Film paper analysis

GLOSSARY abstract form A type of filmic organization in which the parts re­ late to one another through repetition and variation of such visual qualities as shape, color, rhythm. and direction of movement.

Academy ratio The standardized shape of the film frame estab­ lished by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In the original ratio, the frame was Ilh times as wide as it was high (1.33: l); later the width was normalized at 1.85 times the height (1.85: I). aerial perspective A cue for suggesting depth in the image by pre­ senting objects in the distance less distinctly than those in the foreground. anamorphic lens A lens for making widescreen films using regu­ lar Academy ratio frame size. The camera lens takes in a wide field of view and squeezes it onto the frame, and a similar projector lens un­ squeezes the image onto a wide theater screen.

angle of framing The position of the frame in relation to the sub­ ject it shows: above it, looking down (a high angle); horizontal, on the same level (a straight-on angle); looking up (a low angle). Also called camera angle. animation Any process whereby artificial movement is created by photographing a series of drawings (see also cel animation), objects, or computer images one by one. Small changes in position, recorded frame by frame, create the illusion of movement. aspect ratio The relationship of the frame's width to its height. The standard Academy ratio is currently 1.85: I. associational form A type of organization in which the film's parts are juxtaposed to suggest similarities, contrasts. concepts, emotions, and expressive qualities. asynchronous sound Sound that is not matched temporally with the movements occurring in the image, as when dialogue is out of synchronization with lip movements.

auteur The presumed or actual author of a film, usually identified as the director. Also sometimes used in an evaluative sense to distin­ guish good filmmakers (auteurs) from bad ones.

axis of action In the continuity editing system, the imaginary line that passes from side to side through the main actors. defining the spatial relations of all the elements of the scene as being to the right or left. The camera is not supposed to cross the axis at a cut and thus reverse those spatial relations. Also called the 180 0 line. (See also 180 0 system.) backlighting Illumination cast onto the figures in the scene from the side opposite the camera. usually creating a thin outline of high­ lighting on those figures.

boom A pole upon which a microphone can be suspended above the scene being filmed and that is used to change the microphone's position as the action shifts. camera angle See ({ngle of'.tiwllillg. {'anted framing A view in which the frame b not level: either the right or the left side is lower than the other. causing objects in the 'cene to appear ,Ianted out of an upright position. categorical form A type of filmic organization in which the parts treat distinct subsets of a topic. For example, a film about the United States might be organized into 50 parts, each devoted to a state.

cel animation Animation that uses a series of drawings on pieces of celluloid, called cels for short. Slight changes between the draw­ ings combine to create an illusion of movement. CGI Computer-generated imagery: using digital software systems to create figures. settings, or other material in the frame. cheat cut In the continuity editing system, a cut that presents con­ tinuous time from shot to shot but that mismatches the positions of figures or objects.

cinematography A general term for all the manipulations of the film strip by the camera in the shooting phase and by the laboratory in the developing phase.

close-up A framing in which the scale of the object shown is rela­ tively large; most commonly a person's head seen from the neck up, or an object of a comparable size that fills most of the screen.

closure The degree to which the ending of a narrative film reveals the effects of all the causal events and resolves (or "closes off') all lines of action.

continuity editing A system of cutting to maintain continuous and clear narrative action. Continuity editing relies on matching screen di­ rection, position, and temporal relations from shot to shot. For spe­ cific techniques of continuity editing, see axis ofaction. crosscutting.

cut-in, establishing shot. eyeline match. match on action. reestablish­ ing shot. screen direction, shot/reverse shot. contrast In cinematography, the difference between the brightest and darkest areas within the frame. crane shot A shot with a change in framing accomplished by plac­ ing the camera above the subject and moving through the air in any direction.

crosscutting Editing that alternates shots of two or more lines of action occurring in different places. usually simultaneously. cut 1. In filmmaking. the joining of two strips of film together with a splice. 2. In the finished film. an instantaneous change from one framing to another. See also jump cut.

cut-in An instantaneous shift from a distant framing to a closer view of some portion of the same space. deep focus A use of the camera lens and lighting that keeps objects in both close and distant planes in sharp focus. deep space An arrangement of mise-en-scene elements so that there is a considerable distance between the plane closest to the cam­ era and the one farthest away. Any or all of these planes may be in fo­ cus. (See shallo\l' space.) depth of field The measurements of the closest and farthest planes in front of the camera lens between which everything will be in sharp fo­ cus. A depth of tield tj·om.5 to 16 feet. for example. would mean every­ thing closer than .5 feet and farther than 16 feel would be out of focus. 477 478 GLOSSARY dialogue overlap In editing a scene, arranging the cut so that a bit. of dialogue coming from shot A is heard under a shot that shows an­ other character or another element in the scene.

