears a fte r o rig in ally p osin g h is m is g iv in gs in r e sp ect to th e e xcep ti o n

cla use , he o pened a S enate d eb ate o n a co ngre ssio nal re so lu ti o n callin g fo r a “su p ple m enta ry am end m ent” to th e T hir te enth

Amend m ent. H e b egan th e d is c ussio n b y h o ld in g u p th e v ery a d verti s e m ent fo r th e c o urth o use a ucti o nin g o f R ic hard H arris th at is

illu str a te d a b ove (F ig ure 4 ), a n e v ent th at h ad o ccurre d in A nnap olis ju st o ne m onth b efo re S um ner’s s p eech. A fte r re la yin g th e

co nte nts o f th e a d verti s e m ent, h e p ro ceed ed to r e ad a tr a nsc rip ti o n o f th e o th er p ub lic n o ti c e th at I m enti o ned e arlie r f o r th e s a le o f

Jo hn J o hnso n, G assa w ay P ric e, H arrie t P urd y, a nd D illy H arris , a g ro up n eo sla v e a ucti o n a b out w hic h S um ner re p orte d to h av e

been in fo rm ed b y a p ers o nal “ co rre sp ond ent” w ho s a w th e b la ck p ris o ners “ so ld in h is p re se nce, b efo re h is v ery e yes.” M eant to

aro use h o rro r, d is a p pro bati o n, a nd d is b elie f, S um ner’s e xp osu re o f th e o dio us s c ene o f b la ck b odie s b ein g s o ld a t p ub lic a ucti o n

nearly w ith in s ite o f th e n ati o n’s c ap ito l p arto ok o f a l o ng-e sta b lis h ed a b oliti o nis t tr o polo gy th at r e ste d o n u nv eilin g th e s p ecta cula r

dep ra v iti e s o f c hatte l s la v ery o f w hic h w hip s, c hain s, a nd a ucti o n b lo cks w ere e sse nti a l s y m bols .

F or h im , it w as n o t th e fa ct o f

no rm aliz e d a rre st a nd i m pris o nm ent o f f r e e b la ck p ers o ns th at w as th e p ro ble m , b ut th e u nse em ly m anner i n w hic h i t w as c o nd ucte d ;

th e pris o ner aucti o n w as pro of positi v e th at so m eth in g beyo nd “no rm al” pub lic ly ad m in is te re d in v olu nta ry se rv itu d e w as

fu ncti o nin g u nd er th e b anner o f th e p uniti v e e xcep ti o n, a llo w in g f o r th e i n sti tu ti o n o f a r e v iv ed f o rm o f p riv ate c hatte l s la v ery . “ B ut I

pre su m e th at th e S enate , a t th e ti m e th ey p asse d u p on th e a m end m ent s u p pose d th at th e p hra se ‘in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e, e xcep t fo r

crim e w here o f th e p arty h as b een d uly c o nv ic te d ,’ w as s im ply a p plic ab le to

ord in ary i m pris o nm en t.

” S um ner w ent o n to r e call th at

at th e ti m e o f th e a m end m ent’ s p assa ge h e “ fe are d th at it w as n o t e xclu siv ely a p plic ab le to

what w e c o m monly u ndersta nd b y

im pris o nm en t,

a nd th at i t m ig ht b e e xte nd ed s o a s to c o ver s o m e f o rm o f s la v ery .”

The M assa chuse tts co ngre ssm an w as jo in ed in th is d ra m ati c unv eilin g o f th e M ary la nd ad verti s e m ents b y Jo hn K asso n, a

Rep ub lic an r e p re se nta ti v e f r o m I o w a, w ho h eld th em a lo ft i n th e H ouse o f R ep re se nta ti v es j u st f iv e d ays a fte r S um ner’s s p eech. A s

in th e M assa chuse tts s e nato r’s c ase , K asso n r e ste d h is a rg um ents f o r r e v is iti n g th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent

on w hat h e p erc eiv ed to

be a c le ar-c ut b ound ary se p ara ti n g in v olu nta ry se rv itu d e to th e sta te , a s re p re se nte d b y “ o rd in ary ” im pris o nm ent, a nd p riv ate

se rv itu d e to a n i n d iv id ual, a s s y m boliz e d b y th e a b ho rre nt s p ecta cle o f th e c o urth o use a ucti o n b lo ck:

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** I a p pre hend th at fe w m em bers o f th is H ouse o r o f C ongre ss, a t th e ti m e o f th e p assa ge o f th e a m end m ent,

su p pose d th at i n th e v ery s e nte nce a b olis h in g s la v ery th ro ugho ut th e U nite d S ta te s th ey h ad a ls o m ad e p ro vis io n

fo r i ts r e v iv al u nd er a no th er f o rm a nd th ro ugh th e a cti o n o f th e c o urts o f th e c o untr y . T he f a cts c erti fie d to u s b y

th e n ew sp ap ers o f th e S outh , f r o m w eek to w eek, s h o w th at th e r e su lt o f th at a cti o n, a s i t i s th ere c o nstr u ed , i s to

re v iv e th e in sti tu ti o n o f c hatte l sla v ery in a ll its o dio us c hara cte ris ti c s; th at fr e e m en . . . a re p ut u p on th e

aucti o n-b lo ck to day a nd s o ld to th e h ig hest b id der i n to s la v ery .

Kasso n c o uld fe el s o e m bold ened to s tr ik e a t th e e xcep ti o n c la use p artl y b ecause o f a m ore d efin iti v e s y nta cti c al p arti ti o nin g o f

“sla v ery ” a nd “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e” w ith in h is o w n s ta te ’s c o nsti tu ti o n, i n w hic h th e l a nguage o f J e ffe rs o n’s N orth w est O rd in ance

was c o nv erte d in to a m ore o vertl y a b oliti o nis t p hra se o lo gy: “ S la v ery , b ein g in co m pati b le w ith a fr e e G overn m ent, is fo re v er

pro hib ite d i n th e U nite d S ta te s; a nd i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e s h all b e p erm itte d o nly a s a p unis h m ent f o r c rim e.”

In th e s p ir it o f th is o ste nsib ly d efin iti v e s e p ara ti o n o f tw o s y ste m s o f p uniti v e d om in ati o n, K asso n in tr o duced a b ill ( H .R . N o.

956) th at w ould h av e c rim in aliz e d a ny

unoffic ia l su bje ctio n to sla very

[o f] p ers o ns w ho m ay b e c o nv ic te d o f o ffe nse s a gain st th e la w , b y re aso n

where o f c erta in in fe rio r tr ib unals h av e a d ju d ged fr e e c iti z e ns o f th e U nite d S ta te s to b e s o d is p ose d o f a s to

re esta b lis h c hatte l s la v ery fo r life o r fo r y ears , a gain st th e p rin cip le s o f th e C hris ti a n r e lig io n, o f c iv iliz a ti o n,

and th e C onsti tu ti o n . . . w hic h n o w r e co gniz e s n o i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e e xcep t to th e l a w a nd to th e o ffic ers o f

its a d m in is tr a ti o n.

He c o nclu d ed b y p ositi n g w hat h e c o nsid ere d to b e a h erm eneuti c al c o rre cti v e i n r e sp ect to th e a m end m ent’ s i n te nd ed e m ancip ato ry

fu ncti o n b y s ta ti n g th at “ no s u ch th in g a s s e llin g a m an i n to s la v ery c an p ossib ly e xis t i n

th e p re se nt c o nd iti o n o f th e C onsti tu ti o n a nd

th e l a w s o f th e c o untr y ; th at th ere m ust b e a d ir e ct c o nd em nati o n i n to th at c o nd iti o n u nd er th e c o ntr o l o f th e o ffic ers o f th e l a w , l ik e

th e s e nte nce o f a m an to h ard l a b or i n th e S ta te p ris o n i n r e gula r a nd o rd in ary c o urs e o f l a w a nd th at i s th e o nly k in d o f i n v olu nta ry

se rv itu d e k no w n to th e C onsti tu ti o n a nd th e l a w .”

