Gender Discrimination Pt 2
6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 1 /1 3 M onkey b usin es sim ages / iS to ck /T hin ksto ck W heth er o r n ot y o u r e a liz e i t , e ve ry d ay r e p orts o f y o u r w ork t o p eers o r h ig h er‐u ps m ay r e q u ir e y o u t o f o rm ula te a n a rg u m en t. S ta rtin g f r o m t h e s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm , y o u c a n w rit e a n e ssa y t h at h elp s y o u d efe n d t h in gs s u ch a s a l a rg er a llo ca tio n o f f u nds f o r y o u r d ep artm en t. 9 .1 T he A rg u m en ta tiv e E ssa y I n a d dit io n t o s e rv in g a s t h e f r a m ew ork f o r id en tif y in g c la im s, e va lu atin g a rg u m en ts , a n d d efe n din g y o ur p osit io ns m eth odic a lly , t h e s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm h as a n oth er v e ry p ra ctic a l u se a s th e fr a m ew ork fo r w rit in g a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y s. S im ply p ut, a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y is a g en re o f w rit in g th at p re se n ts a l o gic a l a n d m eth odic a l d efe n se o f a th esis b ase d o n s u pportin g r e se arc h . It in clu des th e r e co gn it io n o f t h e o pposin g p osit io n to th e th esis a n d th e p re se n ta tio n o f a su cce ssfu l re b utta l. T he a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y fo rm at is in tr o duce d in s o m e u niv e rsit y c o urse s (fo r e xa m ple , it is th e s ta n dard w rit in g s ty le in p hilo so phy), b ut t h e f o rm at h as b ro ad a p plic a tio ns w hen it c o m es t o b uild in g a rg u m en ts g en era lly . A rg u m en ts a re th e fu ndam en ta l to ol in se ve ra l o ccu patio ns. T hey a re th e fr a m e fo r le ga l b rie fs , la w r e v ie w a rtic le s, o pin io ns b y S u pre m e C ourt ju stic e s, a s w ell a s p ublic p olic y a n aly se s a n d p re d ic tio ns b y e co nom is ts . T hey a re th e m ach in ery e m plo ye d fo r m eth odic a l c o m men ta rie s b y r e p orte rs a n d p olit ic a l p undit s p re se n te d in th e n ew s m ed ia . P o lit ic ia n s m ay u se a rg u m en ts w hen th ey m ake a p it c h fo r o ur v o te s. H ow eve r, th e use of th e arg u m en ta tiv e essa y is not r e str ic te d to th ese o ccu patio ns a lo ne. M an y o f u s a re c a lle d o n to p re se n t a rg u m en ts in th is w ay, e ve n if n ot e x p lic it ly . Y o ur b oss m ay a sk y o u to p re se n t a n a rg u m en t, a lt h ough s h e is n ot lik e ly to p ut it th at w ay. S h e is m ore lik e ly to a sk y o u t o “ e n co ura ge e ve ry o ne” to d o s o m eth in g ( fo r e xa m ple , g et a lu s h ot, c o m e to w ork o n tim e, o r n ot a cce ss so cia l m ed ia w hile w ork in g), r a th er t h an to “ p re se n t a n a rg u m en t” t h at w ill persu ad e oth ers. H ow eve r, th e re q uest is still e sse n tia lly a r e q uest to d eve lo p a n a rg u m en t. If y o u n eed ed t o re q uest a ra is e , th is , to o, w ould esse n tia lly re q uir e an a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y, w heth er in sp oke n o r w rit te n fo rm . O uts id e o f th e w ork p la ce , a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y s m ig h t ta ke s h ap e in c o nve rsa tio ns w it h a fr ie n d o r lo ve d o ne, le tte rs to t h e ed it o r, jo b ap plic a tio ns, p ro je ct pro posa ls , ban k lo an d ossie rs, a n d e ve n in lo ve le tte rs a n d m arria ge p ro posa ls . A c o nvin cin g, s tr u ctu re d a rg u m en t c o m es in h an dy fo r m an y o cca sio ns.
I t is im porta n t t o n ote t h at a rg u m en ta tiv e w rit in g is d if fe re n t f r o m p ersu asiv e w rit in g. A n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y a b out th e i m porta n ce o f g ettin g a lu v a ccin e w ould n ot o nly e xa m in e th e r e aso ns fo r d oin g s o , b ut w ould lik e ly w eig h t h e p ro s a n d c o ns, e xa m in in g w hy g ettin g a v a ccin e is a g o od id ea. O n t h e o th er h an d, a p ersu asiv e e ssa y o n th e s a m e to pic w ould e x p lic it ly fo cu s o n tr y in g to g et th e r e ad er to g et a v a ccin e. P ersu asiv e w rit in g in clu des e le m en ts th at a re in te n ded to m otiv a te a n d p ersu ad e a n a u die n ce in w ay s th at m ay g o b eyo nd th e b oundarie s o f lo gic , s u ch a s p assio n o r e m otio n. F o r e xa m ple , a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y c a n c o nvin ce u s t h at a h ab it is b ad , b ut it o fte n is n ot e n ough to m otiv a te u s to c h an ge th e h ab it . P ersu asiv e w rit in g tr ie s to b rid ge th e g a p b etw een r e co gn iz in g th at w e s h ould d o s o m eth in g a n d a ctu ally d oin g it . A rg u m en ts a re s till c e n tr a l t o p ersu asiv e w rit in g; y o u c a n not g et s o m eo ne to c h an ge a h ab it th ey d o n ot t h in k th ey sh ould ch an ge. Y o u ca n th in k o f p ersu asiv e w rit in g as arg u m en ta tiv e w rit in g w it h ex tr a e le m en ts a d ded . 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 2 /1 3 I n o rd er to tu rn a n a rg u m en t in to a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y, w e w ill ir st n eed to exa m in e b oth th e s tr u ctu re o f t h e s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm a n d t h e f r a m ew ork o f a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y. A s s h ow n in T a b le 9 .1 , th e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y in ve rts th e s ta n dard a rg u m en t fo rm s o th e w rit e r c a n i n fo rm th e re ad er o f th e o bje ctiv e a t th e o uts e t o f th e e ssa y. N ote th at w e ca ll th e m ain cla im th e “ c o nclu sio n” in t h e s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm , b ut in a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y it is c a lle d t h e “ th esis .” T a ble 9 .1 : S ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm v e rsu s a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y f r a m ew ork S ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm F o rm a p plie d t o a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y P re m is e P re m is e C onclu sio n T hesis ( th e e q uiv a le n t o f t h e c o nclu sio n in s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm ) P re m is e P re m is e W it h th is in it ia l s tr u ctu re in p la ce , th e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y n eed s a fe w a d dit