diegesis In a narrative film, the world of the film's story. The die­ gesis includes events that are presumed to have occurred and actions and spaces not shown onscreen. See also diegetic soulld, nondiegetic insert, nOlldiegetic sound. diegetic sound Any voice, musical passage, or sound effect pre­ sented as originating from a source within the film's world. See also /llJlldiegetic sound.

direct sound Music, noise, and speech recorded from the event at the moment of filming; opposite of postsynchroni::.ation. discontinuity editing Any alternative system of joining shots to­ gether using techniques unacceptable within continuity editing prin­ ciples. Possibilities would include mismatching of temporal and spatial relations, violations of the axis ofaction, and concentration on graphic relationships. See also elliptical editing, graphic match, in­ tellectual montage, jump cut, nondiegetic insert, overlapping editing.

dissolve A transition between two shots during which the first im­ age gradually disappears while the second image gradually appears; for a moment the two images blend in superimposition. distance of framing The apparent distance of the frame from the mise-en-scene elements. Also called camera distance and shot scale.

See also close-up, extreme close-up, extreme long shot, medium close-up, medium shot, plan anlliricain. distribution One of the three branches of the film industry; the process of marketing the film and supplying copies to exhibition ven­ ues. See also exhibition, production. dolly A camera support with wheels, used in making tracking shots. dubbing The process of replacing part or all of the voices on the sound track in order to correct mistakes or rerecord dialogue. See also postsynchronization.

duration In a narrative film, the aspect of temporal manipulation that involves the time span presented in the plot and assumed to op­ erate in the story. See also frequency, order. editing I. In filmmaking, the task of selecting and joining camera takes. 2. In the finished film, the set of techniques that governs the re­ lations among shots.

ellipsis In a narrative film, the shortening of plot duration achieved by omitting some story duration. See also elliptical editing. viewing time. elliptical editing Shot transitions that omit parts of an event, caus­ ing an ellipsis in plot duration.

establishing shot A shot, usually involving a distant framing, that shows the spatial relations among the important figures, objects, and setting in a scene.

exhibition One of the three branches of the film industry; the pro­ cess of showing the finished film to audiences. See also distribution, pmductioll. exposure The adjustment of the camera mechanism in orderto con­ trol how much light strikes each frame of film passing through the aperture.

external diegetic sound Sound represented as coming from a phys­ ical source within the story space that we assume characters in the scene also hear. See also internal diegetic sound. extreme dose-up A framing in which the scale of the object shown is very large: most commonly. a small object or a part of the body.

extreme long shot A framing in which the scale of the object shown is very small; a building, landscape, or crowd of people will fill the screen.

eyeline match A cut obeying the axis (~f action principle, in which the first shot shows a person looking off in one direction and the sec­ ond shows a nearby space containing what he or she sees. If the per­ son looks left, the following shot should imply that the looker is offscreen right.

fade 1. Fade-in: a dark screen that gradually brightens as a shot ap­ pears. 2. Fade-out: a shot gradually disappears as the screen darkens.

Occasionally, fade-outs brighten to pure white or to a color.

fill light Illumination from a source less bright than the key light, used to soften deep shadows in a scene. See also three-point lighting. film noir "Dark film," a term applied by French critics to a type of American film, usually in the detective or thriller genres, with low­ key lighting and a somber mood.

film stock The strip of material upon which a series of still photo­ graphs is registered; it consists of a clear base coated on one side with a light-sensitive emulsion.

filter A piece of glass or gelatin placed in front of the camera or printer lens to alter the quality or quantity of light striking the film in the aperture.

flashback An alteration of story order in which the plot moves back to show events that have taken place earlier than ones already shown.

flash-forward An alteration of story order in which the plot presen­ tation moves forward to future events and then returns to the present.

focal length The distance from the center of the lens to the point at which the light rays meet in sharp focus. The focal length determines the perspective relations of the space represented on the flat screen.