F or K asso n a nd S um ner, th e a uc ti o n b lo ck c o nse q uentl y o pera te d a s s o m eth in g o f

an a b oliti o nis t f e ti s h , a n e m ble m o f a n u nciv iliz e d , o bso le te , a nd d om esti c m odality o f i n carc era ti o n a nd u nfr e ed om u nd er a p riv ate

maste r th at w ould i n elu cta b ly m ake w ay f o r a m ore r e gula te d , r a ti o nal, a nd h um ane te chniq ue o f h um an e nto m bm ent: “ H ard l a b or i n

th e S ta te p ris o n.”

The m ost c urs o ry g la nce a t s u ch a rti c ula ti o ns l e nd s i ts e lf i m med ia te ly to a c o unte rin g o f th e l ib era l a b oliti o nis t a tte m pt a t p ositi n g

a d efin iti v e b ord erlin e b etw een th e a ucti o n b lo ck a nd th e c ellb lo ck, b etw een p enal a nd c hatte l s e rv itu d e. E ven w ith in i ts o w n te rm s,

th e lo gic o f S um ner’s a nd K asso n’s s e lf- a ssu re d s ta te m ents in th is re gard fa ll a p art a t th e s e am s, p oin ti n g to w ard a n o pen s e cre t

ly in g a t th e c o re o f th eir lib era l v is io n a nd a t th e c ente r o f E uro -A meric an c arc era l m odern ity a s a w ho le . K asso n m ost c le arly

exhib its th e unte nab le natu re of th e m yth ic al priv ate /p ub lic carc era l bin ary w hen in th e co urs e of re enacti n g his ow n sta te

co nsti tu ti o n’s s y nta cti c al s e v era nce o f “ sla v ery ” a nd “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e,” h e r e p eate d ly p erfo rm s th eir r e unific ati o n. T his fir s t

ap pears i n th e w ord in g o f h is p ro pose d b ill to c rim in ally s a ncti o n a nyo ne ta kin g p art i n th e s a le o f “ fr e e” h um an b ein gs, w here in h e

desc rib es p riv ate s e rv itu d e a s a n “ uno ffic ia l s u b je cti o n to s la v ery ,” a p hra se th at i m med ia te ly s ig nifie s a n u nsp oken O th er w ork in g

alo ngsid e s u ch o dio usly u nre gula te d p riv ate a rra ngem ents — th at i s , a n “ o ffic ia l” o r p ro perly p ub lic f o rm o f s la v ery i s su in g f r o m th e

quo ti d ia n, p re d ic ta b le , a nd “ hum ane” o pera ti o n o f th e s ta te p olic e p ow er. T he s p ecte r o f p ub lic p enal e nsla v em ent th en r e ap pears i n

one o f K asso n’s m ost a p pare ntl y s e lf- c erta in a sse rti o ns o f th e u nco nsti tu ti o nality o f o ne p ers o n b ein g h eld a s c hatte l b y a no th er

pers o n, “ th at th ere m ust b e

a d ir e ct c o ndem natio n i n to t h at c o nditio n u nder t h e c o ntr o l o f o ffic ers o f t h e l a w ,

l ik e th e s e nte nce o f a

man to h ard l a b or i n th e S ta te p ris o n.” F ar f r o m d is lo dgin g th e r h eto ric ally w ed ded te rm s

sla very

a nd

in vo lu nta ry s e rv itu de,

lib era l

pro no uncem ents o f th e p uta ti v ely “ o rd in ary ” a nd “ o ffic ia l” o pera ti o n o f ju rid ic al a nd p enal la w u lti m ate ly p erfo rm th e a b so lu te

im possib ility o f th eir d iv orc e. A s n o te d in m y e arlie r d is c ussio n o f th e N orth A meric an c hain g ang, th ere a re a n u nto ld n um ber o f

dis a v ow ed s to rie s o f u nfr e ed om , c o rp ore al r u p tu re , p sy chic te rro r, a nd c hatte liz e d e nto m bm ent s u ggeste d in

Kasso n’s in ad verte nt

dis c urs iv e a ckno w le d gm ent o f th e filia ti o ns o f “ o rd in ary im pris o nm ent” a nd

th at c o nditio n

k no w n a s s la v ery — his to ric ally s e ale d

necro politi c al e xp erie nces th at u nd erlin e th e d egre e to w hic h “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e” w ork s a s a l ib era l l e gal e up hem is m s h ro ud in g

lo ng-s ta nd in g i n ti m acie s o f p enal a nd c hatte l i n carc era ti o n.

In d eed , th e m eth o dolo gic al i n te rc o nnecti o ns o f th e tw o o ste nsib ly d is ti n ct s y ste m s a re l a rg ely i n d exab le w ith in th e h is to ry o f th e

very o rd in ance fo r th e N orth w est T errito rie s th at o ccup ie d th e c ente r o f th e d eb ate re gard in g th e T hir te enth A mend m ent. T his

criti c ally i m porta nt g enealo gy p oin ts to th e f a ct th at i n a d opti n g th e p unis h m ent e xcep ti o n i n r e sp ect to

in vo lu nta ry s e rv itu de

—th at

is , s ta te e nfo rc ed “ hard la b or” a s p unis h m ent fo r a d uly c o nv ic te d o ffe nse — Je ffe rs o n re p lic ate d th e re fo rm ato ry lo gic o f C esa re

Beccaria , th e in flu enti a l Ita lia n crim in o lo gis t and p enal re fo rm er o f th e E nlig hte nm ent era w ho m th e A meric an sla v e-o w nin g

sta te sm an h eld i n e xtr e m ely h ig h e ste em .

H ow ev er, i n o ffe rin g h is v is io n o f w hat F oucault w ould c o m e to d esc rib e a s m odern ity ’s

in cre m enta l m ovem ent aw ay fr o m th e blo od-rid den m odaliti e s of pre m odern fe ud al punis h m ent to a “d is c ip lin ary ” and

“d is e m bodie d ” p enal p hilo so phy, B eccaria u nv eils h o w lib era l r e fo rm , m odern iz a ti o n, a nd r a ti o naliz a ti o n w ere fo und ed u p on th e

su b sti tu ti o n o f th e c o nv ic t’ s s a nguin ary d eath b y s o m eth in g d eem ed m ore p ro ducti v ely a nd p ed ago gic ally “ grie v ous” — his lite ra l

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** ensla v em ent. “ If it b e s a id th at p erm anent p enal s e rv itu d e is a s g rie v ous a s d eath , a nd th ere fo re a s c ru el, I r e p ly th at, if w e a d d u p

all th e u nhap py m om ents o f s la v ery , p erh ap s i t i s e v en m ore s o , b ut th e l a tte r a re s p re ad o ut o ver a n e nti r e l ife , w here as th e f o rm er

exerts i ts f o rc e a t a s in gle m om ent.”

For B eccaria , th e “ unhap py” c iv il d eath p ro duced th ro ugh p enal e nsla v em ent w ould n o t o nly fu ncti o n a s a n in te nsific ati o n o f

bio lo gic al d eath b ut w ould e clip se i ts c o unte rp art a s a m ore e ffic ie nt te chniq ue o f c rim in al d ete rre nce th ro ugh th e te rro r o f te m pora l

in d efin ite ness: “ It i s n o t th e i n te nsity , b ut

th e e xte n t o f p unis h m en t

w hic h m akes th e g re ate st i m pre ssio n o n th e h um an s o ul. . . . I t i s

no t th e te rrib le b ut f le eti n g s ig ht o f th e f e lo n’s d eath w hic h i s th e m ost p ow erfu l b re ak o n c rim e, b ut th e l o ng d ra w n-o ut e xam ple o f a

man d ep riv ed o f f r e ed om , w ho

havin g b eco m e a b ea st o f b urd en

, r e p ays th e s o cie ty h e h as o ffe nd ed w ith h is l a b our.”

T he m atte r-

of- fa ct a sp ect o f B eccaria ’s a rg um ent fo r th e p ed ago gic al v alu e o f p enal e nsla v em ent h ig hlig hts th e te rro r a nd d om in ati o n th at

und erla y w hat h as b een c ast h is to ric ally a s “ p enal r e fo rm ” fr o m th e E nlig hte nm ent th ro ugh th e b ir th o f th e “ m odern ” p enite nti a ry .