io nal e le m en ts . F ir st, it n eed s a s ta rtin g s e ctio n th at in tr o duce s th e p ro ble m fo r w hic h th e th esis is a r e sp onse . S eco nd, e ach p re m is e n eed s to b e e la b ora te d o n a n d s u pporte d . T hir d a n d in ally , th e e ssa y m ust a d dre ss o bje ctio ns i n o rd er to s h ow th at th e a rg u m en t ca n w it h sta n d scru tin y. T he b asic str u ctu re o f a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y is d ete rm in ed b y th e in tr o ductio n o f th e p ro ble m , th e th esis , a n d th e p re m is e s su pportin g th e t h esis . W e w ill e xa m in e th ese th re e e le m en ts in th e re st o f th is se ctio n a n d th e re m ain in g e le m en ts ( c la ri ic a tio n a n d s u pport, o bje ctio ns, r e b utta ls , a n d c lo sin gs) w ill b e d is cu sse d in t h e n ex t s e ctio n. T he P ro b le m T he p ro ble m s e ctio n o f a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y is it s in tr o ducto ry s e ctio n. T he m ain o bje ctiv e s o f th e p ro ble m s e ctio n a re to p re se n t th e s p eci ic s u bje ct m atte r a n d th e p ro ble m th at m otiv a te s th e th esis d efe n ded in th e p ap er. In tr o ducin g th e s u bje ct m atte r a llo w s th e r e ad er to u ndersta n d th e c o nte x t fo r t h e p ap er. T he f o cu s o f t h e s e ctio n s h ould b e t h e p re se n ta tio n o f o ne c le arly d ein ed p ro ble m w it h in th is s u bje ct m atte r. T here fo re , t h e b ulk o f t h is s e ctio n m ust p ro vid e a c le ar p ic tu re o f th e p artic u la r p osit io n, e ve n t, o r sta te o f a ffa ir s th at yo u, as th e au th or, in d p ro ble m atic . If yo ur su bje ct m atte r is glo bal w arm in g, f o r e xa m ple , a n d y o u w an t t o s u pport e ffo rts t o c o ntr o l it , t h en a d dre ssin g g lo bal w arm in g a s a w hole w ould b e to o b ro ad . It w ould b e b ette r, fo r e xa m ple , to id en tif y w heth er y o u w an t to ta ke a p osit io n w it h r e ga rd to w hat in div id uals c a n d o, w hat b usin esse s c a n d o, o r w hat w hole g o ve rn m en ts c a n d o t o c o ntr o l g lo bal w arm in g. A noth er w ay t o n arro w th e p ro ble m w ould b e to a d dre ss a p artic u la r s o urc e of glo bal w arm in g th at yo u in d m ost pro ble m atic (fo r exa m ple , ca r em is sio ns, sp eci ic c o m merc ia l p ollu tio n s u ch a s w aste d um pin g fr o m fa cto ry fa rm s, o r d efo re sta tio n). N arro w er p ro ble m s a re lik e ly t o b e m ore c le arly d ein ed , a n d y o ur r e se arc h is t h ere fo re m ore lik e ly t o s tr o ngly s u pport y o ur p osit io n. A ddit io nally , t h e m ore s p eci ic y o u a re r e ga rd in g th e p ro ble m y o u a re a d dre ssin g, th e e asie r it w ill b e f o r y o u t o f o rm ula te y o ur t h esis . T he T hesis T he p ro ble m s e ctio n o f th e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y s h ould e n d i n t h e f o rm ula tio n o f t h e t h esis . T he th esis is th e c la im b ein g d efe n ded in t h e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y a n d is e q uiv a le n t t o t h e c o nclu sio n in t h e s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm . 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 3 /1 3 i ly a re x i/ iS to ck /T hin ksto ck W hen d eve lo p in g a t h esis , y o u m ust b e p re cis e i n y o u r w ord in g a n d c le a r a bou t t h e e x a ct n atu re o f y o u r a rg u m en t. P re cis io n a n d c la rit y w ill a llo w y o u t o f o cu s o n p re m is e s t h at t r u ly s u pport y o u r p osit io n . P re cis io n is o f th e u tm ost im porta n ce in th e th esis b eca u se e ve n ve ry sim ila r th ese s w ill re q uir e dif fe re n t pre m is e s. B ein g c le ar a b out e xa ctly w hat y o u a re d efe n din g w ill h elp y o u ke ep yo ur arg u m en t str e am lin ed an d fo cu se d on d em onstr a tin g yo ur th esis . Consid er, fo r exa m ple , th ese t h re e s im ila r t h ese s: G ettin g a lu s h ot w ill h elp y o u n ot g et t h e lu . Y o u s h ould g et a lu s h ot. G et a lu s h ot. I n a s e n se , e ach o f th ese th ese s is a im ed a t th e s a m e r e su lt . B ut e ve n t h ough t h ey a re v e ry s im ila r, th ey r e q uir e d if fe re n t p re m is e s. L et u s t a ke a c lo se r lo ok a t e ach . “ G ettin g a lu sh ot w ill h elp y o u to n ot g et th e lu ” is th e n arro w est c a n did ate fo r a th esis o f th e th re e. If th is is y o ur t h esis , a ll y o u n eed to d o is a p peal to s tu die s r e ga rd in g th e e ffe ctiv e n ess o f lu s h ots . F o r t h is th esis , y o u d o n ot n eed to t a lk a b out th e lu s h ot’s c o st, p ote n tia l s id e e ffe cts , o r e ve n a va ila b ilit y . Yo ur cla im is ju st th at lu sh ots re d uce th e c h an ce o f g ettin g t h e lu . Y o u d o n ot n eed t o , a n d s h ould n ot, a d dre ss a n y is su es th at g o b eyo nd th at. T he r e aso n fo r th is is tw ofo ld . F ir st, w rit in g s h ould a lw ay s b e f o cu se d . T his is e sse n tia l f o r c la rit y a n d t o a vo id c o nfu sin g th e r e ad er a b out w hat is b ein g a d dre sse d . In t h e c a se o f a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y s, t h e t h esis s e ts t h e p ara m ete rs f o r w hat w ill b e d is cu sse d in t h e b ody o f t h e e ssa y. S eco nd, th e p re m is e s o ffe r r e aso ns fo r th e th esis . If w e sta rt a d din g re aso ns th at a re n ot d ir e ctly r e le va n t t o t h e t h esis , t h en t h e e ssa y w ill la ck c la rit y a n d w ill f a il t o c o nvin ce t h e r e ad er. “ Y o u s h ould g et a lu s h ot” is a b ro ad er c a n did ate fo r a th esis . T he fa ct th at lu s h ots r e d uce th e c h an ce o f g ettin g th e lu is p art o f w hat y o u w ill w an t to a rg u e, b ut it is n ot e n ough . T o s h ow th at y o ur r e ad er s h ould g et a lu sh ot, y o u n eed to co nsid er th e p ro s a n d co ns o f d oin g so a n d sh ow th at th e p ro s s u bsta n tia lly o utw eig h th e c o ns. H ere it is c rit ic a l to a d dre ss th e is su es o f s id e e ffe cts , c o st, a va ila b ilit y , a n d a n y o th er f a cto rs t h at d ir e ctly b ear o n w heth er g ettin g a lu s h ot is a g o od id ea. Y o u m ay e ve n w an t t o b rin g u p t h e id ea t h at b y r e d ucin g t h e o ve ra ll p re va le n ce o f t h e lu , lu s h ots p ro te ct m ore p eo ple th an j u st t h e p erso n g ettin g t h e s h