See also normal lens, telephoto lens, wide-angle lens. focus The degree to which light rays coming from the same part of an object through different parts of the lens reconverge at the same point on the film frame, creating sharp outlines and distinct textures.

following shot A shot with framing that shifts to keep a moving fig­ ure onscreen.

form The overall system of relationships among the parts of a film. frame A single image on the strip of film. When a series of frames is projected onto a screen in quick succession, an illusion of move­ ment is created. framing The use of the edges of the film frame to select and to compose what will be visible onscreen.

frequency In a narrative film, the aspect of temporal manipulation that involves the number of times any story event is shown in the plot. See also duration, order. front projection Composite process whereby footage meant to ap­ pear as the background of a shot is projected from the front onto a screen: figures in the foreground are filmed in front of the screen as well. This is the opposite of rear projection. frontal lighting Illumination directed into the scene from a posi­ tion near the camera.

frontality In staging, the positioning of figures so that they face the viewer. GLOSSARY 479 function The role or effect of any element within the film's form.

gauge The width of the film strip, measured in millimeters.

genres Various types of films that audiences and filmmakers recog­ nize by their familiar narrative conventions. Common genres are mu­ sical, gangster, and science fiction films. graphic match Two successive shots joined so as to create a strong similarity of compositional elements (e.g., color, shape).

hand-held camera The use of the camera operator's body as a camera support, either holding it by hand or using a harness. hard lighting Illumination that creates sharp-edged shadows.

height of framing The distance of the camera above the ground, re­ gardless of the angle offraming. high-key lighting Illumination that creates comparatively little contrast between the light and dark areas of the shot. Shadows are fairly transparent and brightened by jill light. ideology A relatively coherent system of values, beliefs, or ideas shared by some social group and often taken for granted as natural or inherently true.

intellectual montage The juxtaposition of a series of images to cre­ ate an abstract idea not present in anyone image.

internal diegetic sound Sound represented as coming from the mind of a character within the story space. Although we and the char­ acter can hear it, we assume that the other characters cannot. See also external diegetic sound.

interpretation The viewer's activity of analyzing the implicit and symptomatic meanings suggested in a film. See also meaning. iris A round, moving mask that can close down to end a scene (iris­ out) or emphasize a detail, or that can open to begin a scene (iris-in) or to reveal more space around a detail. jump cut An elliptical cut that appears to be an interruption of a single shot. Either the figures seem to change instantly against a con­ stant background, or the background changes instantly while the fig­ ures remain constant. See also ellipsis. key light In the three-point lighting system, the brightest illumina­ tion coming into the scene. See also backlighting, .fill light, three­ point lighting. lens A shaped piece of transparent material (usually glass) with ei­ ther or both sides curved to gather and focus light rays. Most camera and projector lenses place a series of lenses within a metal tube to form a compound lens.

linearity In a narrative, the clear motivation of a series of causes and effects that progress without significant digressions, delays, or ir­ relevant actions.

long shot A framing in which the scale of the object shown is small; a standing human figure would appear nearly the height of the screen.

long take A shot that continues for an unusually lengthy time be­ fore the transition to the next shot.

low-key lighting Illumination that creates strong contrast between light and dark areas of the shot. with Jeep shadows and litlJe.li/l light. mask An opaque screen placed in the camera or printer that blocks part of tht: Ihunt: off and changes the shape of the photographed im­ age, leaving part of the frame a solid color. As seen on the screen.

most masks are bla.:k. although they call be white or .:olllreJ . ..... _-----­ masking In exhibition, stretches of black fabric that frame the the­ ater scene. Masking can be adjusted according to the aspect ratio of the film to be projected. match on action A continuity cut that splices two different views of the same action together at the same moment in the movement, making it seem to continue uninterrupted. matte shot A type of process shot in which different areas of the image (usually actors and setting) are photographed separately and combined in laboratory work.

meaning I. Referential meaning: Allusion to particular items of knowledge outside the film that the viewer is expected to recognize. 480 GLOSSARY narrathe form A type of filmic organinuioll in \\hid] the part, re­ late to one another through a series of Celll"l"y related events taking place ill time and space.

nondiegetic insert A shot or series of shots cut il1lo a sequence.

showing objects that are represented as being outsidc the world of the nmTative.

nondiegetic sound Sound, such as mood music or a narrator's com­ mentary, represented as coming frol11 a source outside the space of the narrative. nonsimultaneous sound Diegetic sound that comes from a source in time either earlier or later than the images it elccol11panies. normal lens A lens that shows objects without severely exagger­ ating or reducing the depth of the scene's planes. In 35111111 filming, a normal lens is 35 to 50mm. See also telephoto lens, wide-angle lens. offscreen sound Simultaneous sound from a source assumed to be in the space of the scene but outside what is visible omcreen.

offscreen space The six areas blocked from being visible on the screen but still part of the space of the scene: to each side and above and below the frame, behind the set, and behind the camera. See also space.