Beccaria w as nearly sin gula r am ong

his p eers , ho w ev er, in his o pen ackno w le d gm ent o f th e in ti m acie s o f p enal and chatte l

se rv itu d e, a c ro ss-fe rti liz a ti o n th at r a nges a t le ast a s fa r b ack a s th e c re ati o n o f th e

se rv u s-p oeo nae

—or c rim in ally b ra nd ed p ub lic

sla v e— in R om an la w ,

a nd th at c o nti n ued in to m odern ity w ith th e tr a nsm is sio n o f p la nta ti o n te chniq ues o f “ la b or m anagem ent,”

su rv eilla nce, a nd c o rp ore al r u p tu re i n to E uro pean a nd U .S . p ris o ns.

In d eed , a s D av id B rio n D av is h as p oin te d o ut, th e p eno lo gic al id eas o f J e re m y B enth am , th e E nglis h p eno lo gic al th eo ris t m ost

clo se ly a sso cia te d w ith d is c ip lin ary c arc era lity , re p re se nte d a “ v ir tu al c aric atu re o f th e p la nte r’s id eal.”

T he in v ento r o f th e

pano pti c o n w as i n cre d ulo us, h o w ev er, a s to a sse rti o ns th at s u b je cti o n to i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e a m ounte d to a ny s o rt o f tr a nsa tl a nti c

blo w back o f th e c o lo nia l c hatte l p rin cip le o f p ro ducti v e in te rn m ent; b ut, a s in K asso n’s c ase , h e ra is e s th e s p ecte r o f th e c hatte l

moorin gs o f m odern i m pris o nm ent e v en w hile d is a v ow in g th em :

With r e gard to th e p opula rity o f th is s p ecie s o f p unis h m ent in th is c o untr y . Im pati e nt s p ir its to o e asily k in d le d

with th e f ir e o f i n d ep end ence h av e a w ord f o r i t, w hic h r e p re se nts a n i d ea s in gula rly o bno xio us to a p eo ple w ho

prid e th em se lv es s o m uch o n th eir f r e ed om . T he w ord i s s la v ery . S la v ery th ey s a y i s a p unis h m ent to o d egra d in g

fo r a n E nglis h m an, e v en in r u in s. T his p re ju d ic e m ay b e c o nfu te d b y o bse rv in g, 1 st, th at

public s e rv itu de is a

diffe re n t th in g fr o m s la very

. 2 dly , T hat

if it w ere n ot

th is w ould b e n o r e a so n fo r d is m is sin g th is s p ecie s o f

punis h m en t w ith out e xa m in atio n.

I f th en u p on e xam in ati o n i t i s f o und n o t to b e p osse sse d , i n r e q uis ite d egre e,

of th e p ro perti e s to b e w is h ed f o r i n a m ode o f p unis h m ent th at, a nd n o t th e n am e i t h ap pens to b e c alle d b y, i s a

re aso n f o r i ts r e je cti o n: i f i t d oes n o t p osse ss th em , i t i s n o t a ny n am e th at c an b e g iv en to i t th at c an c hange i ts

natu re .

Leav in g a sid e fo r th e m om ent th e ta uto lo gic al a sp ect o f h is c la im th at p ub lic s e rv itu d e s im ply “ is ” a s p ecie s o f s e rv itu d e d is ti n ct

fr o m sla v ery , I a m in te re ste d in B enth am ’s d ep ic ti o n o f a n im age o f sin gula rly “ o bno xio us d egra d ati o n” a ris in g in th e m in d o f

Englis h c o m moners a t th e m ere p ro sp ect o f c iv il d eath . N otw ith sta nd in g th e p enal p hilo so pher’s in iti a l w ord s to th e c o ntr a ry , th is

gro te sq ue s o cia l v is io n w as b ase d o n th e te rrify in g a nd u tte rly u nth in kab le p ro sp ect th at c rim in al s ti g m ati z a ti o n w ould tr a nsm ute th e

“w hite ” c o nv ic t in to a n o nto lo gic al d oub le o f th e m ost “ d egra d ed ”

no t- q uite -h um an b ein g in th e m odern w orld — th o se u nits o f

ensla v ed A fr ic an l a b or d efin ed a t l a w a s o bje cts o f g lo baliz e d c o m merc e a nd l o caliz e d s a d is m .

E qually i m porta nt to n o te h ere i s

th e m anner in w hic h B enth am ’s r u m in ati o ns u lti m ate ly e xp re ss a to ta lita ria nis t a nim us e m bed ded w ith in h is u ti lita ria nis t v is io n. In

th e e nd , th e s o cia l- e ngin eerin g d re am o f p ro ducin g a p oor p opula ti o n in to ta l c o nfo rm ity w ith th e le gal, p oliti c al, a nd e co no m ic

dic ta te s o f l ib era l b ourg eo is m ark et c ultu re j u sti fie s a ny m eth o d, i n clu d in g a p enal v ers io n o f th at m enta lly a nd p hysic ally te rro riz in g

th in g th at th e ta rg ets o f s ta te s o vere ig nty w ould “ call” s la v ery . T his is n o t to s a y th at th e w hite E nglis h c o m moner fa ced th e s a m e

fo rm ati o ns o f c hatte lis m i n th e p ris o n th at th e A fr ic an s la v es f a ced i n th e b arra co on, th e s la v e s h ip , o r th e p la nta ti o n, b ut to h ig hlig ht

th e f a ct th at th e “ w hite ness” o f th e E nglis h c o m moner w as p la ced i n r e la ti v e j e o pard y th ro ugh th e s ti g m ata o f c rim in ality . I t i s a ls o

to s u ggest a c hannel b y w hic h th e f e ud al m oorin gs o f m odern i m pris o nm ent w ould u lti m ate ly b e g ho ste d i n to p enal m odern ity o n a n

unp re ced ente d s c ale o nce th e c arc era l s ta te s e t its s ig hts o n th o se w ho se c hatte l e nsla v em ent la id a t th e fo und ati o n o f w hite c iv il

pers o nho od.

The re p re ssiv e a sp ects o f th e B enth am ite p hilo so phy w ould fin d th eir w ay in to n in ete enth -c entu ry p ris o ns s u ch a s A ub urn a nd

Sin g S in g, th e la tte r o f w hic h w as a ctu ally b uilt th ro ugh th e “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e” o f p ris o ners tr a nsfe rre d fr o m th e fo rm er. E la m

Lynd s, th e w ard en w ho o vers a w th e co ntr a ct la b or and p ris o ner tr a nsfe r p ro je ct in th e la te 1 820s, w as uneq uiv ocal in his

re co gniti o n o f th e a ffin iti e s o f h is r o le a nd th at o f s la v e m aste r: “ A cco rd in g to m y e xp erie nce, it is n ecessa ry th at th e d ir e cto r o f a

pris o n . . . s h o uld b e in v este d w ith a n a b so lu te a nd c erta in p ow er. . . . M y p rin cip le h as a lw ays b een, th at in o rd er to re fo rm a

pris o n, it is w ell to c o ncentr a te w ith in th e s a m e in d iv id ual, a ll p ow er a nd a ll re sp onsib ility .” F or L ynd s, s u ch to ta l d is c ip lin a ry

dom in io n w as u nth in kab le w ith o ut r e co urs e to th e m ost c o m monp la ce “ se aso nin g” in str u m ent o f th e p la nta ti o n, th e lite ra l r e fe re nt

fo r w hat B enth am c alle d

th e la sh o f th e la w

: “ I c o nsid er it im possib le to g o vern a la rg e p ris o n w ith o ut a w hip . . . . If y o u h av e a t

once c o m ple te ly c urb ed th e p ris o ner u nd er th e y o ke o f d is c ip lin e y o u m ay w ith o ut d anger e m plo y h im i n th e l a b or w hic h y o u th in k

best.”

