write a research
Writing the Article for Non-experts
Research reports and research articles both rely on research, but the two documents differ quite extensively. This paper will focus on techniques that will enable you to produce an article designed to reach a wider audience, an audience beyond your colleagues - the non-technical reader or non-expert.
When you undertake a research report, more than likely it will be in the context of a classroom, produced specifically for a teacher who will be assessing your research and writing capabilities. Since the research report is a document that builds on cumulative knowledge, chances are it will come about later in the semester, giving you plenty of time to zero in on what you know to be your teacher’s expectations. You will know your audience, and your designated task will be to impress that audience with your knowledge.
On the other hand, when you produce a research article, you are writing not only for publication in a specialized periodical but also for a much wider audience, made up of experts as well as novice and generally—but not always—limited to your particular field. You have absolutely no way of zeroing in on all of their expectations. What’s more, you are no longer writing to show how much you know; instead, you are writing to meet an audience’s needs (what they want to know). That means you will have to capture their attention from the get-go and then keep them interested in what you have to say.
Think it's a bit silly at this point in your college careers to think about publishing? Maybe that's placing the bar a bit too high?
Not really. In an increasingly competitive job market, more students are expanding their resumes and credentials by attending and reading papers at professional conferences and attempting to publish their work in recognized periodicals, either alone or in a group. They’re looking for the edge that will make them appear more dedicated and determined than others who might be vying for the same position with the same company. And a lot of them—more than you might imagine—are doing all of this before they receive their bachelor real world degrees.
The research article assignment thus presents you with the opportunities to investigate the types of writing that are expected of those in your profession and to stretch your abilities as a professional writer. First, you must learn how to produce such an article, then you can determine how best to reach the non-technical reader.
Articles in the Real World
Reporters-- particularly those who work for smaller newspapers or magazines-- often must adapt their writing styles to whatever journalism circumstance in which they find themselves. In a single day, they might have to write two or three hard news articles, plus a human interest or feature story. Sometimes, reporters even find themselves contributing a piece of writing to the editorial page. The type of story they produce effects the way they must write it-- what they will start with, how they will progress, how much they will omit, how much personal insight they should include.
Let's take a single topic-- a school bus accident that occurred at a dangerous intersection on Interstate 75--and see how three different types of journalistic writing might approach it.
| Hard News, Feature Stories, and Editorial Writing | ||
| What It Is | How it Would Approach the Story | Characteristics of the Type |
| Hard news article | Would present the basic facts about the accident: when, where, why, who, and how typical headline: I-75 Bus Accident Injures 12 | Objective presentation: no emotion, no input from the writer facts-based |
| Feature Article | Would focus on a particular aspect of the story that would humanize it or its victims for readers typical headline: I-75 Bus Accident Causes Student to Relive Past Crash | Aka known as human interest story focus on a singular aspect of the story rather than on just the facts characterized as more emotional than hard news still largely object even nature. If the writer wants to be bulky motion in readers he or she does so without interjecting personal feelings |
| Editorial | Would focus on a controversial aspect of the story typical headline I-75 Safety Record Long over Due for Inspection by State and Federal Officials | Subjective presentation: open opinion-based the Arthur is permitted to write about feelings/personal response but should also use logic and reason |
Of those three types of journalistic writing, hard news and feature prove the most important to your production of the assignment for this class (the article for non-experts). When you write this article, you should attempt to explain the subject thoroughly and objectively, without personal input or editorializing. You will create a fusion of hard news and feature writing.
But knowing what kind of approach you take is only half the issue. You must determine how to organize your material.
An Organizational Structure for the Article
By now in your writing you have probably become somewhat used to following established organizational patterns for plans for writing certain kinds of documents. A resume has certain required sections, placed in a certain order. A cover letter begins with an introduction, progresses through qualification section, and then ends with a conclusion. The proposal for this course expects you to include six sections, among them Areas to Be Studied, a Timetable, and Qualifications. The Progress Report requires four divisions: introduction, work completed, work scheduled, and conclusion, with an operational section (problems) if necessary.
However, no standard organizational pattern exists for the article for non-experts, because articles are by their very nature quite different from one another.
