Gender Discrimination Pt 2
6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.4 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= ch09sec9.2 1 /7 C hris W ild t/ Ca rto onsto ck B y e m plo yin g t h e p rin cip le s o f a cc u ra cy a n d c h arit y , a n d b y e ffe ctiv e ly c rit ic iz in g a rg u m en ts , t h ere c a n b e c o n str u ctiv e d is a gre em en t t h at a vo id s h ea te d e m otio n s a n d v e rb al a ggre ssio n . 9 .4 C o n fr o n tin g D is a gre em en t M aste rin g th e s k ills o f id en tif y in g a n d c o nstr u ctin g a rg u m en ts is n ot e asy, but at th is sta ge yo u sh ould fe el fa ir ly co nid en t in yo ur c o m man d o f s u ch s k ills . T he b ig te st n ow is h ow y o u w ill r e act w hen s o m eo ne d is a gre es w it h y o ur a rg u m en t o r w hen y o u d is a gre e w it h s o m eo ne e ls e ’s a rg u m en t. A lt h ough a d va n cin g a n a rg u m en t d oes n ot r e q uir e a n in te ra ctio n, a s m en tio ned in C hap te r 2 , d is a gre em en ts a re b ound to o ccu r. M an y o f u s lik e ly p re fe r to avo id d is a gre em en ts . I n deed , m an y p eo ple a re te rri ie d o f d eb atin g a p oin t b eca u se th ey f e ar o ffe n din g o th ers o r w orry th at a d eb ate w ill o nly b rin g o ut th e w orst in e ve ry o ne, q uic k ly e sca la tin g in to an em otio nal d is p la y o f v e rb al a ggre ssio n a n d “I’ll s h ow y o u!” a ttit u des o n b oth p arts . F ew t r u ly g a in fr o m o r e n jo y s u ch a n e xch an ge. T his is w hy m ost p eo ple a vo id ad dre ssin g to uch y su bje cts d urin g h olid ay d in ners: N o one w an ts a d elic io us m eal t o e n d w it h u nple asa n tn ess. H ow eve r, f e w g a in f r o m a llo w in g c o nte ste d is su es to g o u nch alle n ged , e it h er, w heth er y o u are sim ply ste w in g in re se n tm en t ove r yo ur uncle ’s u nen lig h te n ed r e m ark a b out a g ro up o f p eo ple o r w heth er so cie ty f a ils to questio n a w ro ngh ead ed dir e ctio n in public polic y. Not k n ow in g h ow to d is a gre e in a c a lm , p ro ductiv e m an ner c a n b e q uit e p ro ble m atic . W e sh ould re co gn iz e , h ow eve r, th at so m e d o lik e th e t e n sio n o f th e b attle a n d in d th e ra is in g o f v o ic e s a n d th e te st o f q uic k r e to rts v e ry e xcit in g. E ve n s o , a ll th ey g a in is th e c o nir m atio n t h at th ey ca n w in b y b ein g th e lo udest, m ost artic u la te , or m ost a ggre ssiv e . Unfo rtu nate ly , th is is an illu sio n, sin ce quie tin g th e o pposit io n d oes n ot a m ount t o h av in g c o nvin ce d t h em . T he so lu tio n to th is co m mon p ro ble m is th re efo ld . T he ir st p art i n vo lv e s c le arly a rtic u la tin g p re m is e s, e xa m in in g t h e c o here n ce o f th e a rg u m en t, a n d id en tif y in g t h e s u pport fo r e ach c la im . T his p art is th e m ost t e ch nic a lly d if ic u lt b ut is a lr e ad y w it h in y o ur r e ach , th an ks to th e s ta n dard a rg u m en t fo rm . A s w e h ave d is cu sse d t h ro ugh out t h is b ook, b ein g a b le to d ra w a n a rg u m en t b urie d u ndern eath ille r s e n te n ce s, r h eto ric a l d ev ic e s, a n d s u ch a llo w s u s to g ra sp th e m ean in g a n d c o here n ce o f w hat is b ein g c o m munic a te d . In th is s e ctio n, w e w ill c lo se ly e xa m in e a n oth er fa cto r in id en tif y in g a rg u m en ts : th e c o rre ct in te rp re ta tio n o f a n a rg u m en t. W e w ill c a ll th is th e p rin cip le o f a cc u ra cy . T he s e co nd p art is n ot t e ch nic a lly d if ic u lt , b eca u se it is a n a ttit u de o r s ta te o f m in d. In o rd in ary id io m atic la n gu age, it is r e fe rre d t o a s g iv in g a p erso n th e b en eit o f th e d oubt, le ttin g s o m eo ne h ave h is o r h er s a y, o r p uttin g s u sp ic io n a sid e. I n o th er w ord s, w e sh ould ju dge o th ers an d th eir id eas fa ir ly , eve n if w e m ay be le ss th an in clin ed to do so . P hilo so phers c a ll t h is a ttit u de t h e p rin cip le o f c h arit y . F in ally , t h e t h ir d p art in vo lv e d in h an dlin g d is a gre em en t is d eve lo pin g g o od h ab it s o f c rit ic is m . E va lu atin g a n a rg u m en t e ffe ctiv e ly r e q uir e s u ndersta n din g th e ty p es o f o bje ctio ns th at m ig h t b e r a is e d a n d h ow to r a is e th em e ffe ctiv e ly . T his u ndersta n din g c a n b e e q ually h elp fu