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Not to b e o utd one b y h is tr a nsa tl a nti c c o unte rp art, B enth am h im se lf o nce e nv is io ned a “ d is c ip lin ary ” to ol th at h as re ceiv ed a

gre at d eal le ss d is c ussio n th an h is p ano pti c o n. W hile h is p urp orte d ly d is e m bodie d s y ste m o f p ris o ner s u rv eilla nce h as r is e n to th e

le v el o f a m eta -s y m bol w ith in c riti c al

tr e atm ents o f m odern c arc era lity , h is id ea fo r a s lig htl y le ss s u b tl e r e fo rm o f fe ud al m eth o ds

of p ub lic ly a d m in is te re d c o rp ore al p unis h m ent ( w hic h a gain w as to b e r e se rv ed e xp re ssly f o r th e E nglis h p oor) s p eaks v olu m es f o r

th e p ara lle l, i n te rs e cti o nal, a nd m utu ally c o nsti tu ti v e d esig ns o f “ m odern ” p unis h m ent a nd “ p re m odern ” e nsla v em ent:

A m achin e m ig ht b e m ad e, w hic h s h o uld p ut in m oti o n c erta in e la sti c r o ds o f c ane o r w hale b one, th e n um ber

and s iz e o f w hic h m ig ht b e d ete rm in ed b y l a w . T he b ody o f th e d elin q uent m ig ht b e s u b je cte d to s tr o kes o f th ese

ro ds, and th e fo rc e and ra p id ity w ith w hic h th ey sh o uld be ap plie d , pre sc rib ed by a Ju d ge: [w ith ] th is

ev ery th in g w hic h is a rb itr a ry m ig ht b e re m oved . A p ub lic o ffic er . . . m ig ht p re sid e o ver th e in flic ti o n o f

punis h m ent; a nd w hen th ere w ere m any d elin q uents to b e p unis h ed , h is ti m e m ig ht b e s a v ed , a nd th e te rro r o f th e

sc ene h eig hte ned , w ith o ut in cre asin g a ctu al s u ffe rin g, b y in cre asin g th e n um ber o f m achin es, a nd s u b je cti n g a ll

th e o ffe nd ers to p unis h m ent a t th e s a m e ti m e.

That m odern p ris o n s e rv itu d e o rig in ally a m ounte d to a p ub lic s im ula ti o n o f th e “ p riv ate ” p ra cti c e o f c hatte l s la v ery r a is e s i m porta nt

questi o ns in re sp ect to S um ner’s a nd K asso n’s a tte m pte d a b oliti o nis t in te rv enti o n o n b ehalf o f th e e m ancip ate d . If a t its o uts e t

modern s ta te -b orn e p enal s e rv itu d e a llo w ed fo r th e w hite in d ustr ia l w ork er to b e s u b je cte d to s o m e o f th e v ery m echanis m s o f

co rp ore al r u p tu re , p riv ate p ro fite erin g, d is p osse ssio n, a nd s o cia l s ti g m ati z a ti o n th at w ere e sse nti a l to c hatte l c arc era lity ( w hile a ls o

im agin in g in no vati o ns a nd c alib ra ti o ns o f th at te rro ris ti c m odality s u ch a s th e B enth am ite w hip pin g m achin e), th en w hat w ere th e

le gal o r so cia l g ro und s fo r c halle ngin g th e sta te ’s w ho le sa le a ucti o nin g o f b odie s w ho m w hite su p re m acis t c ultu re d efin ed a s

meta p hysic ally unp ro ducti v e, in co rrig ib le , ata v is ti c , and w ho m lib era l w hite su p re m acis t la w and custo m had defin ed as

und is h o no ra b le b ein gs i n cap ab le o f f e elin g th e p hysic al o r p sy chic d egra d ati o n o f c hatte lh o od? W hat w as th e l o gic o f p enal r e fo rm

and c rim in al d ete rre nce to d o w ith th e l ite ra l “ b easts o f b urd en” w ho w ere th e o bje cti fie d c o rre la ti v es f o r B eccaria ’s m eta p ho ric s

of c iv il d eath a nd w ho w ere th o ught in cap ab le o f e ith er s p ir itu al r e fo rm ati o n o r p ro ducti v e in d ustr ia l d is c ip lin e?

W hat w ere th e

lim its o f a l ib era l a b oliti o nis m th at e xp re sse d h o rro r a t th e s ite o f f r e e b la ck p eo ple b ein g a ucti o ned o n c o urth o use s te p s, b ut w ho se

so lu ti o n f o r s u ch o dio us s ite s i n v olv ed a n e nsh rin em ent o f m ore

“o rd in ary ” f o rm ati o ns o f i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e th at b egan to e nto m b

fr e e b la ck p eo ple i n m assiv e n um bers i m med ia te ly u p on th e p assa ge o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent? H ow d id th eir n arro w f o cus o n

is o la te d in sta nces o f w hat th ey c o nsid ere d to b e a n a nachro nis ti c h o ld over fr o m c hatte l s la v ery o bsc ure th e la rg er s ta te “ p ub lic

sa fe ty ” p ro je ct th at w ould m ake th e d is c urs iv e l in k b etw een “ N egro ” a nd “ crim in al” a s i n se p ara b le a fte r e m ancip ati o n a s “ A fr ic a n”

and “ sla v e” h ad b een b efo re i t? F in ally , w hat d id th e l o ng-s ta nd in g i n fu sio n o f p riv ate i n d ustr ia l i n te re st i n to th e p uta ti v ely n o rm al

im pris o nm ent o f w hite b odie s in th e N orth m ean fo r s u b je cts w ho h ad b een d efin ed a t la w a s n o th in g b ut fu ngib le , c ulp ab le , a nd

dis p osa b le s in ce th e M id dle P assa ge?

At is su e h ere is w hat H artm an h as d esc rib ed a s th e u nte nab ility o f c ate go ric al d is ti n cti o ns b etw een th e p ub lic a nd p riv ate in

re sp ect to b oth c hatte l a nd p enal s e rv itu d e, a nd th e d egre e to w hic h i n p ro ffe rin g s u ch d is ti n cti o ns S um ner’s a nd K asso n’s c halle nge

of th e e xcep ti o n c la use a ctu ally a m ounte d to a r e affir m ati o n o f its m ost e sse nti a l te rm s.

In o th er w ord s, e v en w ere C ongre ss to

hav e p asse d th e l e gis la ti o n th at K asso n p ro pose d to o utl a w th e s a le o f o ne i n d iv id ual b y a no th er— and h ad a m end ed th e T hir te enth

Amend m ent to r e ad c lo se r to th e m ore c le arly a rti c ula te d d is ti n cti o n b etw een c hatte l a nd p enal s u b je cti o n in Io w a’s c o nsti tu ti o n—

th e n ati o nal s ta te p olic e p ow er w ould s ti ll h av e in v olv ed th e n ecro politi c al r ig ht n o t o nly to k ill fr e e b la ck p eo ple b ut to s u b m it

th em to in num era b le p ub lic /p riv ate carc era l hyb rid s th ro ugh th e hyp erc rim in aliz a ti o n o f b la ck b ein g and th e p ro ducti v e le gal

eup hem is m o f “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e.”

As if to m ake p erfe ctl y c le ar th at th e s e curity o f th e ra cia l s ta te re ste d o n th e s o vere ig n rig ht to te rro riz e th e b la ck s u b je ct in

whate v er fo rm ( a nd b y w hate v er n am e) it d eem ed n ecessa ry , th e S enate J u d ic ia ry C om mitte e in d efin ite ly p ostp oned K asso n’s b ill

afte r its p assa ge in th e H ouse b y c la im in g th at a ny is su es r e la ti n g to th e p uniti v e r e ensla v em ent o f “ d uly c o nv ic te d ” fr e e p ers o ns

were m iti g ate d b y th e C iv il R ig hts A ct o f 1 866.