ot. “ G et a lu s h ot” c ro sse s th e lin e fr o m a n a rg u m en ta tiv e th esis to a p ersu asiv e o ne. A s u cce ssfu l e ssa y w it h t h is th esis w ill m otiv a te th e r e ad er to g et a lu s h ot, r a th er th an s im ply d em onstr a tin g th e b en eit s o f d oin g s o . T hus, th e th esis m ust n ot o nly a d dre ss w hy g ettin g th e s h ot is a g o od id ea, b ut a ls o tr y to t a ck le is su es th at k e ep p eo ple fr o m g ettin g th e s h ots — is su es s u ch a s fe ar, la ck o f tim e, m is in fo rm atio n, o r ju st a p ath y. N otic e th at “ g et a lu s h ot” is n ot a c la im , s o it c a n not fu nctio n a s th e c o nclu sio n o f a n a rg u m en t. In a p ersu asiv e e ssa y y o ur th esis is n ot th e s a m e a s th e c o nclu sio n o f y o ur a rg u m en t; th e a rg u m en t y o u d eve lo p is ju st p art o f h ow y o u d eve lo p y o ur th esis . If y o u in d y o urse lf te m pte d to u se a t h esis th at c a lls fo r a ctio n in a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y, tr y to r e fo rm ula te th e th esis a s o ne th at c o uld b e t h e c o nclu sio n o f a n a rg u m en t in th e s ta n dard fo rm . Y o u c a n th en c o nstr u ct a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y fo r t h is n ew t h esis a n d t h en a d d m otiv a tio nal e le m en ts t o it . A s y o u c a n s e e, f o rm in g y o ur t h esis c le arly is a k e y p art o f w rit in g a s u cce ssfu l e ssa y. T he a rg u m en t y o u b uild in y o ur e ssa y m ust b e t ig h tly a im ed a t s u pportin g it s c o nclu sio n. 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 4 /1 3 T he P re m is e s J u st lik e in th e sta n dard a rg u m en t fo rm , in a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y s th e p re m is e s a re th e re aso ns th at s u pport t h e t h esis . Y o u s h ould s ta rt d eve lo pin g y o ur p re m is e s b y lis tin g a fe w o f y o ur m ain r e aso ns fo r y o ur c o nclu sio n. T he b est w ay t o d o t h is is to p ut y o ur th esis in th e fo rm o f a q uestio n. F o r o ur lu s h ot t h esis , t h at q uestio n c o uld b e: W hy s h ould y o ur r e ad er g et a lu s h ot? S u ppose t h at y o u c o m e u p w it h t h re e r e aso ns: I t w ill h elp p re ve n t y o ur r e ad er f r o m g ettin g t h e lu , it w ill h elp k e ep o th ers fr o m g ettin g th e lu , a n d lu s h ots a re c h eap . W e c a n n ow a sse m ble th e a rg u m en t b y p uttin g t h ese t h re e r e aso ns a s p re m is e s in t h e in ve rte d s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm , a lo ng w it h t h e t h esis : T hesis : Y o u s h ould g et a lu s h ot. P re m is e 1 : G ettin g a lu s h ot w ill h elp k e ep y o u f r o m g ettin g t h e lu . P re m is e 2 : G ettin g a lu s h ot w ill a ls o h elp p ro te ct o th ers f r o m t h e lu . P re m is e 3 : F lu s h ots a re c h eap . I n s k e tc h in g t h e b asic p re m is e s o f y o ur a rg u m en t, y o u h ave a u to m atic a lly d eve lo ped th e b asic s tr u ctu re o r s k e le to n o f y o ur a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y. T his is b ette r t h an s ta rtin g w it h o ne v a gu e id ea a n d th en le ttin g y o ur t h ough ts lo w f r e ely a n d a im le ssly . T he p re m is e s o f y o ur a rg u m en t n ow in dic a te m ajo r se ctio ns o f y o ur e ssa y. A cco rd in gly , th ey sh ould a p pear a s t h e le ad in g s e n te n ce s f o r t h eir r e sp ectiv e s e ctio ns. I f y o ur e ssa y is s h ort, e ach p re m is e w ill b e t h e t o pic s e n te n ce f o r a p ara gra p h. I f y o ur e ssa y is lo ng, e ach p re m is e w ill fu nctio n a s a th esis s ta te m en t f o r it s s e ctio n. W hen y o u a re w rit in g a n e ssa y lo nger th an ju st a fe w p ara gra p hs, y o u c a n r e p eat th e p ro ce ss, a sk in g w hat r e aso ns t h ere a re fo r a cce p tin g e ach o f th e p re m is e s. O nce y o u g iv e th e r e aso ns w hy a p re m is e is t r u e, y o u w ill h ave th e m akin gs o f a n ew a rg u m en t fo r th e p re m is e in q uestio n. T hat is , y o u c re ate a n a rg u m en t w hose c o nclu sio n is o ne o f t h e p re m is e s o f y o ur o rig in al a rg u m en t. S u ch a rg u m en ts a re c a lle d s u barg u m en ts o r s e co n dary a rg u m en ts .
T he c o nclu sio n o f a s e co ndary a rg u m en t, b ein g a p re m is e o f t h e o rig in al a rg u m en t, is c a lle d a s u bco n clu sio n o r s e co n dary t h esis .
A s e co ndary th esis is n ot th e m ain t h esis o f y o ur p ap er, b ut it is th e th esis o f a s e co ndary a rg u m en t s u pportin g a p re m is e o f y o ur m ain a rg u m en t. W it h th e in clu sio n o f s e co ndary a rg u m en ts , a fu lle r d efe n se o f y o ur th esis a b out lu sh ots m ig h t lo ok lik e t h is : Y o u s h ould g et a lu s h ot. ( M ain t h esis ) G ettin g a lu s h ot w ill h elp k e ep y o u f r o m g ettin g t h e lu . ( P re m is e /se co ndary t h esis ) F lu v a ccin es c re ate a n im mune r e sp onse t h at d eve lo ps a n tib odie s a ga in st t h e lu . P eo ple w it h t h e r ig h t a n tib odie s a re le ss lik e ly t o s u ffe r f r o m a d is e ase . S tu die s s h ow t h at p eo ple w ho h ave h ad t h e lu s h ot a re le ss lik e ly t o g et t h e lu . G ettin g a lu s h ot a ls o h elp s p ro te ct o th ers f r o m g ettin g t h e lu . ( P re m is e /se co ndary t h esis ) F lu is t r a n sm it te d f r o m p erso n t o p erso n. T he f e w er in fe cte d p eo ple s o m eo ne is e x p ose d t o , t h e lo w er h is o r h er c h an ce o f g ettin g i n fe cte d . 