l in re co gn iz in g crit ic is m s th at o ur o w n a rg u m en ts m ay re ce iv e a n d crit ic iz in g o pposin g a rg u m en ts e ffe ctiv e ly . A pply in g t h e P rin cip le o f A cc u ra cy T he p rin cip le o f a ccu ra cy r e q uir e s t h at y o u in te rp re t t h e a rg u m en t a s c lo se t o h ow th e a u th or o r s p eake r p re se n ts it a s p ossib le . B ein g a ccu ra te in y o ur in te rp re ta tio n is n ot a s e asy a s it m ay s o und. A s w e e xa m in ed in C hap te r 2 , a rg u m en ts a re ty p ic a lly n ot p re se n te d in s ta n dard fo rm , w it h p re m is e s a n d c o nclu sio n p re cis e ly s ta te d . I n ste ad , t h ey m ay b e d ra w n o ut o ve r s e ve ra l p ages o r c h ap te rs o r o cca sio nally e ve n d is tr ib ute d a cro ss d if fe re n t p ortio ns o f a n a u th or’s w ork . In th ese s o rts o f c a se s, a ccu ra te ly in te rp re tin g a n a rg u m en t c a n r e q uir e c a re fu l 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.4 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= ch09sec9.2 2 /7 a m anaim ages R F/T hin ksto ck A p ply in g t h e p rin cip le o f c h arit y m ea n s t o s e t a sid e o u r c o n Āid en ce i n o u r e x p ertis e a n d t o b e o p en t o e n te rta in in g t h e p osit io n s p re se n te d b y o th ers b y d oin g a f a ir r e a d in g o f t h e a rg u m en t p ro vid ed . r e v ie w o f t h e w ork in w hic h it o ccu rs. A ccu ra te in te rp re ta tio n m ay r e q uir e f a m ilia rit y w it h t h e a u th or’s o th er w ork s a n d t h e w ork s o f o th er a u th ors w it h s im ila r v ie w s. K now in g a n a u th or’s b ro ad er v ie w s c a n g iv e u s a b ette r id ea o f w hat h e o r s h e m ean s in a s p eci ic c a se . S o m e a ca d em ic s s p en d th eir e n tir e c a re ers tr y in g to c le arly a n d a ccu ra te ly u ndersta n d t h e w ork o f im porta n t a u th ors w ho w ere t h em se lv e s t r y in g t o b e a s c le ar a s p ossib le . A t th e o th er e n d o f th e s p ectr u m , a rg u m en ts c a n b e p re se n te d in w ay s th at g iv e u s v e ry lit tle to g o o n. A le tte r to th e e d it o r is s h ort a n d s e lf ‐c o nta in ed b ut is o fte n n ot s ta te d c le arly e n ough fo r u s to r e ally b e c e rta in a b out th e d eta ils o f t h e a rg u m en t. I f y o u a re lu ck y e n ough t o h ear a n a rg u m en t p re se n te d v e rb ally , y o u m ay b e a b le to a sk fo r c la ri ic a tio n, b ut if th e a rg u m en t is w rit te n , th en y o u a re o ut o f lu ck a n d h ave to g o th ro ugh th e e ffo rt o f a tte m ptin g to ig u re o ut w hat t h e a u th or m ean t t o s a y in it s b est lig h t. A s d is cu sse d in C hap te r 2 , it is o fte n n ot o nly te m ptin g b ut a ls o n ece ssa ry to re w ord o r p ara p hra se a cla im . T he p rin cip le o f a ccu ra cy r e q uir e s th at y o u e xe rc is e a lo t o f c a re in d oin g th is . S o m etim es o ne c a n u nin te n tio nally c h an ge t h e m ean in g o f a c la im in s u btle w ay s t h at a ffe ct it s p la u sib ilit y a n d w hat c a n b e in fe rre d f r o m it . I n sh ort, th e p rin cip le o f accu ra cy re q uir e s th at yo u in te rp re t an y arg u m en t as clo se ly as p ossib le to th e actu al s ta te m en t o f th e a rg u m en t w hile p ay in g a tte n tio n to fe atu re s o f co nte x t. O ne te st fo r a sse ssin g w heth er y o u h ave c o rre ctly p re se n te d a n oth er p erso n’s a rg u m en t is w heth er th at p erso n is lik e ly to a gre e w it h y o ur w ord in g. T his o fte n i n vo lv e s m akin g s u re t h at y o u h ave in te rp re te d t h e p erso n f a vo ra b ly . A pply in g t h e P rin cip le o f C h arit y T he p rin cip le o f c h arit y is lik e w is e e asy to u ndersta n d b ut h ard er to a p ply . In bein g ch arit a b le philo so phic a lly , w e se ek to giv e our o pponen t ( a n d h is o r h er c o rre sp ondin g a rg u m en t) o ur u tm ost c a re a n d a tte n tio n, a lw ay s s e ekin g t o u ndersta n d t h e p osit io n p re se n te d in i t s str o ngest an d m ost defe n sib le lig h t befo re su bje ctin g th e a rg u m en t t o s cru tin y. W e te n d to s e e th e g o od in a rg u m en ts th at in clu de co nclu sio ns w e a gre e w it h a n d th e b ad in a rg u m en ts th at in clu de co nclu sio ns w e d is a gre e w it h . W hen s o m eo ne o n o ur s id e o f a n is su e p re se n ts a n a rg u m en t, w e a