T he o utr ig ht c yn ic al q uality o f th is c la im r e sts o n th e fa ct th at, in its o ste nsib le

pro te cti o n o f s o uth ern b la ck p eo ple a gain st o penly d is c rim in ato ry p ostb ellu m B la ck C odes, th e o rig in al C iv il R ig hts B ill r e p eate d ly

in v oked th e v ery e xcep ti o n c la use th at K asso n a nd S um ner a tte m pte d to c halle nge. O n i ts f a ce, “ A n A ct to P ro te ct A ll P ers o ns i n th e

Unite d S ta te s i n T heir C iv il R ig hts , a nd F urn is h th e M eans o f T heir V in d ic ati o n” r e p re se nte d a p ositi v e a ffir m ati o n a nd c la rific ati o n

of th e c iti z e nsh ip r ig hts g ra nte d b y th e T hir te enth A mend m ent a nd th e l e gis la ti v e b ir th p la ce o f l ib era l c o nstr u cti o ns

of “ co lo r-b lin d ”

co m mon l a w i n r e fe re nce to f o rm er s la v es a nd o th er r a cia lly s ti g m ati z e d p ers o ns. T he f ir s t tw o s e cti o ns o f th e b ill r e ad a s f o llo w s:

Be it enacte d b y th e S enate and H ouse o f R ep re se nta ti v es o f th e U nite d S ta te s o f A meric a in C ongre ss

asse m ble d , T hat a ll p ers o ns b orn in th e U nite d S ta te s a nd n o t s u b je ct to a ny fo re ig n p ow er, e xclu d in g In d ia ns

no t ta xed , a re h ere b y d ecla re d to b e c iti z e ns o f th e U nite d S ta te s; a nd s u ch c iti z e ns, o f e v ery ra ce a nd c o lo r,

with o ut r e gard to a ny p re v io us c o nd iti o n o f s la v ery o r i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e,

excep t a s p unis h m en t f o r a c rim e

where o f t h e p arty s h all h ave b een d uly c o nvic te d ,

s h all h av e th e s a m e r ig ht, i n e v ery S ta te a nd T errito ry . . . to

make a nd e nfo rc e c o ntr a cts , to s u e, b e p arti e s, a nd g iv e e v id ence, to in herit, p urc hase , le ase o r s e ll, h o ld , a nd

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** co nv ey r e al a nd p ers o nal p ro perty , a nd to f u ll a nd e q ual b enefit o f th e l a w s a nd p ro ceed in gs f o r th e s e curity o f

pers o n a nd p ro perty , a s e njo yed b y w hite c iti z e ns, a nd s h all b e s u b je ct to l ik e p unis h m ents , p ain s, a nd p enalti e s,

and to n o ne o th er, a ny l a w , s ta tu te , o rd in ance, r e gula ti o n, o r c usto m , to th e c o ntr a ry n o tw ith sta nd in g.

Sec. 2 . A nd b e i t f u rth er e nacte d , T hat a ny p ers o n, w ho u nd er c o lo r o f a ny l a w , s ta tu te , o rd in ance, r e gula ti o n,

or c usto m , s h all s u b je ct, o r c ause to b e s u b je cte d , a ny in hab ita nt o f a ny S ta te o r T errito ry to th e d ep riv ati o n o f

any rig ht s e cure d o r p ro te cte d b y th is a ct, o r to d iffe re nt p unis h m ent, p ain s, o r p enalti e s o n a cco unt o f s u ch

pers o n h av in g a t o ne ti m e b een h eld in a c o nd iti o n o f s la v ery o r in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e,

excep t a s p unis h m en t

fo r a c rim e w here o f th e p arty sh all h ave b een d uly c o nvic te d ,

o r b y re aso n o f h is c o lo r o r ra ce, th an is

pre sc rib ed fo r th e p unis h m ent o f w hite p ers o ns, s h all b e d eem ed g uilty o f a m is d em eano r, a nd , o n c o nv ic ti o n,

sh all b e p unis h ed b y a fin e n o t e xceed in g o ne th o usa nd d olla rs , o r im pris o nm ent n o t e xceed in g o ne y ear, o r

both , a t th e d is c re ti o n o f th e c o urt.

What a p pears to f u ncti o n a s a “ v in d ic ati o n” o f th e f u ll- b lo w n p ositi v e p ow er o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent v is -à -v is i ts g ra nti n g o f

citi z e nsh ip a nd c iv il lib erti e s to a ll p ers o ns b orn in th e U nite d S ta te s ( b esid es u nta xed “ In d ia ns” ) a ctu ally jo in s th e e m ancip ati o n

am end m ent a s a n o utr ig ht j u sti fic ati o n o f th e s ta te ’s r ig ht to d ep lo y c rim in al s a ncti o n a s th e m ost a cti o nab le

and p ow erfu l m eans o f

dealin g w ith th e “ p ro ble m ” o f th e b la ck ( a nd I n d ig eno us) p re se nce w ith in th e n ati o nal b ody. N ote h o w a n a ct th at w as to h av e p ut to

re st th e “ w ho le su b je ct” o f b la ck p enal re ensla v em ent— and m ore sp ecific ally th e lite ra l a ucti o nin g o f b la ck b odie s— no t o nly

negle cts to o ffe r a n o utr ig ht b an o n th e s a le o r le ase o f h um an b ein gs b y th e s ta te , b ut a ctu ally re in fo rc es th at s o vere ig n rig ht b y

re p eati n g th e e xcep ti o n c la use i n b oth o f i ts m ost i m porta nt s e cti o ns. T he m ain r e aso n th at s u ch a n o utr ig ht p ro sc rip ti o n a gain st b la ck

fu ngib ility c o uld n o t o ccur w as th at th e n ati o nal g o vern m ent w as b usy in augura ti n g th e w ho le sa le r e nti n g-to -d eath o f b la ck b odie s

bra nd ed a s b oth “ fe lo n” a nd “ m is d em eanant,” o th erw is e k no w a s c o nv ic t le asin g, a t th e v ery m om ent o f th e b ill’s c ra fti n g. T his

his to ric al sy nerg y h as o fte n b een ig no re d in sc ho la rly tr e atm ents o f “ so uth ern ” p ris o n sla v ery d urin g R eco nstr u cti o n; o r, w hen

bro ached a t a ll, i t h as b een m ysti fy in gly d is m is se d a s a m atte r o f “ accid enta l” r a cis m a nd p oliti c al- e co no m ic e xp ed ie nce r a th er th an

a p iv ota l c o nju nctu re b ase d o n th e m ate ria l fo rc e o f w hite s u p re m acy a nd th e c entr a lity o f u nfr e e b la ck la b or to th e in te rc o nnecte d

postb ellu m n ati o nal p ro je cts o f e m pir e b uild in g a nd s o uth ern i n d ustr ia liz a ti o n.

In f a ct, th e e ase w ith w hic h l o cal a nd s ta te r e gim es o f r a cia l a p arth eid w ould b e a b le to m ain ta in w hite s u p re m acis t l e gal p ra cti c e

und er th e c o lo r o f c o lo r-b lin d l a w h ad a lr e ad y b een m ad e c le ar w ell b efo re th e a ct’ s p assa ge w ith th e p ro life ra ti o n o f B la ck C odes

th at w ere r a cia lly n o nsp ecific b ut te le o lo gic ally w hite s u p re m acis t. A s D onald N ie m an h as in d ic ate d , m any o f th e m ost e xtr e m ely

ra cis t s ta tu te s th at w ere c o nd ucti n g th o usa nd s o f b la ck p eo ple i n to c o nv ic t l e ase c am ps, c hain g angs, a nd p eo nage a t th e ti m e o f th is

su p pose d “ v in d ic ati o n” o f b la ck c iv il rig hts , im med ia te ly e sc ap ed a ny p ossib ility o f ju d ic ia l s c ru ti n y u nd er th e a ct’ s c o lo r-b lin d

doctr in e d ue to th e r e m oval o f a ny m enti o n o f r a ce f r o m th eir w ord in g: “ R ath er th an b ein g b la ta ntl y d is c rim in ato ry , th e b la ck c o des

of 1 866, w hile c are fu lly d esig ned to c o ntr o l th e fr e ed m en, w ere o n th eir fa ce n o n-d is c rim in ato ry . T hro ugh c o ntr a ct a nd v agra ncy

la w s th at a p plie d [fo rm ally ] to w hite s a nd b la cks a lik e, th ey g av e s ta te a nd lo cal o ffic ia ls a ll th e a uth o rity th ey n eed to p ro vid e

pla nte rs w ith a c heap a nd d ep end ab le la b or fo rc e.”

In d eed , th is lo opho le e v en m ad e p ossib le th e r e new al o f th e la te a nte b ellu m

sla v e c o de. U nd er th e “ co lo r-b lin d ” a nd “ eq ual p unis h m ent” p ro vis io ns o f th e b ill, a ll th e M ary la nd s ta te le gis la tu re w ould h av e

need ed to d o in o rd er to r e su sc ita te th e s la v e c o de a llo w in g fo r th e s a le o r le ase o f fr e e b la ck s u b je cts w as to r e m ove th e w ord

“N egro ” f r o m i ts w ord in g a nd th e o dio us

sc enes o f f r e e b la cks b ein g m ad e i n to c o m modifie d o bje cts o n c o urth o use s te p s c o uld h av e

co nti n ued a p ace.