Like all documents, however, an article must possess an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
Your Articles Introduction
Since you are article can be a fusion of hard news and feature, it might prove useful to consider how the introduction of such stories might differ in the real world. Think back to the bus crash I introduced earlier.
The introduction or lead for a hard news story about the bus crash would simply state the facts, all of the answers to what are called the reporter's questions (who, what, why, when, where, and how). It might read something like this:
Twelve Madison County children were seriously injured yesterday afternoon when the school bus in which they were traveling was struck broadside by a dump truck just south of the Richmond intersection on I-75.
Obviously this is very plain and straightforward. A feature story which would zero in on one of the students experiences would take a more creative path, maybe something like this:
When the dump truck’s air brakes roared and the children around her in the school bus began to scream, 12-year-old Cindy Nelson braced herself for the inevitable. Having survived two other auto crashes under similar circumstances, she knew that all she could do was duck her head and pray.
That Cindy lived through three such crashes -- including the one on Monday that injured 12 of her schoolmates -- is just one more sign that she is watched over by a guardian angel of the highway, her mother believes.
Noticed that while the hard news intro plugs all of the pertinent facts into a single paragraph, the feature article introduction might not introduce its key idea until the second paragraph, or even a later one. It makes an effort to draw the reader into the story, to hook him or her into wanting to learn more.
That technique -- hooking the reader -- is one you should borrow from feature articles.
How can you adapt to a variety of technical subjects?
| Sample Introduction for an Article on Accounting As a Career |
| If you are like most high school students, you probably have no idea what you want to do with the rest of your life, at least career -- wise. Unfortunately, many colleges and universities force you to choose a major right from the get -- go. This task can be a little daunting, especially for someone who has little information as to what each profession entails. Today there are certainly no (or few!) limitations regarding your choice of profession. As the saying goes, the sky's the limit, and the options are endless. Although there are plenty of strange and exotic career paths to choose from, this article focuses on one of the oldest professions. No not that one -- accounting. Most people outside of the business or accounting world tend to picture accountants as nerdy number crunchers who sit behind a desk all day. In movies, accountants are portrayed as geeky characters who dress badly, have no sense of personal hygiene, and lead basically boring lives. This stereotype of the average accountant is, however, just that -- a stereotype. Reality couldn't be further from the truth In the real world, accounting is a demanding, exciting profession that can be -- if you choose to pursue a diligently and with care -- exceptionally rewarding. Many who enter the field would even argue that it functions as the backbone of business. |
You will notice that this writer affectively adopts the technique of direct address to speak to his readers. Although direct address can be overused, when you produce this article, you can adopt the technique. After all, you are speaking to non-expert readers, and you want them to be comfortable with your topic.
A word of warning, though: just be careful not to insert “I” into the mix, as that can end up making your article sounds to conversational!
Longer than the above example the next introduction works just as effectively to draw in the reader. This article, written by a former Eastern Kentucky University student John Adams, introduces the concept of robotics to readers by explaining the technical dimensions or robots, then by showing how complex technologies have adapted effectively into everyday, easy-to-use devices, such as the Roomba vacuum cleaner.
| Sample Introduction for an Article on Household Robotics |
| When one considers the term robot, one likely conjures images designed by Hollywood: a hulk of metal in vaguely human form that moves on wheels, waves its pincher-like hands around wildly, expresses emotion through blinking lights, and talks-- if at all-- like it is standing beneath a big steel bucket. Although horribly outdated, films like these have created the robotic images with which most of us are familiar. Contrary to their popular representation on film and in science fiction literature, however, robots in general are not designed to look like humans, but are designed simply to accomplish a given task with the greatest level of efficiency. They might possess arms and no legs; legs but no arms; arms and legs but no heads. They are designed for function rather than form. In fact, the word robot itself comes from the Czech word robota, which means ‘forced work’ or ‘labor.’ And indeed, when scientists, researchers, and inventors devote their attention to robotic inventions, they create more often than not designs to assume labor that normally would be performed by humans. Although robotics is a relatively new field, robots long have been used in factories to carry out hard, boring, or repetitious work like car or computer manufacturing. Because they operate as machines, robots can withstand heavy workloads and working environments unsatisfactory for humans. It is hardly likely that an ordinary family comes into contact with such robots. Today, however, robots are moving out of the factories and into our homes in the forms of vacuum cleaners, stereo systems, lawn mowers, and other devices designed to simplify our everyday lives. They might not look like us, talk like us, or move like us, but robots like the Roomba vacuum cleaner and the Robomower might just be our new best friends |
As you can tell from these two examples, there are no hard and fast rules governing the length of an articles introduction. Additionally although direct address is acceptable, it is not required, so there is no single writing technique or narrative stance you should adopt.