re p ro ne to r e ad th eir a rg u m en t fa vo ra b ly , ta kin g th e m ost c h arit a b le in te rp re ta tio n a s a m atte r o f co urse . T hin k o f h ow y o u re sp ond w hen co nsid erin g y o ur ch oic e fo r a ca n did ate in an e le ctio n. D o yo u te n d to in te rp re t m ore fa vo ra b ly th e w ord s of c a n did ate s w ho a re m em bers o f y o ur o w n p olit ic a l p arty , th ose w ho s u pport p osit io ns th at b en eit y o u p erso nally , o r e ve n th ose w hom y o u m ig h t in d m ost vis u ally ap pealin g? Do yo u se e posit io ns d if fe re n t f r o m y o urs a s s illy o r u nfo unded , p erh ap s e ve n im mora l? If s o , yo u m ay n eed to b e m ore ch arit a b le in yo ur in te rp re ta tio ns. R em em ber th at m an y in te llig en t, s in ce re , a n d th ough tfu l p eo ple h old p osit io ns t h at a re v e ry d if fe re n t f r o m y o urs. I f y o u s e e s u ch p osit io ns a s n ot h av in g a n y b asis , t h en it is lik e ly y o u a re b ein g u nch arit a b le . T hese t e n den cie s a re t h e m an if e sta tio n o f o ur b ia se s ( s e e C hap te r 8 ), a n d ig n orin g th em m ay le ad to th e e n tr e n ch m en t o f o ur b ia se s in to d ogm atic p osit io ns o r fa lla cio us p osit io ns. F o r e xa m ple , if y o u c rit ic iz e a n a rg u m en t b ase d o n a n u nch arit a b le in te rp re ta tio n, th is c a n b e c o nsid ere d a c a se o f t h e s tr a w m an f a lla cy ( s e e C hap te r 7 ). O ur te n den cy to b e o ve rly c rit ic a l o f a rg u m en ts fo r p osit io ns w e d is a gre e w it h is d eep ‐r o ote d , a n d it r e q uir e s a lo t o f e ffo rt a n d p sy ch olo gic a l s tr e n gth to o ve rc o m e. B ut th e m ech an ic s a re s im ple : S u sp en d y o ur o w n b elie fs a n d se ek a s y m path etic u ndersta n din g o f th e n ew id ea o r id eas. T he p rin cip le o f c h arit y c a n b eco m e a h ab it if w e a p pro ach it m eth odic a lly , a s f o llo w s: 1 . A ppro ach n ew o r o pposin g id eas u nder t h e a ssu m ptio n t h at t h ey c o uld b e t r u e, e ve n t h ough o ur in it ia l r e actio n m ay b e t o d is a gre e. 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.4 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= ch09sec9.2 3 /7 2 . M ake it a g o al t o u ndersta n d t h e o pponen t’s a rg u m en t, in ste ad o f n it p ic k in g a n d lo okin g f o r c o ntr a d ic tio ns o r w eakn esse s. 3 . C onsid er t h e s tr o ngest a rg u m en t f o r t h e o pposit io n in ste ad o f t h e w eake st a rg u m en t f o r it . G iv e n h ow d if ic u lt it ca n b e to ch arit a b ly in te rp re t a rg u m en ts , y o u m ig h t w onder w heth er it is w orth th e effo rt. H ow eve r, t h ere a re g o od r e aso ns f o r b ein g c h arit a b le . F ir st a n d f o re m ost, it is im porta n t to r e m em ber th at th e g o al o f lo gic is n ot to w in d is p ute s b ut, r a th er, to a rriv e a t th e t r u th . W e h ave re aso n to b elie ve th at th e co nclu sio ns o f str o nger a rg u m en ts a re m ore lik e ly to b e tr u e th an th e c o nclu sio ns o f w eake r a rg u m en ts . I f w e w is h t o k n ow t h e t r u th o f a n is su e, w e s h ould e xa m in e th e b est a rg u m en ts th at w e c a n in d o n b oth s id es. If w e d o th is a n d n otic e th at o ne s id e’s a rg u m en ts a re s tr o nger th an th e o th er’s , th en w e h ave g o od r e aso n fo r a d optin g th at s id e o f th e is su e. O n th e o th er h an d, if w e d o n ot lo ok a t th e s tr o ngest a rg u m en t a va ila b le , t h en w e w ill h ave lit tle r e aso n to b e c o nid en t in o ur in al d ecis io n. B ein g u nch arit a b le in in te rp re tin g o th ers m ay h elp y o u s co re p oin ts in a d is p ute , b ut th ere is n o r e aso n to th in k th at it w ill le ad y o u to th e tr u th o f th e m atte r. ( F o r m ore d is cu ssio n o f t h is im porta n t p oin t, s e e C hap te r 7 .) S eco nd, b y m akin g a h ab it o f a p ply in g th e p rin cip le o f c h arit y , y o u d eve lo p th e s k ills a n d c h ara cte r th at w ill h elp y o u m ake g o od d ecis io ns. A s p eo ple c o m e to r e co gn iz e y o u a s s o m eo ne w ho is fa ir a n d c h arit a b le in d is cu ssio ns, y o u w ill in d t h at t h ey a re m ore w illin g t o s h are t h eir v ie w s w it h y o u. In tu rn , y o ur o w n v ie w s w ill b e th e p ro duct o f a b ala n ce d l o ok a t a ll s id es, r a th er