How ev er, a s th e h is to ry o f r a cia liz e d n eo sla v ery h as e xp ose d f o r o ver o ne h und re d y ears a fte r th e p assa ge o f th e a ct “ p ro te cti n g”

bla ck c iv il rig hts , th e le gal re p ro ducti o n o f b la ck fu ngib ility n o t o nly c o nti n ued b ut a ctu ally e xp and ed to a la rm in g p ro porti o ns

th ro ugh th e l ib era l l o opho le s o f th e e xcep ti o n c la use a nd th e c o lo r-b lin d r a cia l s ta tu te s th at p ut th e p uniti v e e xcep ti o n i n to m ate ria l

moti o n. I n a n e xam ple o f i ts a b ility to p ra cti c e a c erta in a m ount o f p ro ducti v e s e lf- d is c ip lin in g, th e r a cia l c ap ita lis t p atr ia rc hal s ta te

re m oved w hat f o r th e l ib era l o nlo oker r e p re se nte d th e u nsig htl y s c ene o f c o urth o use a ucti o nin g f r o m p ub lic v ie w w hile c o nti n uin g a

de fa cto n eo sla v e tr a d e in sid e c o urth o use c ham bers , a le gal r itu al o f h um an c o m modific ati o n th at s u b je cte d a s w ellin g n um ber o f

bla ck pris o ners to m ulti p le varie ti e s of

opus public u m

(p ub lic hard la b or) and

vin cu la public a

(p ub lic chain s) und er th e

no rm aliz in g o ste nt o f “d ue co nv ic ti o n.”

T hat is , v ario us fo rm s o f ig no m in io us p ub lic unfr e e w ork and p unis h m ent th at d id

ulti m ate ly b egin to b e c ast i n to th e a sh b in o f h is to ry f o r w hite s u b je cts a s f a r b ack a s th e l a te e ig hte enth c entu ry w ere r e in v ig o ra te d

and e xp and ed th ro ugh th e b anal o pera ti o n o f m unic ip al, sta te , a nd n ati o nal p enal la w — re p re se nti n g a le gal p ro se cuti o n o f th e

nati o nal cultu ra l m yth o s th at fr a m ed su ch dis re p uta b le la b or and bodily ru p tu re as co m mensu ra te w ith th e su p pose d in b orn

crim in ality , u nb re achab le jo via lity , a nd in hum anly h ig h p ain th re sh o ld o f fo rm er sla v es. In o th er w ord s, th e la w e xchanged th e

offe nsiv e s ite o f th e o pen-a ir n eo sla v e a ucti o n f o r th e n o l e ss a b je ct, i f s o cia lly a ccep ta b le , s c ene o f b la ck n eo sla v e l a b or a nd te rro r

on th e c hain g ang, th e c o nv ic t l e ase c am p, a nd th e p eo n c am p.

Again , w hen re ad in th is lig ht, th e M ary la nd a ucti o nin g o f th e fr e e is u nv eile d a s a “ p ost” sla v ery a nalo gue o f th e v ario us

modaliti e s o f r a cia l c o m modific ati o n th at s e cre te d a cro ss th e f ic ti v e b ord er o f e m ancip ati o n. I t i s a ls o e xp ose d a s a f u tu ris ti c r e lic

of s o rts , d em onstr a ti n g th e lib era l le gal c hannels w here b y v ario us m odaliti e s o f s p ecta cula r a nd b anal d ehum aniz a ti o n e sse nti a l to

chatte l s la v ery w ere r e anim ate d a nd r e co nfig ure d th ro ugh th e b ir th o f th e c o nv ic t le ase s y ste m , p eo nage, th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n, a nd

th e c hain g ang. T his la st p oin t is v iv id ly r e calle d b y R ic hard W rig ht’ s b oyho od p ers o na in

Bla ck B oy

( 1 945), w ho in m is ta kin g a

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Mis sis sip pi c hain -g ang c o ffle fo r a h erd o f tr u nk-ti e d “ ele p hants ” — or s tr ip e-c la d “ ze b ra s” — dis e nchants th e d is c o urs e s o f c o lo r-

blin d j u ris p ru d ence a nd p ub lic s a fe ty th at c ra fte d th e s o cia l a ccep ta nce o f n eo sla v ery :

I s a w th at th ey w ere tw o l in es o f c re atu re s th at l o oked l ik e m en o n e ith er s id e o f th e r o ad ; th at th ere w ere a f e w

white f a ces a nd a g re at m any b la ck f a ces. I s a w th at th e w hite f a ces w ere th e f a ces o f w hite m en a nd th ey w ere

dre sse d in o rd in ary c lo th in g; b ut th e b la ck fa ces w ere m en w earin g w hat s e em ed to m e to b e e le p hants [o r

ze b ra ] c lo th in g. A s th e str a nge a nim als c am e a b re ast o f m e I sa w th e le gs o f th e b la ck a nim als w ere h eld

to geth er b y i r o ns a nd th eir a rm s w ere l in ked w ith h eav y c hain s th at c la nked s o ftl y a s th eir m usc le s m oved .

Fro m th e se em in gly n aiv e p urv ie w o f c hild ho od re m em bra nce, w e a re a llo w ed a m om enta ry g lim pse a t u nsp eakab le re aliti e s

ho verin g a t th e p erip hery o f th e s ta te ’s m aste r n arra ti o ns o f la w , o rd er, a nd “ N egro P ro ble m ” r e so lu ti o n. S uch te sti m ony s u p plie s

necessa rily i n co m ple te , c o nti n gent, a nd h is to ric ally o bsc ure d e ntr y i n to h o w th e e xcep ti o n c la use a nd th e w hite s u p re m acis t r u se o f

co lo r-b lin d s ta tu to ry la w re p re se nte d n o t th e c essa ti o n o f b la ck fu ngib ility a nd d ehum aniz a ti o n b ut th eir le galiz e d tr a nsfe r fr o m

co urth o use s te p s i n to c o urtr o om s, b oard ro om s, a nd “ o ffic ia l” n eo sla v e c o ffle s. A s H artm an r e m in d s u s i n r e sp ect to th e p ro ducti v e

am nesia o f l ib era l l e gal c o lo r-b lin d ness, “ T he r e fu sa l to s e e r a ce n eith er d im in is h es th at o rig in ary v io le nce n o r g uara nte es e q uality

but m ere ly e nab le s th is v io le nce to b e c o nd ucte d u nd er th e g uis e o f n eutr a lity .”

For th e r e m ain d er o f th is c hap te r, I w ill fo cus o n la rg ely o bstr u cte d a nd d is to rte d le gal a nd s o cia l c o nju nctu re s w here in b la ck

fu ngib ility w as tr a nsp la nte d f r o m a s la v e c o de f u nnelin g f r e e a nd f u giti v e A fr ic an b odie s i n to “ p riv ate ” c hatte lh o od to a c o lo r-b lin d

co de of re ensla v em ent th at has dis a p peare d co untl e ss fr e e bla ck peo ple and oth er so cia lly sti g m ati z e d pers o ns in to hyb rid

fo rm ati o ns o f p ub lic /p riv ate s ta te -a d m in is te re d b ond age.

T his tr a je cto ry o ffe rs a m ap pin g o f th e l a w ’s a m oeb a-lik e f u ncti o nality i n

tr a nsp osin g th e d is c urs iv ely o pen ra cia l la nguage o f th e S la v e C odes a nd B la ck C odes in to th e d ecid ed ly m ore te nacio us ra cis t

pra cti c e o f c o lo r-b lin d p ro vis io ns d ealin g w ith c rim es o f d is p osse ssio n a nd b asic b la ck e xis te nce s u ch a s v agra ncy, p eti t la rc eny,

pub lic d ru nkenness a nd d is o rd erlin ess, g am blin g, a nd b re ach o f c o ntr a ct (b ehav io rs th at o fte n a m ounte d to ta lk in g, w alk in g, o r

bre ath in g in th e p re se nce o f th e w ro ng w hite p ers o n). It a ls o c harts th e p ro cess b y w hic h fr e e b la ck p eo ple w ere c o nv erte d in to

co m modifia b le u nits o f u nfr e e la b or a nd s a d is ti c p le asu re th ro ugh b anal c o urtr o om b ure aucra ti c r itu als s u ch a s th e b ail o r fin e/fe e

hearin g.