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 5 /1 3 F lu s h ots a re c h eap . ( P re m is e /se co ndary t h esis ) F lu s h ots n orm ally c o st a b out $ 1 0. S o m e p la ce s o ffe r f r e e lu s h ots . M ed ic in e f o r t h e lu is m ore e x p en siv e t h an t h e s h ot. T his c o m ple x a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y s tr u ctu re n ow p ro vid es a s k e le to n fo r a m uch lo nger e ssa y. T here is m ore to d o, o f c o urse , b ut b y s ta rtin g w it h a s tr u ctu re fo r y o ur a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y, y o u e n su re th at y o ur e ssa y is w ell o rg a n iz e d a n d f o cu se d o n it s t h esis . P ra ctic e P ro b le m s 9 .1 C lic k h ere ( h ttp s:/ /n e.e d gecastc d n.n et/ 0 004B A /co n ste lla tio n/P D Fs/ P H I1 03_2 e/A nsw ers_P ra ctic e P ro ble m s9 .1 .p df) t o c h eck y o u r a n sw ers. 1 . W hic h o f t h e f o llo w in g is a d if fe re n ce b etw een t h e s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm a n d t h at o f t h e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y ? a . I n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y f o rm t h e c o nclu sio n is p re se n te d la st, w here as s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm d oes n ot p re se n t a c o nclu sio n. b . S ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm in clu des p re m is e s, w here as a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y f o rm d oes n ot. c . I n s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm t h e c o nclu sio n is a t t h e e n d o f t h e a rg u m en t, w here as i n e ssa y f o rm t h e c o nclu sio n is p re se n te d a t t h e b egin nin g. d . T he c o nclu sio n in s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm is g en era lly s tr o nger t h an t h e c o nclu sio n in a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y f o rm . 2 . Y o u a re w rit in g a p ap er a b out t h e e ffe ctiv e n ess o f f o r‐p ro it e d uca tio n. Y o u c la im in y o ur p ap er t h at “ fo r‐p ro it e d uca tio n p ro vid es a n e q ually r ig o ro us a ca d em ic e x p erie n ce a s t h at o f n onpro it e d uca tio n.” T his s ta te m en t w ould b e w hic h p art o f t h e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y ? a . t h esis b . s u pport c . s e co ndary a rg u m en t d . s ta n dard f o rm a rg u m en t e . p ro ble m 3 . Y o u a re w rit in g a p ap er in w hic h y o u c la im m in or d ru g o ffe n se s s h ould n ot r e su lt in p ris o n s e n te n ce s b ut in ja il t im e a n d r e h ab ilit a tio n. I n t h e p ap er, y o u m ake t h e c la im t h at “ a n a rtic le in c o nte m pora ry c rim in olo gy d em onstr a te s t h at p la cin g p etty c rim in als in to p ris o n f o r s m all c rim es le ad s t h ose p eo ple t o b eco m e h ard en ed c rim in als d ue t o t h e c o ndit io ns in t h ose p ris o ns.” T his s ta te m en t w ould b e w hic h p art o f t h e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y ? a . t h esis b . s u pport c . s e co ndary a rg u m en t d . s ta n dard f o rm a rg u m en t 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 6 /1 3 e . p ro ble m 4 . Y o u a re c re atin g a n a rg u m en t t h at p eo ple in a flu en t c o untr ie s h ave a d uty t o a id t h ose w ho a re s ta rv in g o r d yin g f r o m t r e ata b le illn ess in o th er c o untr ie s. W hic h o f t h e f o llo w in g b est r e p re se n ts t h e p ro ble m t h at is b ein g a d dre sse d h ere ? a . H elp in g o th ers is im porta n t, e sp ecia lly w hen s o m e h ave m ore t h an o th ers. b . T hose w ho d o n ot h elp o th ers a re m ora lly in ep t. c . T he p ro ble m is w heth er o r n ot p eo ple liv e in t h e U nit e d S ta te s o r a p la ce w here p eo ple a re p oor. d . T he p ro ble m is w heth er o r n ot p eo ple m ust h elp o th ers w hen t h ey h ave m ore r e so urc e s. 5 . Y o u a re c re atin g a n a rg u m en t a b out w heth er o r n ot p orn ogra p hy is h ealt h y o r h arm fu l f o r p eo ple t o v ie w . W hic h o f t h e f o llo w in g w ould b e t h e b est t h esis f o r a f o rm al p ap er ( th ough y o u m ig h t n ot a gre e w it h it ) ? a . P o rn ogra p hy is e v il a n d w ill le ad t o t h e d egra d atio n o f s o cie ty . b . P eo ple w ho w atc h p orn ogra p hy a re p ed ophile s. c . P o rn ogra p hy is e n jo ya b le f o r t h ose w ho v ie w it . d . P o rn ogra p hy is h arm fu l b eca u se it d is to rts im ages o f f e m ale s e xu alit y . e . P o rn ogra p hy is h arm fu l b eca u se p eo ple ’s c h ild re n c a n v ie w it . 6 . W hic h is a s e co ndary t h esis t h at r e la te s t o t h e p rim ary t h esis t h at “ c it iz e n s n eed t o b eco m e le ss r e lia n t o n o il” ? a . I n sta llin g la rg e‐s ca le s o la r f a rm s c a n h elp f u el t h e e n erg y n eed s o f la rg e c it ie s. b . F in din g m ore o il r e se rv e s w ill p ro vid e e n erg y f o r t h e f u tu re . c . F arm in g t e ch niq ues c o ntin ue t o im pro ve . d . P la n tin g t r e es c a n c o ntr ib ute t o m ore o xyg en p ro ductio n. 7 . W hic h is a p rim ary t h esis t h at r e la te s t o t h e s e co ndary t h esis t h at “ th ere m ust b e m ore e x p lo ra tio n o f o il r e se rv e s in t h e o ce an s”? a . F in din g m ore o il r e se rv e s in m ounta in ous r e gio ns w ill p ro vid e e n erg y f o r f u tu re g en era tio ns. b . T he I n dia n O ce an is la rg ely u nex p lo re d . c . I n o rd er t o m ain ta in c u rre n t e n erg y u sa ge, t h ere n eed t o b e f u nds in ve ste d in in din g n ew r e se rv e s o f o il. d . U sin g e le ctr ic a n d h yb rid v e h ic le s w ill a llo w s o cie ty t o m ove a w ay f r o m u sin g o il a s a n e n erg y s o urc e . 8 . W hic h is a s e co ndary t h esis t h at r e la te s t o t h e p rim ary t h esis t h at “ it s h ould b e ille ga l f o r c e ll p hone c o m pan ie s t o t r a ck t h e lo ca tio ns o f t h eir u se rs w it h out c o nse n t” ? a . T he g o ve rn m en t s h ould n ot b e a llo w ed t o m onit o r it s c it iz e n s. b . T here a re n ew t e ch nolo gic a l c a p ab ilit ie s o f la rg e‐s ca le I n te rn et a n d p hone p ro vid ers. c . T here a re m an y p ro vid ers, a n d o ne s h ould s h op a ro und t o in d t h e r ig h t p ro vid er. d . T he in fo rm atio n g a th ere d f r o m t r a ck in g c o nsu m ers c o uld f a ll in to t h e w ro ng h an ds. 9 . W hic h is a p rim ary t h esis t h at r e la te s t o t h e s e co ndary t h esis t h at “ h um an t r a fic k in g t u rn s t h e h um an in to a p ie ce o f p ro perty ”? a . T u rn in g a p erso n in to a p ie ce o f p ro perty n ega te s t h eir p erso nhood. 