t h an b ein g la rg ely c o ntr o lle d b y y o ur o w n b ia se s. C onsid er T h is : S usp endin g J u dgm ent 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.4 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= ch09sec9.2 4 /7 D ig it a l V is io n/P hoto dis c/ T hin ksto ck W hen i t i s d ifĀic u lt t o b ala n ce t h e p rin cip le s o f a cc u ra cy a n d c h arit y , t r y t o b e m ore c h arit a ble i n y o u r i n te rp re ta tio n , e sp ecia lly i n m ore i n fo rm al s e ttin gs a n d d is c u ssio n s. D im aSobko /iS to ck /T hin ksto ck T he p ro ce ss o f c rit ic iz in g a n a rg u m en t i s s im ila r t o a c h ess g a m e. B oth r e q u ir e a n a n aly sis o f t h e s tr e n gth s a n d w ea kn ess o f B ala n cin g t h e P rin cip le s o f A cc u ra cy a n d C h arit y I f a rg u ers a lw ay s p re se n te d th e str o ngest a rg u m en ts a va ila b le a n d d id s o in a c le ar a n d o rg a n iz e d f a sh io n, th ere w ould b e lit tle p ro ble m a p ply in g th e p rin cip le s o f a ccu ra cy a n d c h arit y . U nfo rtu nate ly , w e a ll s o m etim es p re se n t a rg u m en ts t h at a re n ot a s s tr o ng a s th ey c o uld o r s h ould b e. In th ese c a se s th e tw o p rin cip le s w ork ca n a ga in st e ach o th er— th at is , th e m ost ch arit a b le in te rp re ta tio n m ay n ot b e th e m ost a ccu ra te . I n g en era l, t h e p rin cip le o f c h arit y s h ould b e g iv e n m ore w eig h t th an t h at o f accu ra cy. T his is esp ecia lly tr u e w hen th e arg u m en ts are p re se n te d in le ss fo rm al s e ttin gs. B y g iv in g p eo ple th e b en eit o f th e d oubt a n d t r e atin g t h eir v ie w s a s c h arit a b ly a s p ossib le , y o u w ill e arn a re p uta tio n as so m eo ne w ho is m ore in te re ste d in pro ductiv e d is cu ssio ns th an in sco rin g poin ts . Yo u will have a lo t m ore d is cu ssio ns t h is w ay, a n d b oth y o u a n d th e o th er p eo ple in vo lv e d a re l ik e ly t o le arn a lo t m ore . I n in fo rm al s e ttin gs, it is b est to a ssu m e th at p eo ple a re m akin g a s tr o nger a rg u m en t, r a th er th an tr y in g to h old t h em t o p re cis e ly w hat t h ey s a y. T he s it u atio n is s o m ew hat d if fe re n t w hen in te rp re tin g a rg u m en ts in a ca d em ic w rit in g s u ch a s jo urn al a rtic le s. Jo urn al a rtic le s a re w rit te n c a re fu lly a n d r e v is e d m an y tim es. T he a u th ors a re co m mit tin g th em se lv e s to w hat th ey sa y a n d s h ould u ndersta n d th e im plic a tio ns o f it . N oneth ele ss, it is s till g o od to b e c h arit a b le w hen p ossib le , b ut fo llo w in g th e a u th or’s e xa ct p re se n ta tio n is m ore im porta n t th an it is in le ss fo rm al s e ttin gs. In ca se s in w hic h y o u a re p rim arily e xa m in in g a n a rg u m en t m ad e b y a s in gle a u th or in a p ublis h ed a rtic le a n d in w hic h y o u a re t r y in g t o ju dge h ow w ell th e a rg u m en t w ork s, a ccu ra cy is p ara m ount. S till, b e a s c h arit a b le a s t h e c ir c u m sta n ce s a llo w . P ra ctic in g E ffe ctiv e C rit ic is m T he p rin cip le s o f ch arit y an d accu ra cy go ve rn th e in te rp re ta tio n of arg u m en ts — th ey help yo u decid e w hat th e a rg u m en t a ctu ally is . B ut o nce y o u h ave ig u re d o ut w hat th e a rg u m en t is , y o u w ill w an t to e va lu ate it . In g en era l, e va lu atin g th e s tr e n gth s a n d w eakn esse s o f a rg u m en ts o r o th er w ork s is k n ow n a s crit ic is m . In e ve ry d ay la n gu age, c rit ic is m is o fte n assu m ed to b e n ega tiv e — to crit ic iz e so m eth in g is to sa y w hat is w ro ng w it h it . In th e ca se o f a rg u m en ta tio n, h ow eve r, c rit ic is m m ean s to p ro vid e a m ore g en era l a n aly sis a n d e va lu atio n o f b oth th e s tr e n gth s a n d w eakn esse s o f a n a rg u m en t. T his s e ctio n w ill fo cu s o n w hat c o nstit u te s g o od c rit ic is m a n d h ow y o u c a n c rit ic iz e in a p ro ductiv e m an ner. U ndersta n din g h ow t o p ro perly c rit iq ue a n a rg u m en t w ill a ls o h elp y o u m ake y o ur o w n a rg u m en ts m ore e ffe ctiv e . W hen c rit ic iz in g a rg u m en ts , it is im porta n t t o n ote b oth th e s tr e n gth s a n d w eakn esse s o f a n a rg u m en t. V ery f e w a rg u m en ts a re s o b ad th at t h ey h ave n oth in g at all to re co m men d th em . Lik e w is e , ve ry fe w a rg u m en ts a re so p erfe ct th at th ey ca n not b e im pro ve d . F o cu sin g o nly o n a n a rg u m en t’s w eakn esse s o r o nly o n it s s tr e n gth s c a n m ake y o u s e em b ia se d . B y n otin g b oth , y o u w ill n ot o nly b e se en a s le ss b ia se d , y o u w ill a ls o g a in a b ette r a p pre cia tio n o f t h e t r u e s ta te o f th e a rg u m en t.