A s n o te d

ab ove, th e fo rm ati o ns o f n eo sla v ery is su in g fr o m su ch le gal v io le nce ra nged fr o m th e p uta ti v ely re gula te d ,

ord in ary , a nd n o np ecunia ry “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e” fo und o n th e c hain g ang a nd p ris o n p la nta ti o n to z o nes o f o penly p riv ati z e d

penal s la v ery , s u ch a s c o nv ic t l e asin g a nd th e c o unty -le v el c o nso rt o f th at g eno cid al s y ste m k no w n a s

crim in al- s u re ty .

B y fo cusin g

main ly o n th e l a tte r a nd l e sse r k no w n o f th ese tw o m echanis m s o f th e b la ck n eo sla v e tr a d e, I w ill a d dre ss th e j u rid ic al m yth m akin g

and c o lo r-b lin d s ta tu to ry v io le nce th at g av e a n a ll- to o-p ow erfu l a nd d ura b le a fte rlife to C hap te r 3 24 o f M ary la nd ’s 1 858–66 s la v e

co de, a nd th at o ffe re d e sse nti a l le gal c o ver to th e o vera ll p ostb ellu m m ass se iz u re , ru p tu re , a nd te rro riz in g o f fr e e b la ck m en,

wom en, a nd c hild re n d oub ly b ra nd ed a s

Neg ro

a nd

crim in al

—tw o m onik ers o f “ o nto lo gic al su b ord in ati o n” th at h av e b een a s

pro ducti v ely i n se p ara b le to U .S . e m pir e a s

sla very

a nd

in vo lu nta ry s e rv itu de.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** “S om eo n e t o G o M y B ail” :

US v . R eyn old s

a n d t h e E ver-T urn in g W heel o f N eo sla very

The fo llo w in g s u rre al e xchange a nd b it o f e arly tw enti e ty -c entu ry s o cia l c o m menta ry r e p re se nts th e o penin g o f E . S ta gg W hiti n ’s

Pen al S erv itu de

( 1 912):

“W ill y o u b uy m e, S ah?” a sk ed a b oy c o nv ic t in a n A la b am a c o nv ic t c am p, w hen a p pro ached b y th e w rite r.

“W on’t y o u b uy m e o ut, S ah?” h e r e ite ra te d to th e r e jo in d er, “ I’ m n o t b uyin g n ig gers .” “ It’ ll o nly c o st y o u $ 20,

Sah, a n’ I’ ll w ork fe r y o u a s lo ng a s y o u s a y. I’s e fin ed $ 1.0 0, S ah, a nd g o t $ 75 c o sts . I’s e w ork ed o ff a ll b ut

$20. D o b uy m e o ut, S ah, p le ase d o.” T he w ail w as r a is e d b y a s m all b oy o f f o urte en y ears , w ith b la ck s k in , i n

a p arti c ula r c am p, y et th e a p peal i s th e a p peal o f m any th o usa nd s w ho f r o m w ant, d is e ase , o r e v il e nv ir o nm ent

hav e p asse d f o r a ti m e o ut o f o ur w orld i n to th e h ell o n e arth w hic h w e, i n o ur w is d om , h av e p re p are d f o r th em ;

th e a p peal r e co gniz e d th e e co no m ic s ta tu s o f o ur p enal s y ste m .

The s ta tu s o f th e c o nv ic t i s th at o f o ne i n p enal s e rv itu d e— th e l a st s u rv iv in g v esti g e o f th e o ld s la v e s y ste m .

Whiti n ’s te xt w as a p ris o n r e fo rm is t w ork s p onso re d b y th e N ati o nal C om mitte e o n P ris o n L ab or, a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at p ro m ote d a

co nv ers io n o f th e p ro fit- c ente re d n ati o nal p enite nti a ry s y ste m i n to a w age-b ase d , r e gula te d ,

and u nifo rm s y ste m o f i n d ustr ia l tr a in in g

and r e d em pti v e in d iv id ual r e fo rm . N otw ith sta nd in g its p ro m in ent p la cem ent a t th e h ead o f th e te xt, W hiti n ’s e xchange w ith th e b oy

“w ith b la ck s k in ”— alo ng w ith a h o rrify in g p ho to o f a g ro up o f s tr ip e-c la d b la ck m en a nd a y o ung b oy s h o w n s e ate d , s h ackle d , a nd

lo ng-c hain ed to a tr e e a t a n u nid enti fie d c hain -g ang c am p— re p re se nt th e e xte nt o f th e b ook’s tr e atm ent o f th e r a cia l d im ensio ns o f

what th e p enal r e fo rm er d esc rib es a s “ th e l a st v esti g e o f th e o ld s la v e s y ste m .” D esp ite h is a tte m pte d n arra ti v e e v acuati o n f r o m th e

site o f s o uth ern n eo sla v ery , h o w ev er, th e w rite r’s b rie f i n te ra cti o n w ith th e i m pris o ned a d ole sc ent c hild f o rc es u s to h alt a t th e v ery

mom ent h e w ould h av e u s d ep art a lo ng th e m ain v ecto rs o f th e te xt. W hiti n ’s r e sp onse to th e u nnam ed b oy’s a tte m pte d m ark eti n g o f

his o w n b ody i n th e n am e o f f r e ein g h im se lf f r o m th e c o nv ic t c am p—

I’m n ot b uyin g n ig gers

—carrie s e no ugh i n th e w ay o f l o ad ed

meanin g to d em and th at w e s ta y w ith th e y o ung b oy, a t a p la ce a nd ti m e th at a f o otn o te to th e e nco unte r te rs e ly i n fo rm s u s i s “ B anner

Min e, A la b am a, M ay 1 911 .”

In d eed , th e d ate lin e a lo ne c arrie s a g rim e cho o f th e u rg ency h eard in th e u nnam ed p ris o ner’s e ntr e aty fo r th e n o rth ern to uris t to

“b uy” h im o ut o f th e c am p. T hat i s , th e “ w ail” h e d esc rib es a s e m itti n g f r o m a s o lita ry

nig ger b oy

a ctu ally a m ounte d to a c ho ru s o f

haunti n g to nes, th e l o ud est o f w hic h w ere th o se s ti ll r e v erb era ti n g f r o m th e c lo se ly b urie d c o rp se s o f 1 11 o f th e c hild ’s f e llo w b la ck

male p ris o n s la v es w ho w ere k ille d i n a n e xp lo sio n a t th e c o al m in e j u st d ays b efo re W hiti n ’s a rriv al.

W ith th e a b se nt p re se nce o f

th is re v enant c ho ru s in m in d , I a m c o ncern ed w ith h o w th e w hite n o rth ern re fo rm er’s o ffh and ed b ra nd is h in g o f th e q uin te sse nti a l

sig nifie r o f b la ck s u b hum anity , fu ngib ility , a nd z e ro -d egre e a lte rity a ctu ally b ears c riti c al s ig nific ance in re sp ect to th e d ecla re d

su b je ct m atte r o f his b ook in so fa r as it exp re sse s in sta rk fa sh io n th e d egre e to w hic h w hite su p re m acy— wheth er

so uth ern -

anach ro nis tic

o r

north ern

- pro gre ssiv e

—re ste d a t th e f o und ati o n o f th e s y ste m o f n ati o nal p enal s e rv itu d e th at W hiti n w as h o pin g to

fa sh io n i n to a m ore “ ev olv ed ” i m age. A lo ng th ese l in es, a m ore s p ecific c o ncern i n r e sp ect to th e s c ene h as to d o w ith th e v ery f a ct

th at th e w hite p enal r e fo rm er c o uld h av e a ctu ally p urc hase d ( o r a t le ast r e nte d ) a b la ck n eo sla v e c hild fo r $ 20 a t a c o nv ic t le ase

cam p n early fifty y ears a fte r th e A nnap olis c o urth o use a ucti o nin gs o f H arrie t P urd y, R ic hard H arris , a nd th e o th er c rim in ally

bra nd ed “ fr e e” b la ck b odie s th at I i n tr o duced a t th e b egin nin g o f th is c hap te r. N otw ith sta nd in g W hiti n ’s a tte m pt a t u sin g th e e xchange

as a re p re se nta ti v e p oin t o f d ep artu re fo r h is

dis c ussio n o f in d ustr ia liz e d p unis h m ent in n o rth ern p enite nti a rie s, so m eth in g v ery

parti c ula r w as a t w ork i n th e f a ct th at th e u nnam ed b oy k new f u ll w ell th at th e c o nv ic t l e ase c am p i n w hic h h e a nd h und re d s o f o th er

bla ck m ale s w ere e nto m bed c o uld b e c o nv erte d i n to a v ir tu al a ucti o n b lo ck— th at a s a l e gally f u ngib le b ody h e c o uld b e s u b le ase d

as e asily a s h e w as o rig in ally le ase d , th ere b y e xchangin g o ne fo rm o f p riv ati z e d p ub lic n eo sla v ery , th e c o nv ic t le ase c am p, fo r

ano th er, “ crim in al- s u re ty .”