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 7 /1 3 b . H um an t r a fic k in g b etw een M ex ic o a n d t h e U nit e d S ta te s is m ora lly w ro ng. c . P ro perty r ig h ts e x is t in m ost c o untr ie s. d . U su ally w om en a re t h e v ic tim s o f h um an t r a fic k in g. 1 0 . W hic h is a s e co ndary t h esis t h at r e la te s t o t h e p rim ary t h esis t h at “ s e x e d uca tio n in p ublic s ch ools s h ould t a ke a m ore p ro m in en t r o le in a d ole sce n t e d uca tio n”? a . W it h t h e in cre ase d a va ila b ilit y o f s e xu ally e x p lic it m ate ria ls a n d m ed ia t h at p ro vid e a ve n ues f o r s e xu al a ctiv it y , it is im porta n t t h at k id s u ndersta n d m ore a b out s e xu al a ctiv it y . b . T e ach in g c h ild re n a b out f o rm s o f s a fe r s e x w ill e n co ura ge t h em t o e n ga ge in s u ch a ctiv it ie s. c . F u ndin g f o r t h e a rts , m usic , a n d o th er f o rm s o f s tu dy is b ein g lo st, a n d le gis la to rs n eed t o in cre ase t h e a va ila b ilit y o f f u nds f o r t h ese a ctiv it ie s. d . T here a re s o m e a re as o f p ublic e d uca tio n t h at n eed t o b e r e v is it e d a n d e n han ce d f o r t h e c u rre n t g en era tio n o f h ig h s ch ool s tu den ts . 1 1 . W hic h is a p rim ary t h esis t h at r e la te s t o t h e s e co ndary t h esis t h at “ w om en s h ould b e a llo w ed t o e n ga ge in c o m bat in w ar e n vir o nm en ts ”? a . T he r ig h ts o f w om en n eed t o e x te n d b eyo nd w hat h ave b een t h e t r a d it io nally d ein ed r o le s. b . M an y w om en a re c a p ab le o f ig h tin g in w ar. c . M an y w om en d esir e t o s e rv e t h eir c o untr ie s b y p artic ip atin g in a ctiv e m ilit a ry e n ga gem en t. d . N ot t o a llo w w om en t o t a ke p art in b attle e ffe ctiv e ly m ean s t h at o ne is c u ttin g o ut s tr o ng s o ld ie rs f r o m o ve r 5 0% o f t h e p opula tio n. 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 8 /1 3 d m ark /iS to ck /T hin ksto ck A s y o u r e v ie w y o u r a rg u m en t, y o u s h ou ld e va lu ate t h e c la rit y o f y o u r p re m is e s. C an t h ey b e e a sily m is u ndersto od ? A re t h e d e鬉in it io n s o f t e rm s t h at a re u se d w id ely a cce p te d ? F u rth er e la bora tio n i n s u pport o f y o u r p re m is e s m ay b e r e q u ir e d . 9 .2 S tr e n gth en in g t h e A rg u m en ta tiv e E ssa y W it h th e b asic o utlin e o f y o ur a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y in p la ce , y o u c a n n ow tu rn to s tr e n gth en in g y o ur a rg u m en t u sin g s u pport a n d a d dre ssin g o bje ctio ns t o y o ur a rg u m en t. C la ri鬉ic a tio n a n d S u pport I f y o u h ave fo llo w ed th e p ro ce ss o utlin ed th us fa r, y o u s h ould h ave a n in tr o ducto ry p ara gra p h w it h a t h esis a n d a s e rie s o f to pic s e n te n ce s fo r th e p ara gra p hs o f th e b ody o f y o ur e ssa y. T he n ex t s te p is to w rit e t h e p ara gra p h t h at g o es w it h t h e t o pic s e n te n ce . Y o u m ay n eed t o e x p la in w hat th e p re m is e m ean s, a n d y o u w ill d ein it e ly n eed to p ro vid e so m e re aso n fo r th in kin g it is tr u e. W hen yo u w ro te yo ur a rg u m en t in s ta n dard fo rm , y o u k n ew w hat y o u m ean t b y e ach c la im . H ow eve r, y o ur m ean in g m ay n ot b e a s o bvio us t o y o ur r e ad er a s it is t o y o u. I t is y o ur jo b, th ere fo re , to c la rif y y o ur p re m is e , s p ellin g o ut i t s m ean in g an d im plic a tio ns. A s yo u re ad each pre m is e , tr y to th in k of w ay s th at it m ig h t be m is u ndersto od. Im agin e s o m eo ne o bje ctin g to it : W hat g ro unds co uld th ey h ave fo r d oin g so ? W hat g ro unds c a n y o u o ffe r f o r a cce p tin g it ? T hese a re t h in gs y o u w ill w an t t o a d dre ss in t h e p ara gra p h. C onsid er th e th ir d p re m is e fr o m o ur arg u m en t ab out lu v a ccin es: “ F lu s h ots a re c h eap .” T hat s e em s s im ple e n ough , r ig h t? B ut w hat d o w e m ean b y “c h eap ”? S o m etim es c h eap m ean s in ex p en siv e , b ut so m etim es it m ean s p oorly m ad e. W e m ean in ex p en siv e , b ut it is n ot cle ar h ow in ex p en siv e s o m eth in g h as to b e to b e co unte d a s ch eap . If y o u th in k t h at th ere is a possib ilit y th at yo ur re ad er m ay not u ndersta n d p re cis e ly w hat y o u m ean , u se a s e n te n ce o r tw o t o ela b ora te . Fo r exa m ple , yo u m ig h t sa y, “A lt h ough lu v a ccin es a re c a re fu lly c o nstr u cte d , th ey a re n ot e x p en siv e ” i n o rd er t o le t y o ur r e ad er k n ow w hat y o u m ean b y “ c h eap .” Y o u c a n a ls o c la rif y th e p re m is e b y th e w ay in w hic h y o u p ro vid e s u pport. A s y o u d eve lo p y o ur r e aso ns fo r a cce p tin g e ach p re m is e , y o ur r e ad er g a in s a c le are r id ea o f w hat y o u t a ke th e p re m is e to m ean . O fte n , su pport ap pears in th e f o rm o f a s tu dy o r so m e ty p e o f e m pir ic a l d ata . H ow eve r, w hen o ffe rin g e m pir ic a l d ata a s s u pport in y o ur e ssa y, it is i m porta n t to re m em ber th at e ve n e m pir ic a l d ata m ust b e i n te rp re te d a n d s u pporte d , e sp ecia lly if th ey a re lik e ly to b e u nfa m ilia r t o t h e r e ad er o r a re o nly c o rre la tio nal. A s w e le arn ed in C hap te r 5 , c o rre la tio ns d o n ot o ffe r p ro of fo r c a u sa l c la im s. In th e c a se o f e m pir ic a l d ata , c a re m ust b e ta ke n to d ra w o nly fr o m re lia b le s o urc e s. ( S ee C hap te r 8 fo r a d is cu ssio n o n h ow to id en tif y a r e lia b le s o urc e .) O f c o urse , y o u a lr e ad y k n ow th at y o u n eed to s e ek r e lia b le s o urc e s a t a ll tim es, b ut u nju sti ie d o r n ot, s ta tis tic a lly s ig n i ic a n t e m pir ic a l d ata c a n e asily b e m ad e t o f a ls e ly a p pear a s s cie n ti ic a lly s o und, s o b e e sp ecia lly c a u tio us. A c o m mon m is ta ke is t o t h in k t h at s tu die s a n d e m pir ic a l d ata a re t h e o nly a cce p te d fo rm s o f s u pport fo r a p re m is e . W hile th ese a re im porta n t ty p es o f s u pport, th ere a re m an y o th ers. F o r e xa m ple , c o m monly h eld b elie fs c a n b e u se d a s s u pport if y o u h ave g o od r e aso n t o t h in k t h at y o ur r e ad er w ill a cce p t t h em a s t r u e. B eca u se th e g o al is to s h ow y o ur r e ad er th at y o ur p re m is e is tr u e o r p la u sib le , if y o u c a n u se a b elie f th at y o ur re ad er a lr e ad y h old s, th en y o u a re o ff to a go od sta rt. Yo u m ust b e ca re fu l h ere , h ow eve r. A b elie f th at s e em s o bvio usly tr u e to y o u m ay s e em o bvio usly fa ls e to y o ur r e ad er. If y o u a re 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 9 /1 3 n ot c o m ple te ly s u re t h at y o ur r e ad er w ill a gre e, it is b est to a ls o c it e a r e lia b le s o urc e in s u pport o f th e b elie f.