A s w e h ave s e en , lo gic a l a rg u m en ts a re c o m pose d o f p re m is e s a n d c o nclu sio ns an d th e re la tio n of in fe re n ce betw een th ese . If an a rg u m en t fa ils to e sta b lis h it s c o nclu sio n, th en th e p ro ble m m ig h t lie w it h o ne o f th e p re m is e s o r w it h th e in fe re n ce d ra w n. S o o bje ctio ns t o a rg u m en ts a re m ostly o bje ctio ns to p re m is e s o r to in fe re n ce s. A h an dy w ay o f r e m em berin g th is c o m es b y w ay o f th e p hilo so phic a l l o re th at a ll o bje ctio ns re d uce to e it h er “O h y e ah ?” o r “S o w hat? ” ( S tu rg eo n, 1 986). 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.4 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= ch09sec9.2 5 /7 y o u r o p pon en t’s p osit io n a n d a d ete rm in atio n o f w heth er t h e p re m is e , o r c h ess p ie ce, i s c e n tr a l t o y o u r o p pon en t’s a rg u m en t o r s tr a te gy. O h Y ea h ? C rit ic iz in g P re m is e s T he “O h y e ah ?” o bje ctio n is m ad e a ga in st a p re m is e . A r e sp onse o f “ O h y e ah ?” m ean s th at th e r e sp onder d is a gre es w it h w hat h as b een s a id , s o it is a n o bje ctio n t h at a p re m is e is e it h er f a ls e o r in su fic ie n tly s u pporte d .
O f c o urse , if y o u a re g o in g t o o bje ct t o a p re m is e , y o u r e ally n eed t o d o m ore th an ju st s a y, “ O h y e ah ?” A t th e v e ry le ast, y o u s h ould b e p re p are d to sa y w hy y o u d is a gre e w it h th e p re m is e . W hoeve r p re se n te d th e a rg u m en t h as p ut th e p re m is e f o rw ard a s t r u e, a n d if a ll y o u c a n d o is s im ply g a in sa y t h e p erso n, th en th e d is cu ssio n is n ot g o in g to p ro gre ss m uch . Y o u n eed to s u pport y o ur o bje ctio n w it h r e aso ns fo r d oubtin g th e p re m is e . T he fo llo w in g is a lis t o f q uestio ns t h at w ill h elp y o u n ot o nly m eth odic a lly c rit ic iz e a rg u m en ts b ut a ls o a p pre cia te w hy y o ur a rg u m en ts r e ce iv e n ega tiv e c rit ic is m . 1 . I s it c e n tr a l t o t h e a rg u m en t? T he ir st t h in g t o c o nsid er in q uestio nin g a p re m is e is w heth er it is c e n tr a l t o t h e a rg u m en t. I n o th er w ord s, y o u s h ould a sk , “ W hat w ould h ap pen t o t h e a rg u m en t if t h e p re m is e w ere w ro ng?” A s n ote d in C hap te r 5 , in ductiv e a rg u m en ts c a n o fte n r e m ain f a ir ly s tr o ng e ve n if s o m e o f t h eir p re m is e s t u rn o ut t o b e in co rre ct. S o m etim es a p re m is e is in co rre ct, b ut in a w ay t h at d oes n ot r e ally m ake a d if fe re n ce . F o r e xa m ple , c o nsid er s o m eo ne w ho a d vis e s y o u t o b e c a re fu l o f b oilin g w ate r, c la im in g t h at it b oils a t 2 00°F a n d 2 00°F w ate r c a n c a u se s e ve re b urn s. T e ch nic a lly , t h e p erso n’s p re m is e s a re f a ls e : W ate r b oils a t 2 12°F , n ot a t 2 00°F . T his d if fe re n ce d oes n ot r e ally im pact t h e p erso n’s a rg u m en t, h ow eve r. T he a rg u er c o uld e asily c o rre ct t h e p re m is e a n d r e ach t h e s a m e c o nclu sio n. A s a r e su lt , t h is is n ot a g o od p la ce t o f o cu s a n o bje ctio n. Y e s, it is w orth m en tio nin g t h at t h e p re m is e is in co rre ct, b ut a s p ro ble m s g o , t h is o ne is n ot v e ry b ig . T he a m ount o f e ffo rt y o u s h ould p ut in to a n o bje ctio n s h ould c o rre la te t o t h e s ig n i ic a n ce o f t h e p ro ble m . B efo re p uttin g a lo t o f e m phasis o n a p artic u la r o bje ctio n, m ake s u re t h at it w ill r e ally im pact t h e s tr e n gth o f t h e a rg u m en t. 2 . I s it b elie va ble ? A noth er is su e t o c o nsid er is w heth er a p re m is e is s u fic ie n tly b elie va b le . I n t h e c o nte x t in w hic h t h e p re m is e is g iv e n , is it lik e ly t o b e a cce p te d b y it s in te n ded a u die n ce ? I f n ot, t h en t h e p re m is e m ig h t d ese rv e h ig h er le ve ls o