How can you most effectively produce a successful introduction?
Consider these key pieces of advice:
Make every attempt to interest the reader. Use interesting facts, figures, information. Ask a rhetorical question. Begin with a story, an antidote or case study drawn from real life, to illustrate the topic you will be discussing. Remember you have only a limited amount of time to capture the reader's attention. Your intro must do this for you.
Let your content provide your purpose statement. Here is one case where you want to avoid a blunt purpose statement, like “The purpose of this article is to explain to you the value of household robotics.” Instead, break the always use a purpose statement rule and let your content develop your purpose and identify your subject. The next piece of advice shows you one way you can do that.
Begin generally and then gradually zero in on your subject. Notice how the second example begins by introducing the concept of robots in general, discusses the general concept, then moves at the end of the intro to a narrowed aspect of that larger subject: household robotics. This is a very good technique if you want to capture the reader's attention, provide a purpose statement, and clue in the reader to the subject -- all in one ball of wax!
Your Articles Body
Even before you have determined how you will begin your article, you must think about how you will structure its body -- how you will organize it, in other words.
As noted earlier, there are no hard-and-fast organizational patterns for the article. And this means, of course, that there are no required sections for its body.
Instead, you must determine-based-in large part upon the audience you hope to reach-what your own goals are, what your readers need to know, and the order in which they need to know it.
For example, if you are writing an article on robots, turbine engines, alternative fuels, or even bariatric surgery, the first thing you must do is define your terms. The section in this chapter on “Reading the Non-Expert Reader” we'll talk more in depth about reducing scientific and technical jargon on, so here it will suffice to pass along some basic logic:
You can't discuss a complex concept until you have defined it!
To indicate how other writers have tackled the issue of organization, let's use as examples the two topics already introduced: accounting as a career and household robotics.
| Basic Organizational Structures for the Bodies of Articles on Accounting and Household Robotics | |
| Accounting as a Profession Purpose: to explain to readers (high school students) the various careers available within the accounting profession
continue until the body has finished covering all sub-fields. | Household Robotics Purpose: to explain to readers how robotic devices are becoming household objects, used to simplify everyday activities.
Continue until the body has finished covering discussions of all devices |
You will notice I am breaking one of the cardinal rules regarding making your document looked the same throughout. My only intention is to let you know how many different possibilities there are to jazz up your submission.
Of course, the organizations I have introduced here are just two of the many different patterns you can follow when producing an article on either one of these subjects. But the thing to keep in mind is that is that simpler is better.
You don’t have to strive for a complex organizational pattern when creating the body of your article. Instead, create for yourself a rough outline that logically breaks down the subject according to your purpose, what your readers need to know, and the order in which they need to know it.
What sorts of technical writing techniques should be applied to the body? What sorts of basic writing techniques should be applied to it? Let’s consider the following:
Create a general outline and follow it. Sounds like freshman-level advice, right?
However, an outline provides you with a basic structure or skeleton around which you can build the meat of your article (the body). The outline can change—and it definitely doesn’t have to be as complex as those introduced in many writing handbooks. Shoot for something simple that will help you keep a logical order or progression when you begin to write.
Keep like topics together. For example, if you are going to discuss several different robotic vacuum cleaners, instead of introducing them in separate sections, you should group their discussions under a single heading, like Robotic Vacuum Cleaners, with subsections for each model. Each subsection will include its own headings specific to the type or model it discusses. Don't discuss one type of robotic vacuum cleaner, then introduce a robotic lawn mowers, then talk about another vacuum cleaner. Keep like topics together.
Follow the Preacher’s Maxim. The separate sections of your article must fit together smoothly, so you should plan to follow the tenets of the Preacher’s Maxim:
Tell them what you’re going to tell them, tell them, and then tell them what you told them.