M an y tim es th e s u pport y o u o ffe r w ill a p peal to th eo rie s o r e ve n b ro ad v ie w s a b out th e w orld . F o r e xa m ple , a b ortio n d eb ate s o fte n c e n te r o n th e q uestio n o f w heth er a b ortio ns a m ount to m urd er— th e u nju sti ie d k illin g o f a n in noce n t p erso n. A lt h ough it is e asy to s h ow th at a b ortio ns in vo lv e k illin g a n d t h at th e fe tu s w ho is k ille d is in noce n t, it is m uch m ore d if ic u lt to s h ow th at th e k illin g is u nju sti ie d o r t h at th e fe tu s is a fu ll p erso n in th e le ga l a n d m ora l s e n se s o f th e te rm . O ne c a n not ju st d o a s cie n ti ic s tu dy o n th ese m atte rs, b eca u se th e cla im s a re n ot scie n ti ic in n atu re . To p ro vid e su pport fo r th e p re m is e th at a b ortio ns in vo lv e u nju sti ie d k illin g, y o u w ill n eed to a p peal to so m e th eo ry o r v ie w o n w hat m ake s s o m e k illin gs ju sti ie d w hile o th ers a re n ot. T he b est th in g to d o is to r e se arc h w hat h as b een a lr e ad y a d va n ce d in t h e r e le va n t a re a o f k n ow le d ge. A s w e h ave s e en , m ora l p ro ble m s d em an d a n e xa m in atio n o f e th ic a l th eo rie s. T he s a m e a p plie s to r e se arc h in o th er s u bje cts . If w e w an t to s u pport a p re m is e p erta in in g to th e g lo bal w arm in g d eb ate , th en w e s h ould u se in fo rm atio n fr o m th e re se arc h s u rro undin g c lim ate c h an ge. D ein it io ns c a n a ls o p ro vid e s u pport f o r a n d c la ri ic a tio n o f th e p re m is e s o f y o ur a rg u m en t. C la im s s u ch a s “ e ve ry o ne d ese rv e s t o d ie w it h d ig n it y ” o r “ a b ortio n is a w om an ’s r ig h t” d ep en d o n ju st w hat is m ean t b y th e te rm s d ig n it y a n d r ig ht , r e sp ectiv e ly . S o m e te rm s m ay n ot h ave a n a cce p te d d ein it io n e ve n if w e k n ow w hat t h ey m ean . M ost p eo ple , fo r e xa m ple , in d th e w ord m usic d if ic u lt to d ein e, d esp it e th e fa ct t h at it is a w ord w e a ll u ndersta n d a n d m ay, in f a ct, u se e ve ry d ay. T here fo re , p ro vid in g a c le ar d ein it io n o f m usic m ig h t b e a n im porta n t s te p in s u pportin g a p re m is e a b out m usic . K eep in m in d t h at ju st b ein g f a m ilia r w it h a te rm is n ot id en tic a l w it h b ein g a b le to d ein e it . N eit h er is a d ic tio nary t h e b est s o urc e f o r m ore t e ch nic a l d ein it io ns in a n a rg u m en t. D ic tio narie s r e p ort o n c o m mon u sa ge b ut d o n ot n ece ssa rily d escrib e h ow te rm s m ig h t b e u se d in s p eci ic ie ld s o r d eb ate s. E ve n w hen a te rm is n ot b ein g u se d in a te ch nic a l s e n se , a d ic tio nary is le ss lik e ly to s e ttle a d is p ute in vo lv in g th e t e rm . Im agin e tw o p eo ple a rg u in g a b out w heth er a c e rta in p ie ce o f g ra fit i is a rt. In o rd er to s u pport t h eir c la im s, th ey w ill n eed to d ein e w hat e ach m ean s b y th e te rm a rt .
H ow eve r, ju st lo okin g it u p in a d ic tio nary is u nlik e ly to se ttle th e d is p ute . In ste ad , th ey w ould b e b ette r o ff co nsu lt in g a re le va n t t e ch nic a l e n cy clo ped ia — su ch a s th e S ta n fo rd E ncyclo ped ia o f P hilo so phy , w hic h d ein es a b str a ct te rm s s u ch a s r e a lit y , j u stic e , m ora lit y , m usic , a n d s o o n— or r e fe re ed a rtic le s in s ch ola rly jo urn als th at p re se n t d eve lo ped d ein it io ns. T his is n ot a n e x h au stiv e a cco unt o f t h e f o rm s t h at s u pport m ay t a ke . A nyth in g t h at c a n b e a g o od r e aso n f o r acce p tin g a cla im ca n b e u se d to su pport th e cla im . T he kin d o f su pport yo u ch oose w ill be d ete rm in ed b y th e c la im y o u a re s u pportin g a n d b y w hat y o u k n ow o f y o ur r e ad er. F o r e ach p re m is e , a sk y o urse lf w hat g o od r e aso n y o u c a n o ffe r y o ur r e ad er f o r a gre ein g w it h th e p re m is e . D o y o u n eed to p ro vid e e m pir ic a l d ata , a d dre ss y o ur r e ad er’s b elie fs , in clu de b ack g ro und th eo rie s, o ffe r d ein it io ns, o r s o m eth in g e ls e ? A s y o u m ig h t g u ess, th is o fte n in vo lv e s fo rm in g a s o rt o f m in i a rg u m en t in s u pport o f t h e t o pic s e n te n ce . A pply in g w hat w e h ave le arn ed a b out a rg u m en ts c a n h elp y o u c h oose s tr o ng s u pport f o r y o ur c la im s. T he O bje ctio n T he o bje ctio n is th e m ost d am agin g c rit ic is m th at c a n b e a d va n ce d a ga in st y o ur o w n th esis . In lo nger a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y s, it m ig h t b e n ece ssa ry to a d dre ss m ore th an o ne o bje ctio n. B ut in a n y a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y, y o u w ill n eed to p ro pose a t le ast o ne o bje ctio n. W hy is th is n ece ssa ry, g iv e n th at it 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np … 1 0/1 3 j g ro up/iS to ck /T hin ksto ck O ft e n t h ere i s m ore t o t h e t r u th t h an w hat w e c a n s e e, w hat w e k n ow , o r w hat i s f a m ilia r t o u s. I t i s t h us i m porta n t t o c o n sid er t h e v ie w s o f o th ers, e sp ecia lly i f t h ese p re se n t o bje ctio n s t o o u rs, b eca u se w e a lw ays h ave s o m eth in g n ew t o l e a rn . I f s u ch o bje ctio n s d o n ot d estr o y o u r a rg u m en t, t h en w e c a n p ro ce ed w it h a w ell‐r e se a rc h ed r e b u tta l. s o unds co ntr a d ic to ry to y o ur p urp ose ? A ctu ally , b ein g a b le to p re se n t a d am agin g obje ctio n an d a su cce ssfu l re b utta l is a pow erfu l way to d em onstr a te t h e u nassa ila b ilit y o f y o ur t h esis . P re se n tin g a n o bje ctio n s h ow s y o ur r e ad er t h at y o u a re a w are o f b oth s id es o f t h e is su e, a n d t h is a d ds c re d ib ilit y t o y o ur p re se n ta tio n. F o r t h is r e aso n, it i s im porta n t t o s e le ct a s tr o ng o bje ctio n a n d t o p re se n t it in a w ay th at ta ke s t h e o bje ctio n s e rio usly . I f y o u p re se n t a w eak o bje ctio n, o r if y o u p re se n t a n o bje ctio n in a w ay th at se em s n ot to ta ke it se rio usly , th en y o u g iv e th e i m pre ssio n t h at y o ur o w n c o nclu sio n is n ot b ase d o n a n e ve n e va lu atio n o f a ll th e re le va n t fa cto rs. Y o u a ls o m ay e n d u p co m mit tin g th e str a w m an f a lla cy. (S ee C hap te r 7 fo r a r e v ie w o f th e s tr a w m an fa lla cy.) In o rd er to a vo id th is im pre ssio n, y o u m ust b eco m e v e ry fa m ilia r w it h y o ur to pic b y m ean s o f y o ur r e se arc h o n t h e s u bje ct. T his in clu des n ot o nly lit e ra tu re th at s u pports y o ur v ie w , b ut a ls o lit e ra tu re t h at c h alle n ges it . M ora l o f t h e S to ry :