f s cru tin y. I n s u ch c a se s w e m ig h t c h eck t o m ake s u re w e h ave u ndersto od it c o rre ctly a n d c h eck i f t h e a u th or h as p ro vid ed f u rth er e v id en ce f o r t h e s tr o ng c la im in q uestio n. T his c a n b e a b it t r ic k y, s in ce it d ep en ds o n s e ve ra l c o nte x tu al is su es. A p re m is e m ay b e a cce p ta b le t o o ne a u die n ce b ut n ot t o a n oth er. H ow eve r, r e aliz e t h at it is ju st n ot p ossib le t o f u lly ju stif y e ve ry p re m is e in a n a rg u m en t. P re m is e s a re t h e s ta rtin g p oin ts f o r a rg u m en ts ; t h ey a re s ta te m en ts t h at a re p re se n te d a s s u fic ie n tly b elie va b le t o b ase a n a rg u m en t o n. T ry in g t o ju stif y e ve ry p re m is e w ould in tr o duce e ve n m ore p re m is e s t h at w ould t h en h ave t o b e j u sti ie d , a n d s o o n. I f y o u a re g o in g t o c h alle n ge a p re m is e , y o u s h ould t y p ic a lly h ave s p eci ic r e aso ns f o r d oin g s o . M ere ly c h alle n gin g e ve ry p re m is e is n ot p ro ductiv e . I f y o u id en tif y a s p eci ic p re m is e t h at is c e n tr a l t o t h e a rg u m en t y e t in su fic ie n tly s u pporte d , y o u s h ould m ake a m en ta l n ote a n d m ove f o rw ard . I f y o u a re a b le t o c o nve rse w it h t h e p ro ponen t o f t h e a rg u m en t, t h en y o u c a n a sk f o r f u rth er ju sti ic a tio n o f t h e p re m is e . I f t h e p ro ponen t is n ot a va ila b le t o q uestio n— perh ap s b eca u se t h e a rg u m en t o ccu rs in a n a rtic le , b ook, o r t e le v is e d s p eech — th en y o u s h ould f o rm ula te s o m e r e aso ns f o r t h in kin g t h e p re m is e is w eak. I n e sse n ce , t h e b urd en is o n y o u, t h e o bje cto r, t o s a y w hy t h e p re m is e is n ot s u fic ie n tly b elie va b le , a n d n ot o n t h e p ro ponen t o f t h e a rg u m en t t o p re se n t p re m is e s t h at y o u in d b elie va b le o r s u fic ie n tly s u pporte d . N eve r e sca la te y o ur b elie fs in to a ccu sa tio ns o f ly in g o r f r a u d. I f y o u b elie ve t h at t h e p re m is e is f a ls e , t h e m ost p ro ductiv e n ex t s te p is t o c o m e u p w it h r e aso ns w hy t h e p re m is e is n ot s u fic ie n tly p la u sib le f o r t h e c o nte x t o f t h e a rg u m en t. 3 . A re t h ere a n y q u ali骶 ie rs? A q u aliĀie r is a w ord o r p hra se t h at a ffe cts t h e s tr e n gth o f a c la im t h at a p re m is e m ake s. C onsid er t h e d if fe re n ce b etw een t h e s ta te m en ts “ H um an s a re t h e c a u se o f t h e c u rre n t c lim ate c h an ge” a n d “ It is a t le ast p ossib le t h at h um an s a re t h e c a u se o f t h e c u rre n t c lim ate c h an ge.” W hile a d dre ssin g t h e s a m e p oin t, t h ese t w o s ta te m en ts h ave v e ry d if fe re n t le ve ls o f b elie va b ilit y . T he q uali ie r p hra se “ it is a t le ast p ossib le ” m ake s t h e s e co nd s ta te m en t m ore a cce p ta b le t h an t h e ir st. W hate ve r y o ur v ie w o n t h e c a u se s o f c lim ate c h an ge, y o u s h ould s e e t h e s e co nd s ta te m en t a s h av in g m ore g o in g f o r it t h an t h e f o rm er, b eca u se t h e s e co nd s ta te m en t o nly m ake s a c la im a b out w hat is p ossib le . A cco rd in gly , it c la im s m uch le ss t h an t h e ir st o ne. I f t h e 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.4 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= ch09sec9.2 6 /7 ir st c la im is t r u e, t h e s e co nd o ne is a ls o , b ut t h e s e co nd c la im c o uld b e t r u e e ve n if t h e ir st t u rn ed o ut t o b e f a ls e . I n f o cu sin g a n o bje ctio n o n a p re m is e , y o u n eed t o b e s u re t h at y o ur o bje ctio n t a ke s in to a cco unt t h e q uali ie rs. I f t h e p re m is e is t h e s e co nd c la im — ”It is a t le ast p ossib le t h at h um an s a re t h e c a u se o f t h e c u rre n t c lim ate c h an ge”— th en it w ould m ake lit tle s e n se t o o bje ct t h at it h as n ot b een f u lly p ro ve d t h at h um an s a re t h e c a u se . Q uali ie rs c a n a ffe ct t h e s tr e n gth o f p re m is e s in m an y w ay s. T he le sso n h ere is t h at y o u n eed t o b e v e ry c le ar a b out e xa ctly w hat is b ein g c la im ed b efo re o bje ctin g t o it . S o m etim es p re m is e s t a ke t h e f o rm o f h yp oth etic a ls — th at is , s e n te n ce s s ta