This means
wrapping up each section (whether a paragraph or a section proper) before you move on to the next one,
providing topic sentences to introduce the subjects of sections and paragraphs, and
including transitions that will “link” your article’s individual components together, as in a chain.
Support any assertions you make. Whenever you make a claim or an assertion, you need to provide your readers with the supporting information to prove its accuracy or verify its veracity. This is where good, solid research comes into play.
Provide informative and useful details. Details change your content from general and bland to informative and interesting. If you say that Robots can be both inside and outside the modern home, you can’t merely stop at that. Instead, you must provide the sort of details that will help your reader better understand, visualize, truly absorb what you have just said: Robots can be found both inside and outside the modern home. As you relax in your easy chair, in the living room, as vacuum cleaners, they pick up crumbs and dust bunnies. As you water your flowers, in the yard, as lawn mowers, they are cutting perfectly measured lines through your grass. Details illustrate—they bring to life your words.
Use plenty of headings and subheadings. Use the major separations or divisions in your outline to generate your main sections. Then within each section, do not be afraid to create subsections, each with its own heading. Do space above and below each heading to separate it visually from the surrounding text. Remember that headings are like signposts along a highway: they help your reader find his or her way through the document.
Remember that illustrations also serve as part of your content. Visual aids—photographs, pertinent clip art, tables, graphs, charts, figures—function to complement the text, to illustrate that which you have explained in words. They don’t replace text, though, for whenever you use a visual aid, you must discuss it. For a refresher on how to use visual aids correctly, see the appropriate sections of Week 1.
Cite your sources. Whenever you use borrowed material—whether you quote it, paraphrase it, or summarize it—you must provide your reader with information identifying it as borrowed. Citations must go within the text, and you must also provide a Works Cited or Bibliography page. See Pages592- 593 In Technical Communication (Markel) for Documentation guidelines.
These are some of the most basic tips you should remember as you begin working on your article for this course. Does this very short list cover everything you should consider? No—but it does give you a solid foundation from which to begin organizing the body of your article.
Your article’s conclusion
You’ve created an introduction that you feel will entice your audience to keep reading, and you’ve produced a body that is so well organized it is astoundingly reader-friendly.
Now what?
Every good thing must come to an end—and the same is true of your article.
Your conclusion provides you with a final opportunity to establish your subject as worthwhile and to prove yourself a credible provider of information regarding it.
Consider again the articles on accounting and household robotics. How would typical conclusions work for each of these documents? Examples are provided
| Sample Conclusions for Articles on Accounting and Household Robotics | |
| Accounting as a Profession The job variety, salaries, and stability involved with the accounting profession continue to make this career of one of the hottest to pursue. The demand for accounting majors is at an all-time high, and such graduates now have more options than ever before. If you want to go into business, then you should definitely take a close look at the accounting major offered at this university. By choosing the “language of business” as a career, you will not only be opening up as many doors as possible, but you will be making a pretty darn good living as well. In our somewhat rocky economic climate, where job stability is key, accounting is a safe-yet still exciting-career choice. | Household Robotics Our concepts of robots have been formed by sources as diverse as the cartoon and film. In both cases, and in more examples like these, robots looked very similar to humans-perhaps in an effort by their designers to make them feel “safer” to us. Such robots head faces an even more clothing Other robots are less human in form, but performed human actions. In factories they do everything from a fixed the windshields of cars to secure the bolts that hold a weighing onto an airplane. In the field, they defuse bombs and often perform searches in treacherous territory. While it is likely that in the popular imagination, we will continue to imagine robots looking either like the humans who designed them or like giant machines, in truth research in modern technology focuses on designs that are more suitable for the tasks the robots must perform. Understanding the technology involved in building a robot provides an appreciation of the device and the increasing development of robotic household appliances will soon bring robots into regular people's homes for a reasonable price. |
A good conclusion performs several functions:
It provides closure. It wraps up the loose ends of the article and brings the document to a satisfying end. Without it, your article will simply end. By summing up your subject, you leave your readers with the knowledge that you are providing an authoritative perspective.