T he O bje ctio n A lw ay s p re se n t a t le ast o ne s tr o ng o bje ctio n t o y o ur t h esis . D oin g s o s h ow s t h at y o u a re k n ow le d geab le a b out y o ur s u bje ct a n d c a re m ore f o r in din g t h e t r u th a b out it t h an m ere ly p ro m otin g y o ur o w n v ie w . T he R eb utta l T he r e b utta l is th e s e ctio n in y o ur e ssa y in w hic h y o u r e sp ond to th e o bje ctio n(s ) p re se n te d . T o fa il to a d dre ss th e c o ntr a ry c la im (th at is , th e o bje ctio n) a m ounts to c o m mit tin g th e r e d h errin g fa lla cy. (S ee C hap te r 7 f o r a r e v ie w o f t h e r e d h errin g fa lla cy.) Y o ur g o al s h ould b e to a d va n ce a s tr o ng r e b utta l, a n d i t m ust a tte m pt to o ve rc o m e th e o bje ctio n. Y o u ca n not b e tim id in re b uttin g a n o bje ctio n th at co uld d estr o y y o ur a rg u m en t. I n a d dit io n, y o u h ave t o p ro vid e s u pport f o r y o ur r e b utta l. H ow eve r, s u ppose y o u in d th at, tr y a s y o u m ig h t, y o u a re n ot c a p ab le o f c o m in g u p w it h a d efe n sib le r e b utta l. S h ould th is h ap pen , y o u m ig h t h ave to s ta rt a n ew . T he ir st s te p w ill b e to r e th in k y o ur th esis a n d y o ur p osit io n in t h e a rg u m en t in g en era l. A fte r a d dit io nal t h oro ugh r e se arc h o n t h e s u bje ct, y o u w ill 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np= … 1 1 /1 3 b e in a n e ve n b ette r p osit io n t o r e exa m in e y o ur p osit io n b eca u se y o u w ill b e b ette r in fo rm ed th an w hen y o u ir st s ta rte d . D o n ot b e a fr a id , th ough . T ru e b elie fs w ill s ta n d s cru tin y. Y e t a s a c rit ic a l th in ke r, y o u m ay in d t h at o ne o r m ore o f y o ur b elie fs a re n ot d efe n sib le . O r y o u m ay in d th at th e o pposit io n is to o d au ntin g to m atc h . T here is n o s h am e in th is . W e a re a ll m is ta ke n a b out o ne th in g o r a n oth er a t s o m e p oin t in o ur liv e s. A ck n ow le d gin g w hen a n o bje ctio n c a n not b e o ve rc o m e is in deed a n e x p re ssio n o f a n e xa m in ed lif e a n d, a s S o cra te s s ta te d , o nly a n e xa m in ed lif e is w orth liv in g. I f y o u in d y o urse lf in a s it u atio n in w hic h y o u c a n not o ve rc o m e a n o bje ctio n, o ne r e sp onse is to a cce p t d efe at a n d c h an ge y o ur a rg u m en t in r e sp onse to th e g o od o bje ctio n. In th is c a se y o u th en r e p eat th e p ro ce ss o f c o nsid erin g o bje ctio ns t o t h e n ew v e rsio n o f y o ur a rg u m en t u ntil y o u h ave a v e rsio n th at c a n w it h sta n d it s s tr o ngest o bje ctio ns. T his r e v is e d a rg u m en t th en s e rv e s a s th e b asis fo r re w rit in g y o ur e ssa y. A noth er p ossib ilit y is t o h old t o y o ur r e aso nin g w hile a ck n ow le d gin g t h e s tr e n gth o f th e o bje ctio n. I n th is c a se y o u c a n a ck n ow le d ge g o od o bje ctio ns w it h in y o ur e ssa y w hile m akin g a c a se fo r y o ur o w n i n te rp re ta tio n of th e ev id en ce fo r yo ur co nclu sio n. This kin d of in te lle ctu al hum ilit y ca n actu ally d em onstr a te th at y o ur g o al is n ot ju st to b e r ig h t, b ut to in d th e tr u th . E it h er w ay, y o u w in in te rm s o f w is d om a n d n ot lo sin g s ig h t o f t h e f u ndam en ta l im porta n ce o f s e ekin g t r u th . C lo sin g Y o u r E ssa y O nce y o u h ave d em onstr a te d y o ur th esis , h ow s h ould y o u c lo se y o ur e ssa y ? It is a c o m mon m is ta ke b y m an y w rit e rs to a ssu m e th at th e c lo sin g o f a n y e ssa y, a rg u m en ta tiv e o r o th erw is e , is a s u m matio n o f w hat w as p re se n te d in th e e ssa y fr o m b egin nin g to e n d. T he s tr a te gy o f c lo sin g a n e ssa y w it h s u ch a s u m matio n is n ot o nly a lit tle b orin g fo r th e r e ad er; it a ls o m is se s th e p oin t o f th e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y. I n a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y o nce th e th esis h as b een d em onstr a te d b y m ean s o f p re m is e s a n d s u pport, t h e jo b is d one. T here is n o n eed t o r e p eat h ow t h e t h esis w as d em onstr a te d . C onsid er t h e f o llo w in g e xa m ple : I n c o nclu sio n, I h ave m en tio ned th e fo llo w in g fa cts a b out m y lif e . T e n y e ars a go , I w ould h ave n eve r b elie ve d th at I w ould b e liv in g in th e U nit e d S ta te s a n d c o m munic a tin g in E nglis h o n a d aily b asis . I c o uld n ot h ave im agin ed th at I w ould b e in u niv e rsit y , m uch le ss d oin g s ch ola rly r e se arc h a n d w rit in g in E nglis h . B ut h ere I a m , w rit in g th is p ap er fo r m y ir st c la ss. A s I h ave a ls o m en tio ned , I a m d ecla rin g a n E nglis h m ajo r, a n d tim e w ill te ll h ow fa r m y s tu die s w ill ta ke m e. T he en din g, no doubt, has a ch arm in g se n tim en t. It is not, how eve r, a pro per en din g fo r an a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y o r p erh ap s fo r m ost e ssa y s. S o m e e xce p tio ns m ig h t in clu de a u niv e rsit y le ctu re , in w hic h it w ould b e im porta n t to r e p eat th e p oin ts c o ve re d o r o th erw is e re v ie w in str u ctio nal m ate ria l. N otic e , h ow eve r, th at if w e re p la ce th e w ord c o n clu sio n in th e q uote w it h th e w ord s u m mary , th e m ean in g d oes n ot c h an ge. T his r e ve als th at th e w ord c o n clu sio n is e m plo ye d to m ean s u m mary in th is c a se .