tin g a ssu m ed s it u atio ns m ere ly f o r t h e s a ke o f a rg u m en t. S u ppose t h at s o m eo ne is a rg u in g t h at t h e U nit e d S ta te s s h ould a ggre ssiv e ly p ursu e i n ve stm en t in a lt e rn ativ e e n erg y. S u ch a p erso n m ig h t p re se n t t h e f o llo w in g a rg u m en t a s p art o f a la rg er a rg u m en t: “ S u ppose c lim ate c h an ge r e ally is c a u se d b y h um an s. I f s o , t h en in ve stin g in a lt e rn ativ e e n erg y w ould h elp r e d uce o r s lo w c lim ate c h an ge.” I f y o u h ap pen t o t h in k c lim ate c h an ge is n ot c a u se d b y h um an s, y o u m ig h t b e t e m pte d t o o bje ct t o t h e ir st p re m is e h ere . T hat w ould b e a m is ta ke , s in ce t h e p re m is e is f r a m ed a s a h yp oth etic a l. T he a u th or o f t h e a rg u m en t is o nly m akin g a p oin t a b out w hat w ould f o llo w if t h e c la im w ere t r u e. I t m ust b e c le ar t h at in t h is c o nte x t t h e a u th or o f t h e a rg u m en t is n ot c la im in g t h at t h e ir st p re m is e is t r u e. T he lin e o f r e aso nin g m ig h t c o ntin ue a s f o llo w s: “ O n t h e o th er h an d, s u ppose t h at h um an s a re n ot c h an gin g t h e c lim ate . T he in cre ase in c a rb on in t h e a tm osp here s till s h ow s t h at o ur e n erg y p ro ductio n c a n o nly c o ntin ue s o l o ng a s w e h ave c a rb on t o b urn o n t h e g ro und. W e w ould b e w ell a d vis e d t o in d o th er a lt e rn ativ e s.” H ere , o ne m ig h t b e t e m pte d t o o bje ct t h at h um an s a re p art o f t h e c a u se o f c lim ate c h an ge. A ga in , t h is w ould b e a m is ta ke . T he c la im t h at h um an s a re n ot c h an gin g t h e c lim ate is a ls o u se d h ere o nly a s a h yp oth etic a l. S o W hat? C rit ic iz in g I n fe re n ce s E ve n a n a rg u m en t w it h u nobje ctio nab le p re m is e s c a n f a il t o e sta b lis h it s c o nclu sio n. T he p ro ble m in s u ch c a se s lie s w it h t h e in fe re n ce s. O bje ctin g to a n in fe re n ce is lik e s a y in g, “S o w hat if y o ur p re m is e s a re tr u e? Y o ur co nclu sio n d oesn ’t f o llo w fr o m th em !” O f c o urse , “ S o w hat!” is n eit h er th e b est fe ed back to r e ce iv e n or th e b est r e sp onse to o ffe r to a n o pponen t. A b ette r m eth od o f s h ow in g th at a n a rg u m en t is in va lid is to o ffe r a c o unte re xa m ple . R eca ll fr o m C hap te r 3 t h at a c o unte re xa m ple is a s tr a te gy t h at a im s t o s h ow t h at e ve n if th e p re m is e s o f a n a rg u m en t a re tr u e, th e c o nclu sio n m ay v e ry w ell b e f a ls e . C ounte re xa m ple s d o n ot h ave to b e r e al c a se s, th ey ju st h ave to b e p ossib le c a se s; th ey h ave to s h ow th at it is p ossib le fo r th e p re m is e s to b e tr u e w hile th e c o nclu sio n is fa ls e — th at th e p re m is e s d o n ot a b so lu te ly g u ara n te e t h e c o nclu sio n. B ew are , h ow eve r, th at c o unte re xa m ple s w ork b est fo r d ed uctiv e a rg u m en ts a n d d o n ot w ork a s d ecis iv e ly w hen th e a rg u m en t is in ductiv e . T his is b eca u se t r u e p re m is e s in in ductiv e a rg u m en ts a t b est s h ow t h at t h e c o nclu sio n is p ro bab ly t r u e, b ut th is is n ot g u ara n te ed a s it is w it h d ed uctiv e a rg u m en ts . T hus, sh ow in g th at it is m ere ly p ossib le th at th e p re m is e s o f a n in ductiv e a rg u m en t a re t r u e w hile it s c o nclu sio n is f a ls e d oes n ot u nderm in e t h e in fe re n ce . T he b est th at c a n b e d one in th e c a se o f in ductiv e a rg u m en ts is to s h ow th at th e c o nclu sio n is n ot s u fic ie n tly p ro bab le g iv e n th e p re m is e s. T here is n o s in gle b est w ay to d o th is . B eca u se e ach in ductiv e a rg u m en t h as a d if fe re n t s tr e n gth a n d m ay b e b ase d o n a d if fe re n t k in d o f r e aso nin g, o bje ctio ns m ust b e c ra fte d c a re fu lly b ase d o n th e s p eci ic s o f th e a rg u m en t. T here a re , f o rtu nate ly , s o m e b ro ad g u id elin es t o b e o ffe re d a b out h ow t o p ro ce ed . F ir st, b e c le ar a b out ju st h ow s tr o ng th e a rg u m en t is s u ppose d to b e. R em em ber th e c o ntr a st b etw een c la im in g th at “ H um an s a re th e c a u se o f th e c u rre n t c lim ate c h an ge” v e rsu s “ It is a t le ast p ossib le th at h um an s a re th e c