It lets you reiterate the major points of the article. Although doing this might sound repetitive, it actually reinforces the key points you are making in the article. Remember that your article can be to some degree persuasive. For example, by focusing on all of the opportunities open to the accounting major, the accounting article can “argue” that pursuit of such a degree is a smart move. And the article on household robotics can, by the virtue of the approach it takes to the subject, “argue” that such devices will in fact simplify rather than complicate our lives.
It gives you an opportunity to extend your subject into the future. Although you’ve determined a limited focus for your article, there are other directions in which you might be able to take the subject. The conclusion can provide you with a chance to introduce those other directions and briefly discuss them, as a way of saying this subject has many dimensions, and here are some of the ones this article could not discuss.
With an enticing introduction, a logically-organized and well-detailed body, and a thought-provoking conclusion, your article can succeed in explaining a complex, technical subject to non-expert readers. How do you reach those readers, though, without intruding your personal opinion into the document? While it is important to reach your readers, you must make every attempt to remain objective regarding your subject.
Creating a Persuasive yet Objective Article
Like the other documents produced for this course, the article can in its presentation of facts serve as a persuasive document. How do you ensure that you are presenting this material in an objective, non-biased manner?
Think you won't have a problem with that? If you choose to write about a topic that is close to your heart, chances are good that you will let some of your own opinions or feeling to slip into what you produce.
If you are a member of the NFPA, how can you write an objective article about fire safety in hotels? If you are a member of NRA, how can you write an objective article about pending gun control legislation? If you have ever downloaded music or films from an online service, how can you write an objective article about the legality of downloading?
Here are some tricks you might use to ensure that what you produce for this course is free from personal bias:
Try to select a topic that is not “near and dear.” Most of you can figure out several topics that are hot right now in your field, topics that you have no particular opinion about one way or another. If you’ve always had a difficult time not insinuating your personal opinion into a discussion, then you’re better off selecting a topic that you feel neutral about.
Avoid the use of “I.” While you can address your article to the reader directly, through the use of “you,” you should avoid the use of “I,” as it tends to permit personalizing. If you can’t say I feel, I believe, in my opinion, or I think, then you automatically have to cut your opinion from what you’re writing.
Let the facts speak for themselves. If you’re writing an article about the storage of nuclear waste at Yucca Mountain – a very volatile topic, but also an excellent one in terms of its technical scope – and you feel strongly that such storage is a bad idea, you must take every precaution not to inject your opinion into the document. Focus on the facts and let them speak for themselves. Don’t skew them—in other words, present facts from both sides, from objective sources (see Researching Pages 123-156 in Technical Communication (Markel)). Don’t comment on them in an opinionated way—These figures clearly indicate the danger of the plan to residents, something government officials should consider carefully.
Present both sides of a controversial issue. If you’re writing about stem cell research, for example, your job is to explain it to readers, not editorialize on it. If you think discussing the controversy is crucial to your article, fine—but make sure you present both sides of the argument, regardless of your personal opinion.
Choose unbiased research sources. Chapter 6: Researching will help you with this, so for now it’s sufficient to keep logic in mind: if you’re writing about stem cell research or any other controversial topic, select sources that have no agenda, that are neither for nor against whatever it is you’re writing about.
Watch your tone and word choices. Sometimes we don’t realize that the tone we use and the words we select carry as much weight as if we’re stating an opinion outright. For example, an article about logging in the Jefferson National Forest should not use terms like tree-hugger or, conversely, so-called government forestry experts. Additionally, try not to sound bossy, superior, or angry—even if you’re feeling one of those, or all three. Once you’ve determined how to approach the subject of your article, conducted your research, and prepared to write, you must do one final thing: think about how you can ensure that you are making yourself clear to the non-expert reader.
Reaching the Non-Expert Reader
Don't let the idea of writing an article frighten you. How many articles have you read in your own lifetime? Think about the magazines you buy, the newspapers you read. Consider, too, any articles in academic periodicals you have had to research in order to produce a report for a course in your particular field, whether it be Electrical Engineering, Crop Soils and Environmental Science, Biology, or Business Information Technology. The articles you find in all of these sources provide you with models for your own piece of writing about a topic in your field.