B ew are o f c o nfu sin g t h e w ord c o n clu sio n in t h is c o nte x t w it h th e w ord c o n clu sio n a s e m plo ye d in a l o gic a l a rg u m en t. H ere th e w ord c o n clu sio n r e fe rs to th e c lo sin g o f th e e ssa y. In th e s ta n dard a rg u m en t f o rm , t h e w ord c o n clu sio n is t h e e q uiv a le n t o f t h e t h esis in th e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y. T he th in g to k e ep in m in d is t h at a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y s d o n ot n eed s u m marie s t o c lo se . A rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y s d o n ot n eed le n gth y clo sin gs, e it h er. A h an dfu l o f se n te n ce s th at p re se n t y o ur r e le ctio ns o f w hat th e e ssa y h as a tte m pte d to a cco m plis h w ill d o th e jo b. Y o u c a n e x p la in , fo r e xa m ple , h ow th e th esis w ould m ake a c h an ge in th e p ro ble m th at y o u la id o ut in th e in tr o ductio n, p ro pose th e d ir e ctio n in w hic h th e th esis c o uld b e ta ke n , o r c o nsid er th e a d dit io nal r e se arc h o r w ork th at w ould b e 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np … 1 2/1 3 n ece ssa ry t o c o m e c lo se r to s o lv in g th e p ro ble m . A bove a ll, n eve r a d d n ew in fo rm atio n th at m ay th ro w a d dit io nal lig h t o n th e p ro ble m o r th e th esis th at yo u are d efe n din g, fo r th is w ill w eake n a go od a rg u m en t b y b eggin g t h e q uestio n. ( S ee C hap te r 7 fo r a r e v ie w o f th e b eggin g‐th e‐q uestio n fa lla cy.) Y o u m ust s ta te a ll t h at y o u h ave t o s a y in d efe n se o f y o ur t h esis in t h e b ody o f y o ur e ssa y. T he e n din g s h ould a tte m pt o nly t o c a st a p osit iv e lig h t o n y o ur c o ntr ib utio n in v e ry b ro ad s tr o ke s. P ra ctic e P ro b le m s 9 .2 C lic k h ere ( h ttp s:/ /n e.e d gecastc d n.n et/ 0 004B A /co n ste lla tio n/P D Fs/ P H I1 03_2 e/A nsw ers_P ra ctic e P ro ble m s9 .2 .p df) t o c h eck y o u r a n sw ers. 1 . I f y o u a re w rit in g a p ap er a b out t h e le ga lit y o f im mig ra tio n a n d y o u a re a rg u in g t h at i m mig ra tio n la w s s h ould b e r e la xe d in t h is c o untr y s u ch t h at ille ga l im mig ra n ts s h ould n ot b e d ep orte d , t h e p ortio n o f t h e p ap er w here y o u c it e a w ell‐ k n ow n e co nom is t w ho o utlin es t h e c o sts in h ealt h c a re a n d a id o f in cre ase d im mig ra tio n w ould b e w hic h p art o f t h e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y ? a . t h esis b . s u pport c . p re m is e s d . o bje ctio n e . r e b utta l 2 . Y o u a re w rit in g a p ap er in w hic h y o u c la im m in or d ru g o ffe n se s s h ould n ot r e su lt in p ris o n s e n te n ce s b ut in ja il t im e a n d r e h ab ilit a tio n. Y o u f u rth er e x p la in t h e c la im b y s ta tin g, “ S u rv e ys o f c rim in als w it h m in or d ru g c h arg es in dic a te d t h at 7 0% o f t h em h ad t o c o m mit e ve n g re ate r c rim es in p ris o n t o m ain ta in t h eir s a fe ty .” T his s ta te m en t w ould b e w hic h p art o f t h e a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y ? a . t h esis b . p re m is e c . s u pport d . r e b utta l e . p ro ble m 3 . W hic h w ould b e t h e b est s u pport f o r t h e c la im t h at “ p olic e o fic e rs in S t. L ouis s y ste m atic a lly t a rg et A fr ic a n A m eric a n s w hen p olic in g t h e c it y ”? a . a p eer‐r e v ie w ed jo urn al a rtic le t h at in dic a te s t h at f a ls e a rre sts o f A fr ic a n A m eric a n s a re 8 0% h ig h er t h an f o r L atin os a n d W hit e s in t h e c it y b . a s to ry o n t h e n ew s w it h in te rv ie w s o f t w o A fr ic a n A m eric a n s w ho liv e in S t. L ouis c . a T w it te r f e ed t h at s h ow s p olic e p ep per‐s p ra y in g a c ro w d o f p ro te sto rs d . a n ew sp ap er a rtic le t h at o utlin es a c a se in w hic h a n o fic e r p ulle d o ve r a n A fr ic a n A m eric a n w om an a n d a ssa u lt e d h er 4 . T he p ortio n o f t h e e ssa y in w hic h t h e w rit e r a tte m pts t o r e fu te t h e c o unte ra rg u m en t is c a lle d t h e _ _________. a . t h esis b . s u pport 6 /5 /2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U PH I1 03.1 5.2 ?sectio ns= ch09sec9.1 ,c h09sec9.2 & conte nt= conte nt& clie ntT oke n= b7dc09bb7 6b7a af4 3 1a95 8addef9 c8f7 & np … 1 3/1 3 c . o bje ctio n d . r e b utta l e . p ro ble m 5 . W hen e n din g a n a rg u m en ta tiv e e ssa y, it is b est t o _ _________. a . r e sta te e xa ctly w hat y o u h ave s a id e arlie r in t h e p ap er in a s h orte r f o rm at b . e x p la in a in al p ro ble m t h at r e la te s t o t h e t h esis t h at y o u c re ate d c . a d d a d dit io nal in fo rm atio n t h at r e la te s t o t h e p ro ble m d . m ake s h ort c o m men ts a b out h ow y o ur s o lu tio n c o uld le ad t o f u rth er r e se arc h 6 . W hat is t h e b est s u pport f o r t h e p re m is e t h at “ c o ve r c ro p f a rm in g e n han ce s p ro ductiv it y o f p la n ts ”? a . a c o nve rsa tio n y o u h ad w it h a f a rm er w ho u se s c o ve r c ro p m eth ods o f f a rm in g b . a n ew s r e p ort f r o m t h e lo ca l n ew s c h an nel o n f a rm ers in t h e r e gio n u sin g c o ve r c ro p t e ch niq ues c . a c h ap te r in a n a ca d em ic a lly p ublis h ed b ook t h at c la im s t h at p ro ductiv it y o f c o tto n p la n ts o n a c o ve r c ro p f a rm w as 1 8% h ig h er t h an o ne t h at d id n ot u se t h is m eth od d . a n a rtic le in a p eer‐r e v ie w ed jo urn al a rtic le t h at c la im s t h at c o ve r c ro p f a rm s d o n ot s ta tis tic a lly p ro duce s ig n i ic a n tly la rg er c ro ps t h an n onco ve r c ro p f a rm s 7 . W hen p re se n tin g t h e r e b utta l in a n a rg u m en ta tiv e p ap er, it is im porta n t t o d o w hic h o f t h e f o llo w in g?
a . M ake y o ur o pponen t’s a rg u m en t lo ok r id ic u lo us. b . M ake n ega tiv e c o m men ts a b out t h e o pposin g v ie w . c . A tta ck t h e o pponen t’s s tr o ngest a rg u m en t. d . T u rn t h e a tte n tio n o ff t h e c o unte ra rg u m en t a n d t o w ard s o m eth in g e ls e .