a u se o f th e c u rre n t c lim ate c h an ge.” M an y o bje ctio ns fa il b eca u se th ey a ssu m e th e a rg u m en t is in te n ded to b e s tr o nger th an it is . A ny o bje ctio n to a n in ductiv e in fe re n ce b asic a lly c la im s th at th e p re m is e s d o n ot m ake th e c o nclu sio n a s lik e ly a s th e a rg u er p ro pose s. I f t h e a rg u er is m is in te rp re te d o n t h is p oin t, t h e o bje ctio n w ill m is s it s m ark . N ex t, t r y t o id en tif y t h e s ty le o f r e aso nin g u se d in t h e in ductiv e a rg u m en t. C hap te r 5 p re se n ts s e ve ra l d if fe re n t fo rm s o f i n ductiv e r e aso nin g. I f t h e a rg u m en t u se s o ne o f th ose fo rm s, m ake s u re th at th e a rg u m en t fo llo w s th e p atte rn s h ow n. L ook f o r a n y w ay in w hic h t h e a rg u m en t d ev ia te s f r o m t h e p atte rn ; t h ese a re p oin ts f o r p ossib le o bje ctio ns. F in ally , c o nsid er w heth er th e a rg u m en t c o nta in s r e aso nin g th at is fa lla cio us. A n um ber o f fa lla cie s a re d is cu sse d in C hap te r 7 . R em em ber th at ju st p oin tin g o ut a fa lla cy d oes n ot s h ow th at th e c o nclu sio n o f th e a rg u m en t is fa ls e . It c a n 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.4 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= ch09sec9.2 7 /7 o nly s h ow t h at t h e c o nclu sio n is n ot s u fic ie n tly s u pporte d b y t h at s p eci ic a rg u m en t. P ra ctic e P ro b le m s 9 .4 C lic k h ere ( h ttp s:/ /n e.e d gecastc d n.n et/ 0 004B A /co n ste lla tio n/P D Fs/ P H I1 03_2 e/A nsw ers_P ra ctic e P ro ble m s9 .4 .p df) t o c h eck y o u r a n sw ers. D ete rm in e w heth er t h e f o llo w in g s it u atio n s i n vo lv e t h e p rin cip le o f c h arit y o r a cc u ra cy. 1 . E ve n t h ough y o u a gre e t h at a b ortio n s h ould b e ille ga l, y o u c o nfr o nt y o ur c o usin w hen h e s a y s t h at w om en w ho h ave h ad a b ortio ns a re m urd ere rs. Y o u c la im t h at t h ey m ig h t h ave o th er r e aso ns o r c ir c u m sta n ce s in t h eir liv e s t h at h ave c o ntr ib ute d t o t h eir d ecis io ns. 2 . Y o u a re e n ga gin g in a d eb ate a b out ju st w ar w it h a f r ie n d. Y o ur f r ie n d c la im s t h at o ne o f t h e p re m is e s o f j u st w ar t h eo ry is t h at “ a n atio n c a n a ct a ga in st a n oth er n atio n in w hate ve r m an ner a va ila b le s o lo ng a s t h e o th er n atio n a cte d a ggre ssiv e ly ir st.” Y o u c o rre ct y o ur f r ie n d a n d c la im t h at ju st w ar t h eo ry r e ally o nly s a y s t h at a n atio n c a n not a ct in a n y m an ner a va ila b le b ut o nly in a m an ner t h at is p ro portio nal t o t h e in ju ry s u ffe re d f r o m t h e o th er s id e. 3 . Y o ur f r ie n d is u pse t b eca u se h e r e ce iv e d a in e f r o m a r e co rd c o m pan y t h at w as s u in g p eo ple w ho d ow nlo ad ed m usic f o r f r e e. H e c la im s t h at “ r e co rd c o m pan ie s ju st c a re a b out m akin g m oney, a n d t h ey a re w illin g t o g o a fte r r e gu la r p eo ple w ho a re n ’t h urtin g a n yo ne.” Y o u c la im t h at r e co rd c o m pan ie s e m plo y m an y p eo ple w hose jo bs w ould b e in d an ger if t h eir m usic w ere g iv e n a w ay f o r f r e e, a n d y o u s u ggest t h at p erh ap s r e co rd c o m pan ie s a re s im ply t r y in g t o p ro te ct t h eir e m plo ye es. 4 . Y o u a re a rg u in g w it h a f r ie n d a b out t h e e x is te n ce o f G od. Y o ur f r ie n d p ro pose s a n a rg u m en t f o r G od’s e x is te n ce t h at h as b een im pro ve d in a r e ce n t p hilo so phic a l p ublic a tio n. R ath er t h an a tta ck t h e o ld a rg u m en t, y o u s tr e n gth en y o ur f r ie n d’s p osit io n b y e x p la in in g t h e n ew d eve lo pm en t in r e la tio n t o t h e a rg u m en t. 5 . Y o u a re a rg u in g w it h a c o w ork e r a b out a n im al r ig h ts , a n im al s u ffe rin g, a n d w heth er h um an s s h ould h arv e st a n im als a n d e at t h em . Y o u h ave t a ke n t h e p osit io n t h at e atin g a n im als is a cce p ta b le . I n s u pportin g h er p osit io n, y o ur c o w ork e r c la im s t h at m ore t h an 2 b illio n a n im als a re s la u gh te re d f o r c o nsu m ptio n in t h e W este rn w orld e ach y e ar. Y o u c o rre ct h er a n d s a y t h at a ctu ally , m ore t h an 3 b illio n a n im als a re s la u gh te re d p er y e ar.