If you intend to publish later in your career, you are likely to produce any number of works geared toward meeting the needs of colleagues. You might contribute an article on a hot topic or debate within your field. You might join with two or three colleagues to produce a research article based on an extensive experiment.
When you write such articles, they are likely to appear in what we call scholarly journals, periodicals designed to reach individuals within a specific, often very narrow field. Although such journals will be explained more fully later in this chapter, it’s enough now to say that such articles are likely to contain a lot of technical language, drawings, figures, even equations. They are likely to “go over the heads” of the average reader.
Because your undergraduate education will give you the language with which to speak to your academic colleagues or colleagues in the field, it is worthwhile that you learn how to break down that language, those concepts, those ideas into a form that is simplified enough for the non-technical reader or non-expert to understand.
What exactly is an article for a non-technical or non-expert reader?
Quite simply, it is an article on a technical topic that is written in such a style that a layperson (a non-expert) can understand and appreciate it.
There are several basic concepts you should consider when you have to draft an article for such a reader.
First off, it seems logical that if you are writing from the perspective of the "Expert" and your audience is made up of a bunch of "Non-Experts," you'll need to tone down the technical language. You'll need to ensure that you cover all the bases with regard to content or evidence. You might want to include more pictures, particularly if you are explaining a technical process. And you might want to adopt a tone that is less removed and friendlier.
Omit or Define Technical Language
In an article for non-technical readers, you need to make every attempt to omit technical language. Sometimes, that's an easy task; often, however, it is not.
Say you decide to write an article on how to create artificial diamonds. Could you truly explain the process without engaging in at least some kind of technical language?
If you find that you cannot omit technical language, then you must define it for your readers.
Every field has its technical language, even the study of literature. Take an example first shown in the Introduction, borrowed from M.H. Abrams's A Glossary of Literary Terms
(New York: Rinehart, 1971):
The euphuistic style is "sententious (that is, full of moral maxims), relies constantly on balanced and antithetical constructions, reinforces the structural parallels by heavy and elaborate patterns of alliteration and assonance, and is addicted to long the habits of legendary animals (56-57)
In truth, the entire example is a definition of "euphuistic style," although perhaps—to laypersons--not a very clear one! It seems we'd need to know more.
One definition is already embedded (by Abrams) in the example: sententious. However, in order to understand the whole definition, you'd need to know the definitions of other literary terms: antithetical constructions, alliteration, assonance, similes, and allusions.
You have several choices when it comes to defining technical terms that you cannot omit altogether. You can put each term in a glossary you attach to the end of your document.
You can define the word in a footnote, as many texts do. Or you could define it—if possible--directly in the sentence.
Let's see what we can do with the Abrams definition:
The euphuistic style, which was popular in the Renaissance, possesses several components. First, it is sententious; that is, it is full of moral maxims. It relies constantly on balanced constructions and antithesis, a contrast or opposition in meaning emphasized by parallel grammatical structure. It reinforces these structural parallels by heavy and elaborate patterns of alliteration, the repetition of speech sounds (usually the first letter) in a sequence of nearby words, and assonance, the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds. Finally, it is addicted to long similes, comparisons which use the terms like or as, and to learned allusions or references which are often drawn from mythology and the habits of legendary animals.
Does this definition make more sense? It's longer and broken down into more sentences, but when you have to define terms, this is often the result. Do not be afraid to break down sentences in order to define terms for readers!
Develop Content as Fully as You Can
As the expert on the topic about which you'll be writing, you'll have problems with this one!
Think about giving someone instructions about how to put together a bicycle—or some other task at which you are utterly comfortable. Since you are so comfortable doing the process—in fact, you could almost do it blindfolded!—you're more likely at some point in the instructions to omit key information the reader vitally needs to complete his or her task.
That's why when you write to a non-expert reader or a lay audience, you should anticipate that they know nothing about your topic. This will ensure that you are giving them every bit of information, every single detail, they will need to understand your subject.
How do you know what to tell and what to withhold? If you know something is common knowledge (who the president is, what the state bird of Virginia is, the colors of the American flag), then you don't need to tell the reader.
When in doubt, though, it's safer to include too much information than too little!