180 0 system The continuity approach to editing dictates that the camera should stay on one side of the action to ensure consistent left­ right spatial relations between elements from shot to shot. The 180 0 line is the same as the axis (}f action. See also continuity editing, screen direction.

order In a narrative film, the aspect of temporal manipulation that involves the sequence in which the chronological events of the story are arranged in the plot. See also duration, ji-equency.

overlap A cue for suggesting represented depth in the film image by placing objects partly in front of more distant ones.

overlapping editing Cuts that repeat part or all of an action, thus expanding its viewing time and plot duration.

pan A camera movement with the camera body turning to the right or left. On the screen, it produces a mobile framing that scans the space horizontally.

pixillation A form of single-frame animation in which three­ dimensional objects, often people, are made to move' in staccato bursts through the use of stop-action cinematography.

plan americain A framing in which the scale of the object shown is moderately small; the human figure seen from the shins to the head would fill most of the screen. This is sometimes referred to as a medium long shot, especially when human figures are not shown.

plan-sequence French term for a scene handled in a single shot, usually a long take.

plot In a narrative film, all the events that are directly presented to us, including their causal relations, chronological order, duration, fre­ quency, and spatial locations. Opposed to stOl)', which is the viewer's imaginary construction of all the events in the narrative. See also du­ ration, ellipsis, frequency. ordel; viewing time.

point-or-view shot (POV shot) A shot taken with the camera placed approximately where the character's eyes would be, showing what the character would see; usually cut in before or after a shot of the character looking.

postsynchronization The process of adding sound to images after they have been shot and assembled. This can include duhbillg of voices, as well as inserting diegetil: music or sound effects. It is the opposite of direct sOll/ul.

process shot Any shot involving rephotography (0 combine two or more images into one or to create a special effect: also called com­ posite sho!. See also IIwfte .\·hot. rear pmjection, special effects. production One of the three branches of the film industry; the process of creating the film. See also distribution, exhibitioll. racking focus Shifting the area of sharp focus from one plane to another during a shot; the effect on the screen is called rack-focus. rate In shooting, the number of frames exposed per second; in pro­ jection, the number of frames thrown on the screen per second. If the two are the same, the speed of the action will appear normal, whereas a disparity will create slow or fast motion. The standard rate in sound cinema is 24 frames per second for both shooting and projection. rear projection A technique for combining a foreground action with a background action filmed earlier. The foreground is filmed in a studio, against a screen; the background imagery is projected from behind the screen. The opposite offront projection. reestablishing shot A return to a view of an entire space after a se­ ries of closer shots following the establishin.g shot. reframing Short panning or tilting movements to adjust for the fig­ ures' movements, keeping them onscreen or centered. rhetorical form A type of filmic organization in which the parts create and support an argument. rhythm The perceived rate and regularity of sounds, series of shots, and movements within the shots. Rhythmic factors include beat (or pulse). accent (or stress), and tempo (or pace).

rotoscope A machine that projects live-action motion picture frames one by one onto a drawing pad so that an animator can trace the figures in each frame. The aim is to achieve more realistic move­ ment in an animated film. scene A segment in a narrative film that takes place in one time and space or that uses crosscutting to show two or more simultaneous actions.

screen direction The right-left relationships in a scene, set up in an es­ tablishing shot and determined by the position of characters and objects in the frame, by the directions of movement, and by the characters' eye­ lines. Continuity editing will attempt to keep screen direction consistent between shots. See also axis ofaction, eyeline match, 180 0 system. segmentation The process of dividing a film into parts for analysis.

sequence Term commonly used for a moderately large segment of film, involving one complete stretch of action. In a narrative film, of­ ten equivalent to a scene. shallow focus A restricted depth of field, which keeps only one plane in sharp focus; the opposite of deep focus. shallow space Staging the action in relatively few planes of depth:

the opposite of deep space. shot 1. In shooting, one uninterrupted run of the camera to expose a series of frames. Also called a take. 2. In the finished film, one un­ interrupted image, whether or not there is mobile framing. shot/reverse shot Two or more shots edited together that alternate characters, typically in a conversation situation. In continuity editing, characters in one framing usually look left, in the other framing, right.