A v aria nt o f a w id esp re ad a nd n eb ulo us s ta te -p ro fite erin g a p para tu s o f le asin g p ub lic s la v es to p riv ate p la nte rs a nd in d ustr ia l

co ncern s, th e s u re ty s y ste m w as to ute d a s a “ hum ane” c o ntr a ctu a l a v enue b y w hic h c rim in ally b ra nd ed b la ck s u b je cts c o uld a v o id

th e b ru ta liti e s o f th e c hain g ang a nd c o nv ic t le ase c am p th ro ugh b eco m in g p arty to a c o urt- a d m in is te re d p ris o n la b or c o ntr a ct.

Usu ally o ccurrin g w hile th e b la ck s u b je ct w as l ite ra lly s itti n g i n a j a il c ell o r s ta nd in g b efo re a l o cal j u d ge f a cin g th e p ossib ility o f

bein g s e nt to a “ hell o n e arth ” s u ch a s B anner M in e, it in v olv ed a p uta ti v ely c o nse nsu al a gre em ent w here b y a n in d iv id ual w hite

neo sla v e b uyer, e up hem is ti c ally d esc rib ed a s th e “ su re ty ,” w ould p ost th e e xo rb ita nt fe es a nd c o sts a sso cia te d w ith th e b la ck

su b je ct’ s a lle ged p etty c rim e in e xchange fo r h is “ co nfe ssio n o f ju d gm ent.” U pon s ig nin g a c o urt- a p pro ved c o ntr a ct w ith th e w hite

bond ho ld er, th e b la ck s u b je ct w as le gally c o nju re d fr o m a w ould -b e p ub lic s la v e in to a p ub lic ly b orn e p riv ate p eo n w ho w as

fo rc ed to s u p -p ly u nfr e e la b or— am ong v ario us o th er u nsp oken a nd u neco no m ic fo rm s o f te rro r-rid den tr a v ail— to th e s u re ty u nti l

th e a m ount p oste d h ad b een “ w ork ed o ff.” In A la b am a a nd G eo rg ia , w here s u ch a rra ngem ents w ere c o difie d in s ta te la w , th e s ta te

su p plie d a s ta tu to ry g uara nte e th at th e in d iv id ual c o nv ic t- le sse e w ould r e ceiv e a r e tu rn o n h is in v estm ent b y m akin g th e p ris o ner’s

bre ach o f c o ntr a ct w ith th e s u re ty a c rim in al o ffe nse . I n s u ch c ase s, th e b la ck s u b je ct c o uld , a t th e d is c re ti o n o f th e c o urt, e ith er b e

re arre ste d a nd s e nt to th e c hain g ang o r r e b ound to a p riv ate m aste r f o r a n e v en l o nger p erio d th an s ti p ula te d i n th e o rig in al l e ase .

The fr e q uency o f s u ch n eo sla v e c o ntr a cts w as s o g re at in c erta in s o uth ern m unic ip aliti e s th at th eir c o urth o use s b ecam e d e fa cto

unfr e e l a b or a gencie s f o r l o cal p la nte rs a nd i n d ustr ia lis ts . A s h is to ria n W alte r W ils o n p oin ts o ut i n a n a rti c le p ub lis h ed i n

Harp er’s

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Month ly

in th e e arly 1 930s, th e p ecunia ry g ain a sso cia te d w ith c o nv ic t le asin g, c rim in al- s u re ty , a nd o th er c usto m ary “ fe e/c o st”

cata ly ze d s y ste m s o f b la ck p ris o ner tr a d in g w as n o t lim ite d to th e n ear-a b so lu te s u rp lu s v alu e o ffe re d to p riv ate c o ncern s; th at is ,

ju st i n th e c ase o f c o nv ic t l e asin g, th e s u b m is sio n o f a n u nto ld n um ber o f

bla ck p ris o ners to c rim in al- s u re ty a nd o th er r a cia liz e d b ail

arra ngem ents d esig ned s p ecific ally f o r m is d em eanants w as b ase d o n a l u cra ti v e s y ste m o f l o caliz e d

public p ro fite erin g

th at fe d a n

overa rc hin g p ub lic /p riv ate n eo sla v ery c o m ple x: “ A sid e fr o m p ris o n o ffic ia ls a nd p riv ate b usin ess m en w ho p ro fit fr o m c o nv ic t

la b or, th ere is a no th er g ro up o f m en w ho p ro fit fr o m c o nv ic t sla v es. S heriffs , ju d ges, c le rk s, a nd o th ers se rv e a s e m plo ym ent

agents . . . . U nd er th e n o to rio us f e e s y ste m l a w -a nd -o rd er e nfo rc em ent, o ffic ia ls a re p aid c o m mis sio n o n th e b asis o f th e n um ber o f

arre sts a nd c o nv ic ti o ns th ey s e cure .” A fte r c iti n g th e v ery in sta nce ju st d is c usse d o f th e c hild a t B anner M in e h av in g to w ork o ff

se v enty -fiv e d olla rs in “ co sts ” fo r a p etty o ffe nse th at d em and ed o nly a o ne-d olla r fin e, W ils o n g o es o n to d esc rib e th e lu cra ti v e

natu re o f th e w id esp re ad lo cal tr a d e in b la ck c o nv ic ts fo r p ub lic o ffic ia ls in b oth M is sis sip pi a nd A la b am a— in clu d in g th e v ery

co unty in w hic h th e y o ung b oy w as lik ely c o nv ic te d b efo re b ein g d is a p peare d to B anner M in e: “ A cco rd in g to le ad in g c iti z e ns o f

Ala b am a, th e s h eriff o f J e ffe rs o n c o unty i n 1 912 w as e arn in g $ 50,0 00 to $ 80,0 00 a y ear i n f e es. A c le rk sh ip i n th e c o unty s e at w as

worth a t le ast $ 25,0 00 in fe es. S ev era l s h eriffs in M is sis sip pi in 1 930 e arn ed o ver $ 20,0 00 e ach. T he le ad in g o ne m ad e $ 24,3 50.

The a v era ge f o r e ig hty -tw o c o unti e s w as o nly s lig htl y l e ss th an $ 6,0 00.”

A dju ste d f o r i n fla ti o n, th e $ 50,0 00 c o nse rv ati v e e sti m ate

of th e J e ffe rs o n c o unty s h eriff ’s b ounty fr o m th e c o nv ic t tr a d e in 1 912 w ould e q ual w ell o ver $ 1.1 m illio n in to day’s d olla rs ; a nd ,

ev en th e $ 6,0 00 D ep re ssio n-e ra a v era ge f o r s h eriffs i n th e r e sp ecti v e M is sis sip pi c o unti e s c ite d i n W ils o n’s p oll w ould e q uate to a

yearly n eo sla v e tr a d e c o m mis sio n o f a p pro xim ate ly $ 81,3 00.

This l a rg ely i g no re d p ub lic d im ensio n o f th e o vera ll p ro fite erin g o n i m pris o ned s o uth ern b la ck b odie s th ro w s i n to s ta rk r e lie f th e

earlie r r e fe re nced p ro ducti v e h yb rid ity a nd v ir tu al i n d iv is ib ility o f p ub lic a nd p riv ate f o rm ati o ns o f te rro r a nd i n ca