Use More Illustrations
It's always a good idea to use illustrations to bring technical documents to life. Imagine what a report or an article on revitalizing the Virginia Tech duck pond would be like without a single photograph, drawing, or chart!
The same principle goes in triplicate for a technical document that is aimed toward a non-technical or non-expert reader!
Particularly when talking about a piece of equipment or the steps in a process, you might want to include an illustration to help your reader visualize what you're explaining in the text. Remember, though: visual aids complement—they do not replace!—the text. To refresh your memory about how to use illustrations correctly, review the pertinent sections of the Technical Communications Text (Markel).
Use a More Conversational Tone
Does this concept fly in the face of everything you've always thought about technical writing (at this point, it shouldn't, but it might!)?
Using a more conversational tone does not mean addressing the reader as "you," including conversational language like "well" and "okay," using abbreviations or slang terms you might hear on Entertainment Television or anything like that.
Instead, it means writing more directly, using fewer complex sentences, cutting down on technical language—writing to the needs of the reader, not toward making you sound more impressive as a writer.
Yes, you are the expert on the subject about which you'll be writing, but you must imagine yourself in the shoes of the uninformed reader. Remember what it was like the first time you read a textbook that introduced you to the terms, the language, of your major? You want to ensure that your article does everything it can to speak directly to the reader, in a language and style he or she will find easy and reader-friendly.
If it helps, consider this final example: You go home for Christmas after having spent the fall semester working on alternative fuel sources, household robotics, or a new method meant to streamline accounting procedures at medical facilities. Your dear old grandmother hugs you and says “So, tell me what you’ve been doing this semester. I want to hear all about it.”
Your article should be written in such a way that even she can understand it!
Publication Sources
Once you have completed your article, what options do you have for publishing that? Should you send the article to a scholarly journal or to a trade magazine or two of popular press publication?
Since a lot depends on the approach you have taken to your topic, it might be a good idea to differentiate among these publishing options.
| Different Types of Periodicals
| |||
| Scholarly Journals Trade magazines Popular Press Periodicals |
Examples
These appeal to particular specializations or fields, but their approach is far less scholarly than that of journals. Examples could be Fire Chief, Fire Engineering, and Firehouse. These are more diverse in overall approach, they will not usually focus on a single topic, but if they do, that approach will be one of the average reader. Their readership will be the broadest, including people from all walks of life. | ||
Okay, so it's pretty clear that different magazines were periodicals appeal to different types of readers. The trick for you is to learn how to approach a subject from a different angle which will help you to appeal to a larger variety of people.
Query letters, Cover Letters, and Letters of Transmittal
Technical or research reports are not always read from cover to cover by their intended reader -- at least not initially. Often, that reader is so busy that he or she will have to turn to the letter of transmittal, which introduces the report; the executive summary, which summarizes the entire report in a page or less; or the conclusions and recommendations section, which tells readers what the report has discovered and what it recommends be done about it.
The same is true of the professional article. Editors of journals and magazines rarely have the opportunity to read every single article that crosses their desks. In some cases, editorial assistants pick up the slack. At other times, however, the article itself must be sold in other ways, ways that are more amiable to the busy editor.
That is where the query and cover letter comes in.
The Query Letter
The query letter is often the first step to getting any article published. It seeks to determine whether a source would be interested in publishing an article on nightclub fires, and it is most often used in situations where the writer might be paid for a particular piece of writing, as with trade magazines or popular press publications.
If you have a good idea for an article, and you want to be paid for it, it is best to write a query letter before you expand of the time and energy it takes to plan, research, draft, and revise an article. Think of it as basically a sales letter.
When you write a query letter, aimed not to convince the reader what is a fantastic idea you have were what a great writer you are but to convince him or her that other readers need to or want the information you have to tell them -- that they will welcome it, be inspired by it, or find it useful in their professions.
In four or five paragraphs, generally on a single page, the query letter should focus on several key selling points:
Identify who would be interested in the topic explored by your article. It is best to forecast reaching a broad readership when you were query a trade magazine or popular press publication.
Briefly cover what else has been written on the topic. Keep this short, but do mention your awareness of the approaches others have taken to the subject. It shows that you have done your homework.