Over-the-shoulder framings are common in shot/reverse-shot editing.

side lighting Lighting coming from one side of a person or an ob­ ject. usually in order to create a sense of volume, to bring out surface tensions, or to fill in areas left shadowed by light from another source. GLOSSARY 481 simultaneous sound Diegetic sound that is represented as occur­ ring at the same time in the story as the image it accompanies.

size diminution A cue for suggesting represented depth in the im­ age by showing objects that are farther away as smaller than fore­ ground objects.

soft lighting Illumination that avoids harsh bright and dark areas, creating a gradual transition from highlights to shadows. sound bridge I. At the beginning of one scene, the sound from the previous scene carries over briefly before the sound from the new scene begins. 2. At the end of one scene, the sound from the next scene is heard, leading into that scene. sound over Any sound that is not represented as coming from the space and time of the images on the screen. This includes both nondiegetic sounds and nonsimultaneous diegetic sound. See also nondiegetic sound, nonsimultaneous sound. sound perspective The sense of a sound's position in space, yielded by volume, timbre, pitch, and, in stereophonic reproduction systems, binaural information.

space Most minimally, any film displays a two-dimensional graphic space, the flat composition of the image. In films that de­ pict recognizable objects, figures, and locales, a three-dimensional space is represented as well. At any moment, three-dimensional space may be directly depicted, as onscreen space, or suggested, as offscreen space. In narrative film, we can also distinguish among story space, the locale of the totality of the action (whether shown or not), and plot space, the locales visibly and audibly represented in the scenes.

special effects A general term for various photographic manipula­ tions that create fictitious spatial relations in the shot, such as super­ imposition, matte shots, and rear projection. story In a narrative film, all the events that we see and hear, plus all those that we infer or assume to have occurred, arranged in their pre­ sumed causal relations, chronological order, duration, frequency, and spatial locations. Opposed to plot, which is the film's actual presen­ tation of events in the story. See also duration, ellipsis, frequency, or­ der, space, viewing time. storyboard A tool used in planning film production, consisting of comic-strip-like drawings of individual shots or phases of shots with descriptions written below each drawing.

style The repeated and salient uses of film techniques characteristic of a single film or a group of films (for example, a filmmaker's work or a national movement). superimposition The exposure of more than one image on the same film strip or in the same shot. synchronous sound Sound that is matched temporally with the movements occurring in the images, as when dialogue corresponds to lip movements.

take In filmmaking, the shot produced by one uninterrupted run of the camera. One shot in the final film may be chosen from among several takes of the same action. technique Any aspect of the film medium that can be chosen and manipulated in making a film. telephoto lens A lens of long focal length that affects a scene's per­ spective by enlarging distant planes and making them seem close to the foreground planes. In 35mm filming, a lens of 75mm length or more. See also normal lens, \vide-llngle lens.

three-point lighting A common arrangement using three directions of light on a scene; from behind the subjects (backlighting), from one bright source (key light). and from a less bright source balancing the key light <.fi" light).

tilt A camera movement with the camera body swiveling upward or downward on a stationary support. It produces a mobile framing that scans the space vertically.

top lighting Lighting coming from above a person or an object, usually in order to outline the upper areas of the figure or to separate it more clearly from the background.

tracking shot A mobile framing that travels through space forward, backward, or laterally. See also crane shot, pan, and tilt.

typage A performance technique of Soviet Montage cinema. The actor's appearance and behavior are presented as typical of a social class or other group.

underlighting Jllumination from a point below the figures in the scene.

unity The degree to which a film's parts relate systematically to each other and provide motivations for all the elements included.

variation In film form, the return of an element with notable changes.

viewing time The length of time it takes to watch a film when it is projected at the appropriate speed.

whip pan An extremely fast movement of the camera from side to side, which briefly causes the image to blur into a set of indistinct horizontal streaks. Often an imperceptible cut will join two whip pans to create a trick transition between scenes.

wide-angle lens A lens of short focal length that affects a scene's perspective by distorting straight lines near the edges of the frame and by exaggerating the distance between foreground and background planes. In 35mlll filming, a wide-angle lens is 35mm or less. See also normal lens, telephoto lens.

wipe A transition between shots in which a line passes across the screen, eliminating one shot as it goes and replacing it with the next one.

zoom lens A lens with a focal length that can be changed during a shot. A shift toward the telephoto range enlarges the image and flat­ tens its planes together, giving an impression of magnifying the scene's space, while a shift toward the Il'ide-angle range does the opposite.