Explain how the approach your article would take on the subject differs from what has been written before. By telling the reader this, you helped convince him or her that your work is breaking new ground, providing an audience with information that they've will find useful.
Discuss how you plan to develop the topic. If you have ideas for illustrations, including photographs, let the reader know. If you conceptualize your article as being broken down into four major sections, identify them.
| Organizing the Query Letter | |
| In This Section | Do This |
| Introduction (paragraph 1) Body (paragraph 2) Conclusion |
|
Remember any valuable lessons introduced in your readings regarding tone. Keep the tone of your letter polite and inquiring, never cocky.
The Cover Letter
The cover letter works a bit differently than the query letter. Normally, scholars do not get paid when their essays are published in scholarly journals. Publication is payment enough, because in most cases an article submitted to a scholarly journal is read by several readers who weigh in on its merits and recommend whether it be accepted or declined. Competition is tough, and if you're published, then that's an honor that should compensate for the lack of cash.
One big difference between the cover letter in the query letter is that the former generally accompanies the article, introducing it to the reader. This is the sort of letter you would produce if you are sending your article to a scholarly journal.
In three or four paragraphs, generally on a single page, the cover letter should focus on several key selling points:
Introduce your argument or topic and the approach you will take to it.
Briefly cover what else has been written on the topic. Keep this short, but do mention your awareness of the approaches others have taken to the subject. It shows you have done your homework.
Explain how the up approach your article would take on the subject differs from what has been written before. By telling the reader this, you helped convince him or her that your work is breaking new ground, providing an audience with information that they will find useful.
In the introduction section ask politely that the reader consider your attached article, on the topic of fire engine color. In the body in no more than two paragraphs, cover the second and third terms mentioned in the bullet above. You can also provide any additional information that might help the reader understand your qualifications or expertise. In your conclusion think the reader for his or her consideration of your idea and give them your contact information.
Query letters and cover letters differ from the third type of letter that you might produce: the letter of transmittal, a document that says “here is my article on fire truck color.”
Letter of Transmittal
Remember that if you were query letter has received a positive response and you have prepared your article for publication, when you send it to the reader, you should still include a cover letter with it. In this case, the document is called a letter of transmittal -- it transmits or delivers the requested article to the reader.
Also send a letter of transmittal with any article you have revised for publication.
Organizing the letter of transmittal
In the introduction section of your letter tell the reader that accompanying your letter he or she will find the article you produced on fire truck colors, as agreed on by the two of you. In the body of your letter (one or two paragraphs) and any details about the article you believe to be necessary. Finally in your conclusion think the reader for his or her willingness to publish the article and give your contact information and again.
Guidelines for the Research Article
Please follow these basic specifications and planning guidelines were preparing your research article:
Purpose
to explore with some depth a topic of general interest within your discipline,
to acquaint you with the sorts of professional writing within your discipline,
to introduce you to the sorts of publications open to those within your discipline, and
to hone your writing skills.
Audience
Choose the audience most pertinent to the type of publication you have selected and adjust your writing style to what you believe they will need or appreciate. Use technical jargon with more experienced readers; writing in a more “common” language for the everyday reader. Remember: the audience you choose is up to you exclamation
Organization
Your article should begin by pulling the reader in, zero win on your focus, then begin to develop your audience or content in a logical fashion. Keep like discussions together. Use headings to point out major alterations in topic, then subheadings to break up longer sections.
Format
The article should be seven or more pages in length if not done in a columnar fashion; if done in columns, it should be about four to five pages.
It should be single- . Double spacing only above and below headings and around illustrations.
It should include a title and a byline.
It should include internal headings.
It should use at least five outside sources.
It should use illustrations.
It should follow documentation procedures pertinent to your discipline or, as a default, APA documentation, as well as a Works cited page.
Pages should be numbered.
BOTTOM LINE: your article should look like an article from a magazine, so spend as some time formatting it in a professional manner. Include sidebars as necessary. Be creative with fonts for titles, with insertions of illustrations, and with such things as quotations blocked or boxed across two columns, as in the examples presented in your text.
Tone
Clear. Direct. Persuasive. Enthusiastic. Confident but not cocky. Never condescending. You might be talking to an audience of non-experts, but you should never talk down to them.
